Kauayan Kiling

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Kauayan Kiling (Bambusa vulgarisSchrad., Fam.Gramineae) as Anti-Inflammatory

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

In the hierarchy of healers and specialists in Philippine folk medicine, the albularyo

may be referred to as the "general practitioner," knowledgeable in most of the folkloric

modalities, usually especially versed in the use of medicinal herbs. The hilotambiguously

refers both to the manghihilotand magpapaanak. The manghihilotspecializes in techniques

and treatments applicable to sprains, fractures and muskuloskeletal conditions. The

magpapaanak, besides prenatal visits and delivering babies, often performs the suob ritual.

Some healers limit their practice of folkloric therapies to more specialized modalities. The

mangluluop specializes in diagnostic techniques, usually referring the patients after

diagnosis to the albularyo, medico, or manghihilotfor definitive treatments. The medico is a

further specialization, merging age-old folkloric modalities with ingredients of western

medicine - 'prescription' medications, acupuncture, etc. Most of these healers consider

their healing craft as God-given, a calling from a supernatural being, and consequently,

their healing practices are profusely infused with prayers and religious rituals, performed

through mediation with the Holy Spirit. Usually rural-based, they are also present in the

urban and suburban communities, albeit in small scattered niches, serving burgis

alternative needs, the impoverished or the urban-transplanted rural folk. [F.V. Ras, MD.,

1997]


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Western medicines are unavailable in most Pacific islands and their supply is

erratic. Imported drugs are expensive. Many producers either underdose to save money, or

overdose because they do not understand the instructions for use. The shortage of animal

health experts, food safety concerns, particularly antibiotic and chemical residues in

livestock produced, the language variations, the cultural differences, the geographical

locations, and the loss in indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants for most Western

Pacific extension professionals and producers have stimulated renewed interest in

alternative methods of promoting livestock health. [A.C. Sabaldica, MD., 2011]

Inflammation is a protective response of the body involving host cells, blood vessels

and proteins which goals are to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury, remove necrotic

cells and tissue, and initiate the process of repair in a potentially harmful process. Its

components of inflammation that are capable of destroying microbes can also injury

bystander normal tissues, white blood cells and plasma proteins that are present in the

blood and to bring these to the site of infection and/or tissue damage. [Robbins, 2003]

Most of the time, inflammation is a lifesaver that enables our bodies to fend off various

disease-causing bacteria, viruses and parasites. The instant any of these potentially deadly

microbes slips into the body, inflammation marshals a defensive attack that lays waste to

both invader and any tissue it may have infected. [Hansson, n.d.]

The search for a new anti-inflammatory agent from the vast array holds promise for

the discovery of therapeutic agents with beneficial effects not only in the suppressing

relevant aspects of the anti-inflammatory cascade but also on the diverse disease


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conditions where the inflammatory response is amplifying the disease process. This study

will be carry out to assess the validity of the folkloric use of this plant in the management of

pain and treatment of inflammatory disorders. Both in vivo and in vitro methods are

available for the evaluation of anti-inflammatory agents but among the in vivo methods

formalin induced paw edema essay is believed to be one of the most reliable and also most

widely used. [Nayak and Patel, n.d.]

Theoretical Framework

The early 90's seemed hopeful for the merging of western and alternative medicine

in the Philippines. There was a burgeoning global movement towards alternative therapies,

a new-age allure for "natural" remedies; and in the Philippines, the beginnings of herbal

medicinal research & development. In 1992, during the term of Juan Flavier as Secretary of

Health, a brochure of 10 medicinal plants (akapulko, ampalaya, bawang, bayabas, lagundi,

niyog-niyogan, pansit-pansitan, sambong, tsaanggubat, yerba buena) for common health

problems was published and commercial production was pursued. In 1997, the TAMA

(Traditional and Alternative Medicine Act) was passed, providing a legitimizing boost to

the alternative medicine movement in the Philippines. [Dr. J.C. Montoya, MD., 2004]

The leaves of Kauayan Kiling (Bambusa vulgaris) have been used in Indian folk

medicine to treat various inflammatory conditions. Other traditional uses are astringent,

emmanogogue, vulnerary, and febrifuge to heal the wounds and also to control diarrhea in

cattle [KR Kirtikar, 1990]. Manna is a crystalline substance found inside the bamboo and

leaves are used in ayurvedic medicine in ptosis and paralytic complaints. [KR Kirtikar,


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1990, Aman, 1985] Though the plant and its extracts have been used in the folklore

medicine extensively, there is no scientific evidence for such activities available in

established scientific journals of repute. Keeping this in view, the present study has been

undertaken to investigate the anti-inflammatory potential of methanolic extract of B.

vulgaris (MEBV) on formaldehyde-induced paw edema, acetic acid-induced vascular

permeability, cotton pellet-induced granuloma, estimation of plasma MDA, and

carrageenan-induced peritonitis experimental models.

Kauayan Kiling leaves contain many properties for anti-inflammation. With this, the

researcher used the method Input-Process-Output (IPO) to determine the concentration of

the Kuayan Kiling leaves extract as an anti-inflammatory agent. Figure 1 shows the

Paradigm of the study. The input includes the collection of fresh Kauayan Kiling leaves and

extracted to separate the medically active portion of the leaves. This study is designed to

determine the anti-inflammatory effect of the Kauayan Kiling leaves extract regarding their

physical, chemical and anti-inflammatory activity. Physical properties will be determined

according to color, odor, texture, solubility and pH.

The leaves were prepared in different concentrations (25%, 50%, 75% and 100%),

and its anti-inflammatory property will be tested and determined through in-vivo testing

called Formalin Induced Paw Edema and in-vitro testing called Protein Stabilization to

gather the output.

Statement of the Problem


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The study aimed to determine the anti-inflammatory property of Kauayan killing

leaves extract. Specifically, it aimed to answer the following:

1. What are the physicochemical properties of Kauayan Kiling leaves in terms of:

a. Color

b. Odor

c. Texture

d. Solubility with water and ethyl alcohol

e.

pH

2.

What are the constituents of Kauayan Kiling leaves extract responsible for its

anti-inflammatory activity?

3.

In what concentration of Kauayan killing leaves extract exhibit the greatest anti-

inflammatory property?

Hypotheses of the Study

This study is based on the concept that Kauayan Kiling leaves extract has anti-

inflammatory property:

1) The physicochemical properties of Kauayan Kiling leaves extract passed the

requirements for anti-inflammatory screening.

2) The active constituents of Kauayan Kiling leaves extract responsible for its anti-

inflammatory activity are flavonoids, carbohydrates, glycosides, proteins and

alkaloids.


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3) Higher concentration exhibits the greatest anti-inflammatory property for the

Kauayan Kiling leaves extract.

Scope of the Study

The significance of this study was to provide everyone a cheaper, economical but

effective anti-inflammatory from Kauayan Kiling leaves extract because high cost of

commercial anti-inflammatory medicines nowadays pose a major problem to the

increasing population of less-fortunate Filipinos suffering from body aches due to hard

labor. The acceptance of the use of medicinal plants as one of the best remedy for modern

day illnesses has motivated the researchers to come up with the study.

This research is of upmost importance with regards to community health. The

researcher took into consideration one of the major problems of the people in a community

which is inflammation. Inflammation has always occurred on everyone and most especially

on the people who do hard labors to earn a living like the construction workers. This

research also aims to minimize their suffering due to pain and also give them opportunity

to save money.

The possible introduction of the Kauayan Kiling leaves extract as an anti-

inflammatory to the pharmaceutical market is a breakthrough since it is convenient to the

people because of its accessibility. It helps the economy worldwide through the use of a


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lower cost on active ingredient for products, since the uses of synthetic ingredients are

expensive.

The researcher also took into thought the possibility of helping other

pharmaceutical researchers through the gathered knowledge and information regarding

Kauayan Kiling leaves through this research.

This research helps pharmaceutical education to be of benefit not only to students

but also to all readers including those persons who are pursuing research on this topic. It

could also be a way to explore other possible uses of Kauayan Kiling leaves to benefit

mankind.

Scope and Limitation

This study is limited to the determination of the solubility, physical and chemical

properties as well as the determination of the anti-inflammatory activity of the Kauayan

Kiling leaves extract using in-vivo method of testing by Formalin Induced Paw Edema. The

leaf extract was prepared in concentrations of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. This research

focused on the use of Kauayan Kiling leaves extract as an anti-inflammatory agent. The leaf

extract has undergone phytochemical screening to determine the active ingredients

responsible for its anti-inflammatory property.

Definition of Terms

The following terms were defined according to their usage in the research:


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Active Constituent constituent of a plant that helps to confer upon it a medicinal

property

Animal Testing is also known as animal experimentation, animal research, and in-vivo

testing, is the use of non-human animals in experiments

Anti-inflammatoryis reducing inflammation by acting on body mechanisms

Concentration is the amount of a solute (substance) dissolved in a specific amount of

solvent. This number may be represented as a percentage (%), grams per liter ( g/L), or as a

mole fraction.

Extract obtained substance from the process of expression

Inflammationis a protective attempt by the organism to remove the injuries stimuli and

to initiate the healing process.

in-vitrodescribing biological phenomena that are made to occur outside the living body

(traditionally in a test tube)

in-vivo describing a biological phenomenon that occurs within the body of living

organisms

Physicochemical properties pertains to the physical and chemical properties of the

matter

Phytotoxin any poisonous substance (toxin) produced by a plant, such as any of the

genusAmanita


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Solubilitythe quality or state of being soluble or capable of being dissolved

Emmenagogues are herbs which stimulate blood flow in the pelvic area and uterus;

some stimulate menstruation

Ayurvedic is a medicinal system of Hindu traditional medicine, is native to the Indian

subcontinent, and is a form of alternative medicine


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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

One of the most important steps in a research is the conduction of related

literatures. In this chapter, the researcher presented information and data gathered from

both foreign and local sources and literatures with regards to the present study to identify

related literature research and set the current research project within a conceptual and

theoretical context.

Plant Literature

Figure 2: Kauayan Kiling Leaves

Family Name : Gramineae

Scientific Name : Bambusa vulgarisSchrad.

Common Name : Kauayan Kiling

Part used : Leaves

Active Constituents : Flavonoids, Carbohydrates, Glycosides, Proteins, Alkaloids


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Botanical Description

Bamboos are giant, fast-growing grasses that have woody stems. The woody, hollow

aerial stems (culms) of bamboo grow in branching clusters from a thick underground stem

(rhizome).

The culms often form a dense undergrowth that excludes other plants. Bamboo

culms can attain heights ranging from 10 to 15 cm (about 4 to 6 inches) in the smallest

species to more than 40 m (about 130 feet) in the largest. The stems have hollow walls with

internodes and thick hard nodes joining them. Mature bamboos sprout horizontal branches

that bear sword-shaped leaves on stalked blades. The leaves on young culms arise directly

from the stem.

Most bamboo flower, but only once in 60-120 years, with large heads much like

those of sugar cane. After blooming, all of the bamboo plants of the same species die back.

This happens worldwide at the same time!

The Golden bamboo variety is one of the most popular cultivars in the world, and

can be identified by its (golden) yellow culms with green stripes. This variety is often used

in arrangements. [Krauss, 1993, Staples, 2005, Taylor, 1994]

Bamboo shoots for cooking are very young shoot tips, harvested before they become

woody. If you are eating bamboo shoots, you may also be using chopsticks made of bamboo

or feasting on kabobs with bamboo skewers. [Krauss, 1993]


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'Ohe is said to be one of the "canoe plants" brought to Hawai'i by early Polynesian

settlers in their oceanic navigation. This plant may have originated in India or Java.

Bamboo is distributed in tropical and subtropical to mild temperate regions, with

the heaviest concentration and largest number of species in East and Southeast Asia and on

islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans.

A few species of bamboo belonging to the genus Arundinaria are native to the

southern United States, where they form dense canebrakes along riverbanks and in marshy

areas. [Krauss, 1993]

Bamboo, as well as niu, coconut, is one of the most useful and practical plants for

humankind, providing water storage, food, raw materials for household and garden use,

musical instruments and more.

Bamboo wood has silica in its cell walls and is hard, straight, strong, flexible, light

and easily split. Split bamboo can be made into mats, hats, screens, baskets, fans, umbrellas,

brushes, paper, ropes, roofing tiles, wall mats, or as a part of the sleds of old Hawai'i, called

holua. The stem of bamboo has been carbonized for use as electric lamp filaments, in

goldsmithery, and tabashir, a fine powder used as a chemical catalyst. [Krauss, 1993]

In Trinidad and Tobago, owners of dogs use the leaves of Bambusa vulgaris to treat

diarrhea and to control ectoparasites. [Taylor, 1994]


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Inflammation

At a basic level, the acute inflammatory response triggered by infection or tissue

injury involves the coordinated delivery of blood components (plasma and leukocytes) to

the site of infection or injury (Kumar et al., 2003). This response has been characterized

best for microbial infections (particularly bacterial infections), in which it is triggered by

receptors of the innate immune system, such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and NOD

(nucleotide-binding oligomerization-domain protein)-like receptors (NLRs) (Barton,

2008). This initial recognition of infection is mediated by tissue resident macrophages and

mast cells, leading to the production of a variety of inflammatory mediators, including

chemokines, cytokines, vasoactive amines, eicosanoids and products of proteolytic

cascades. The main and most immediate effect of these mediators is to elicit an

inflammatory exudate locally: plasma proteins and leukocytes (mainly neutrophils) that

are normally restricted to the blood vessels now gain access, through the postcapillary

venules, to the extravascular tissues at the site of infection (or injury). The activated

endothelium of the blood vessels allows selective extravasation of neutrophils while

preventing the exit of erythrocytes. This selectivity is afforded by the inducible ligation of

endothelial-cell selectins with integrins and chemokine receptors on leukocytes, which

occurs at the endothelial surface, as well as in the extravascular spaces (where newly

deposited plasma proteins form a provisional matrix for the binding of leukocyte integrins)

(Pober and Sessa, 2007). When they reach the afflicted tissue site, neutrophils become

activated, either by direct contact with pathogens or through the actions of cytokines

secreted by tissue-resident cells. The neutrophils attempt to kill the invading agents by


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releasing the toxic contents of their granules, which include reactive oxygen species (ROS)

and reactive nitrogen species, proteinase 3, cathepsin G and elastase(Nathan, 2006). These

highly potent effectors do not discriminate between microbial and host targets, so

collateral damage to host tissues is unavoidable6. A successful acute inflammatory

response results in the elimination of the infectious agents followed by a resolution and

repair phase, which is mediated mainly by tissue-resident and recruited macrophages

(Serhan and Savill, 2005). The switch in lipid mediators from pro-inflammatory

prostaglandins to lipoxins, which are anti-inflammatory, is crucial for the transition from

inflammation to resolution. Lipoxins inhibit the recruitment of neutrophils and, instead,

promote the recruitment of monocytes, which remove dead cells and initiate tissue

remodeling (Serhan and Savill, 2005). Resolvins and protectins, which constitute another

class of lipid mediator, as well as transforming growth factor- and growth factors

produced by macrophages, also have a crucial role in the resolution of inflammation,

including the initiation of tissue repair (Serhan, 2007).

If the acute inflammatory response fails to eliminate the pathogen, the inflammatory

process persists and acquires new characteristics. The neutrophil infiltrate is replaced with

macrophages, and in the case of infection also with T cells. If the combined effect of these

cells is still insufficient, a chronic inflammatory state ensues, involving the formation of

granulomas and tertiary lymphoid tissues (Drayton et al., 2006). The characteristics of this

inflammatory state can differ depending on the effector class of the T cells that are present.

In addition to persistent pathogens, chronic inflammation can result from other causes of

tissue damage such as autoimmune responses (owing to the persistence of self-antigens) or


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undegradable foreign bodies. Unsuccessful attempts by macrophages to engulf and destroy

pathogens or foreign bodies can lead to the formation of granulomas, in which the

intruders are walled off by layers of macrophages, in a final attempt to protect the host

(Kumar et al., 2003).

It should be noted that the mechanisms of infection-induced inflammation are

understood far better than are those of other inflammatory processes. It is unclear how

applicable knowledge of infection-induced inflammation is to other types of inflammation.

Indeed, although infection-induced inflammation is vital, it might be a special case. The

mechanisms of systemic chronic inflammatory states in general are poorly understood, but

it is clear that they do not seem to fit the classic pattern of transition from acute

inflammation to chronic inflammation.

Anti-inflammatory Drugs

Reducing pain, inflammation, and fever with salicylate-containing plant extracts can

be traced throughout written human history. One hundred and fifty years ago, Felix

Hoffman acetylated salicylic acid and created aspirin. Aspirin inhibits the cyclooxygenase

(COX) enzymes COX-1 and COX-2, which synthesize inflammatory mediators called

prostaglandins and thromboxanes. The ability to block production of prostaglandins and

thromboxanes accounts for aspirin being the worlds mostused therapeutic agent. Second

to aspirin are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS), which target COX-2 and

hence the synthesis of prostaglandins, particularly PGE2. Synthetic forms of natural cortisol

(termed glucocorticoids) are also widely used to treat many inflammatory diseases, and


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despite their side effects, glucocorticoids remain a mainstay for reducing inflammation. Yet,

it is still the challenge of the pharmaceutical chemist to develop more effective and less

toxic agents to treat the signs and symptoms of acute inflammation as well as the long-term

consequences of chronic inflammatory diseases.

Inflammation is a dynamic process with proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor

necrosis factor (TNF)-a, interleukin (IL)-1b, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)

playing central roles. A number of biologicals have been developed to treatinflammation

(Table 1), including agents that reduce the activity of specific cytokines or their receptors

(anticytokine therapies), block lymphocyte trafficking into tissues, prevent the binding of

monocyte-lymphocyte costimulatory molecules, or deplete B lymphocytes (Figure 1).

Current anticytokine therapies have found a place in the treatment of autoimmune

diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis, multiple

sclerosis, and others. Without question, neutralization of specific proinflammatory

cytokines has canonized theircausative role in inflammation and has changed the lives of

millions of patients with these diseases. One drawback of anticyanticytokine therapies is

decreased host immune defense against infection and possibly cancer. Nevertheless, the

benefits of anticytokine therapies outweigh the risks, and the risks can be reduced.

Compared to the consequences of long-term glucocorticoid treatment to stem

inflammation, anticytokine therapies are a major improvement. Indeed, organ toxicities are

rarely, if ever, observed with anticytokine therapies as they operate almost exclusively in

extracellular rather than intracellular compartments.


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Kinases that act downstream of cytokine receptors have become new targets to

tame inflammation, and orally active small-molecule inhibitors of intracellular signaling

kinases will likely be the new frontier of anti-inflammatory drug development. However,

because many intracellular signaling molecules are involved in normal cellular functions,

the effective concentration that does not elicit organ toxicity will need to be carefully

determined. Statins, a safe class of drugs used for lowering serum cholesterol, also have

anti-inflammatory properties. Orally active inhibitors of histone deacetylases, which are

also safe and used clinically, are effective drugs with anti-inflammatory properties that also

block cell proliferation. Naturally occurring resolvins are also being developed as anti-

inflammatory agents. [Dinarello, 2010]

Local Related Literature

Lagundi is an erect, branched tree or shrub, 2 to 5 meters in height. Its leaves are

usually five-foliate, palmately-arranged, rarely with 3 leaflets. The middle leaflet is larger

than the others and distinctly stalked. The numerous flowers are blue to lavender, 6 to 7

millimeters long. The fruit is globose, black when ripe, about 4 millimeters in diameter.

The plant is widely distributed in the Philippines at low and medium altitudes, in

thickets and in waste places; it flowers year-round. It also occurs in tropical East Africa,

Madagascar, India to Japan, and southward through Malaya to western Polynesia.

The leaves, bark, roots and seeds of Lagundi are used for medicinal purposes by

Filipino traditional healers as an antiseptic. Modern-day use takes advantage of the plants

antitussive and anti-inflammatory properties.


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The first record of the use of Lagundi as medicine was made by a priest, who

affirmed that Lagundi leaves and seeds were used by Filipinos to disinfect wounds and in

cleansing ulcers. The leaves are likewise used in aromatic baths to prevent insect bites.

Alternatively, the seeds are boiled in water and eaten, or the water is drunk, to prevent the

spreading of toxin from bites.

Oil prepared with the juice of plant parts can be rubbed onto the sinuses and to

scrofulous sores of the neck. It is found to effect marvelous cures of sloughing wounds and

ulcers. There is a very noteworthy account of the cure with this oil of an old and deep

gangrenous wound in the arm of a patient. This patient was given up by allopathic doctors

after three months of medical treatment, cure having been considered hopeless without

amputation of the arm.

According to some authors, febrile, catarrhal, and rheumatic affections can be

treated using different preparations of plant plants. A tincture of the root-bark is

recommended in cases of rheumatism. The powdered root is prescribed for hemorrhoids

as a demulcent, and also for dysentery. In Indo-China, a decoction of the root is prescribed

for intermittent fevers.

The leaves are known to reduce inflammatory and rheumatic swellings of the joints

and swellings of the testes due to gonorrheal epidymitis and orchitis. They are also

effective for sprained limbs, contusions, and leech bites; the fresh leaves are put into an

earthen pot, heated over a fire, and applied as hot as can be borne without pain; or the

leaves are bruised and applied as a poultice to the affected part. A pillow stuffed with the


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leaves is placed under the head for relief of catarrh and headache. A decoction of the leaves

as a warm bath in the puerperal state of women who suffer much from after-pains has also

been described. [Ricco, MD., 2008]

International Related Literature

It is believed that bioactive compounds from plant foods may have health beneficial

effects and reduce the risk of chronic inflammatory diseases. In this study extracts of 121

plants typical for the traditional Mediterranean diet have been screened for their potential

anti-inflammatory activities. The ability of the extracts to inhibit cytokine-stimulated, iNOS-

dependent synthesis of nitric oxide in murine endothelial cells, without affecting cell

viability, was the primary indicator of their anti-inflammatory properties. Based on these

experiments we selected eight plant extracts for further analysis: Chrysanthemum

coronarium L., Scandix pecten-veneris L., Urospermum picroides (L.) Scop. Ex F. W. Smith,

Amaranthus cf. graecizans L., Onopordum macracanthum Schousboe, Eryngium campestre

L., Artemisia alba Turra and Merendera pyrenaica (Pourret) Fourn. Only the effects of

Onopordum macracanthum could be non-specific since the extract strongly inhibited total

protein synthesis. All remaining 7 extracts decreased nitric oxide and TNFalpha synthesis

in the cells of monocyte origin activated with LPS, and 4 of them significantly reduced

surface expression of VCAM1 on TNFalpha-stimulated endothelial cells. All seven plant

extracts decreased cytokine or LPS-stimulated iNOS mRNA levels in both cell types. Further

research to identify bioactive compounds influencing intracellular signaling pathways


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activated by cytokines and LPS will consequently be needed in order to better understand

these in vitro effects. [Strzelecka et al., 2005]

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

1. Kauayan Kiling

Leaves

2. Kauayan Kiling

Leaves extract

3. Kauayan Kiling

Leaves extract

4. Kauayan Kiling

Leaves

in-vitro Testing(+) Aspirin

(-) Distilled water

in-vivo Testing

(+) Diclofenac

(-) Distilled water

Animal Subject:

1. Maceration of Kauayan Kiling

leaves using 95% ethyl alcohol

2. Physico-chemical analysis

2.1. Physical properties

2.1.1. Physical Appearance

2.1.2. Color

2.1.3. Odor

2.1.4. Texture2.1.5. pH

2.2.

Solubility

2.2.1. Water

2.2.2. Ethyl Alcohol

2.3. Phytochemical screening of the

Kauayan Leaves extract

3. Preparation of different

concentrations

3.1. 25% concentration


3.3.

75% concentration


4. Pharmacologic screening

in-vitro Testing:

4.1.

Protein Stabilization Test

in-vivo Testing:

4.2. Formalin Induced Paw Edema

1. Kauayan Kiling Leaves

extract

2. Physico-chemical

properties

2.1. Physical

Properties

Kauayan Kiling Leaves has

a sticky dark green

appearance with a distinctodor with a pH of 7.5

2.2.

Solubility

Kauayan Kiling leaves

extract is soluble in water

and ethyl alcohol

2.3.Phytochemical

screening of extract

results to the presence

of flavonoids,

carbohydrates,

glucosides, proteinsand alkaloids


extract in different

concentrations


has an anti-

inflammatory property


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Mice

Swiss Albino

Figure 1: Paradigm of the Study

Documents

Kauayan Kiling