Kiến tạo mảng – Wikipedia tiếng Việt

8/12/2019 Kin to mng Wikipedia ting Vit

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Cc mng kin to trn th gii c v vo na sau ca th

k 20.

Cc mng kin to (cc b mt c bo tn)

Tui ca v i dng, trung tm mu c tui tr nht.

Kin to mngBch khoa ton th m Wikipedia

Kin to mng(ting Anh: plate tectonics; ting HyLp: tektn, ngha l "ngi xy dng", "thn") m t cc chuyn ng quy m ln ca thchquyn Tri t. Hc thuyt ny hon thin cc quan

nim trc y v tri dt lc a do Alfred Wegener xut trong cc thp nin u th k 20 v tch gin yi dng trong thp nin 1960.

Phn ngoi cng nht ca Tri t c cu to bithch quyn nm trn v quyn mm bn di. Thchquyn bao gm v Tri t v phn trn cng nht caquyn manti. Quyn mm thuc manti trng thi rn,nhng c nht v ng sut ct tng i thp nn cth chy ging nh cht lng nu xt theo thi gian acht. Phn su nht ca manti bn di quyn mm th

cng do chu p sut ln hn.

Thch quyn b v ra thnh cc mng kin to v chngtrt trn quyn mm. Cc mng ny di chuyn tng ivi nhau theo mt trong ba kiu ranh gii mng: hi thay va chm; tch gin, cng c gi l trung tm tchgin; v chuyn dng. Cc trn ng t, hot ng nila, s hnh thnh cc dy ni, v rnh i dng u xuthin dc theo cc ranh gii ny. S dch chuyn sang bnca cc mng vo khong 50100 mm/nm.[1]

Mc lc

1 S pht trin ca hc thuyt2 Cc nguyn tc chnh3 Cc kiu ranh gii mng

3.1 Ranh gii mng chuyn dng3.2 Ranh gii phn k3.3 Ranh gii hi t

4 Lc gy chuyn ng

4.1 Ni lc4.1.1 Ma st4.1.2 Trng trng lc

4.2 Cc ngoi lc4.3 ngha ca cc c ch

5 Bi cnh lch s5.1 Tri dt lc a5.2 Cc lc a ni5.3 Thuyt kin to mng

5.3.1 Gii thch v vn t5.3.2 Pht hin s ht chm

5.3.3 Lp bn cc trn ng t6 Kin to mng trn cc thin th khc

6.1 Sao Kim6.2 Sao Ha

n to mng Wikipedia ting Vit http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kin_to_mng

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Bn chi tit v cc mng kin to v cc vect di chuyn

ca n. Mu tm: ranh gii hi t, : ranh gii phn k, lc:

ranh gii chuyn dng, xanh dng: i ht chm, xm

(vng): ai to ni.

6.3 Cc v tinh7 Xem thm8 T liu tham kho

8.1 Ghi ch8.2 c thm

9 Lin kt ngoi

S pht trin ca hc thuyt

Vo cui th k 19 u th k 20, cc nh a cht chorng cc c im chnh ca Tri t l c nh, vphn ln cc c trng a cht nh cc dy ni l dochuyn ng thng ng ca lp v theo hc thuyt amng. Cc quan st trc y t nm 1596 cho rng ccb bin i din nhau trn i Ty Dng, hay chnhxc hn l ra cc thm lc a, c hnh dng tng t

nhau v dng nh tng kht vo nhau.

[2]

T ,mt s hc thuyt c xut gii thch s tnghp biu kin ny, nhng vic cho rng Tri t thrn lm xut hin nhiu vn kh c th gii thchc.[3]

Vic pht hin ra radi v c im ta nhit ca n vonm 1896 dn ti s xt li tui biu kin ca Tri

t,[4]do trc y tui Tri t c xc nh bngtc ngui lnh ca n v b mt Tri t bc x ging nh vt th en.[5]Cc tnh ton ng rng, thm ch nuTri t bt u ti nhit ca bc x , th n c th gim nhit xung nh hin ti ch sau vi triu nm.

Cng vi s hiu bit v ngun nhit mi, cc nh khoa hc c l do cho rng tui ca Tri t cn ln hn thmt cch ng tin cy, v li ca n cn nng th lng.

Thuyt kin to mng k tha t gi thuyt tri dt lc a do Alfred Wegener xut nm 1912[6]v c mrng trong quyn sch xut bn nm 1915 ca ng c tn giNgun gc ca cc lc a v i dng. ng xutrng cc lc a hin ti tng c thi hnh thnh nn mt lc a ln v b tch ra, iu ny lm gii phng cc lca t nhn ca Tri t v so snh chng vi "cc tng bng" granit c mt thp ni trn bin bazan c hn.[7]

Nhng do khng c cc chng c chi tit v lc tc ng gy ra chuyn ng, hc thuyt ny ni chungkhng c chp nhn rng ri: Tri t c th c v rn v li lng, nhng dng nh khng cch no lp vTri t c th di chuyn c. Gii khoa hc sau ng h cc hc thuyt do nh a cht ngi Anh, ArthurHolmes, xut vo nm 1920. Theo , cc mi ni gia cc mng c th nm di bin v xut nm 1928 ca

Holmes cho rng cc dng i lu trong quyn manti l lc gy chuyn ng chnh.[3][8][9]

Chng c u tin rng cc mng thch quyn di chuyn xut hin cng vi s pht hin v hng t trng bini trong cc c tui khc nhau, ln u tin c nu ra trong hi ngh Tasmania nm 1956. u tin n chc thuyt ha thnh thuyt v Tri t gin rng,[10]s hp tc nghin cu sau pht trin n thnh hcthuyt kin to mng, v gii thch rng s tch gin nh l kt qu ca s tri ln ca cc loi mi, nhngkhng lm cho Tri t gin n thm bi s c mt ca cc i ht chm v cc t gy tnh tin bo ton. ycng l thi im m hc thuyt ca Wegener c cc nh khoa hc chp nhn v mt tng qut. Cc cng trnhb sung v s lin i ca tch gin y i dng v o cc t trng do Harry Hess v Ron G. Mason thchin[11][12][13][14] xc nh c ch chnh xc gii thch cho s tri ln ca cc loi mi.

Sau s cng nhn cc d thng t gm cc di t ha tng t chy song song v i xng trn y bin c haipha ca sng ni gia i dng, kin to mng nhanh chng c chp nhn rng ri. Cc tin b ng thi trongcng ngh chp nh a chn thi k u ti v xung quanh cc i Wadati-Benioff cng vi cc quan st a chtkhc lm cho kin to mng tr thnh hc thuyt c sc mnh phi thng v d on v gii thch hp l.[15]


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Nghin cu v y i dng su cng c tc ng quan trng trong s pht trin ca hc thuyt; lnh vc a chtbin thuc vng bin su c pht trin vo thp nin 1960. Hc thuyt kin to mng c pht trin vo cuithp nin 1960 v c hu ht cc nh khoa hc trong cc ngnh khoa hc Tri t chp nhn. Hc thuyt gpphn pht trin cc khoa hc Tri t, gii thch cc hin tng a cht nh to ni, ng t, ni la v nhng

nh hng ca n n i vi cc nghin cu v c a l hc v c sinh hc.[16]

Cc nguyn tc chnh

Cc lp bn ngoi ca Tri t c chia thnh thch quyn v quyn mm. Vic phn chia ny da trn s khcbit v cc c im c hc v phng thc truyn nhit trong chng. V mt c hc, thch quyn lnh hn vcng hn, trong khi quyn mm th nng hn v d chy hn. V mt truyn nhit, thch quyn mt nhit do struyn nhit trong khi quyn mm cng truyn nhit bi s i lu v c gradien nhit gn nh on nhit.S phn chia ny khng nn ln ln vi s phn chia v mt ha hc ca cng cc lp ny thnh quyn manti (baogm c quyn mm v phn manti ca thch quyn) v lp v: cc phn ca quyn manti c th l mt phn cathch quyn hoc quyn mm cc thi im khc nhau, ty thuc vo nhit v p sut ca n.

Nguyn tc ch yu ca kin to mng l thch quyn tn ti nh l cc mng kin totch ri v ring bit, tridt trn quyn mm gn nh cht lu (cht rn nht n hi). S chuyn ng ca cc mng vo khong

1040 mm/nm (Sng ni gia i Ty Dng; nhanh nh s pht trin ca mng tay) cho ti khong160 mm/nm (mng Nazca; bng tc mc tc).[17][18]

Cc mng kin to gm phn thch quyn ca quyn manti v phn nm ph bn trn l mt trong hai kiu vt liulp v: lp v i dng (hay quyn simat ghp ca silic v magi) v lp v lc a (hay quyn sialt ghp ca

silic v nhm). Thch quyn i dng trung bnh dy khong 100 km;[19]b dy cng phn nh tui ca n: theothi gian n lnh dn v tr nn dy hn. Do n c hnh thnh t sng ni gia i dng v tch gin v haipha, b dy ca n cng dng o c khong cch t v tr hin ti ca chng n sng ni gia i dng.Thch quyn i dng phi di chuyn mt khong cch nht nh trc khi b ht chm, dy thay i trongkhong t 6 km sng ni gia i dng n hn 100 km ti cc i ht chm; ty thuc vo khong cch dichuyn ngn hn hay di hn, m b dy ti i ht chm (tnh trung bnh) s mng hn hay dy hn.[20]Thch

quyn lc a in hnh dy khong 200 km,[19]v cng thay i gia cc bn a, dy ni, v bn trong nn c nnh ca lc a. Hai kiu lp v cng c b dy khc nhau, lp v lc a dy hn lp v i dng (35 km so vi6 km ca lp v i dng)[21]

Ni hai mng gp nhau c gi l ranh gii mng, v cc ranh gii mng thng lin quan n cc hot ngng t v to thnh cc dng a hnh nh dy ni, ni la, sng ni gia i dng v rnh i dng. Cc hotng ni la chnh xut hin dc theo cc ranh gii mng, trong ranh gii mng hot ng mnh nht v cbit n nhiu nht l vnh ai la Thi Bnh Dng ca mng Thi Bnh Dng. Cc ranh gii ny s c nuchi tit cc mc sau.

Cc mng kin to c th ch bao gm lp v lc a hay lp v i dng, hoc c hai. V d, mng chu Phi bao

gm lp v lc a v cc phn ca y bin i Ty Dng v n Dng. S phn chia gia lp v i dngv lp v lc a da trn c ch hnh thnh ca chng. V i dng c hnh thnh trung tm tch gin ybin v v lc a c hnh thnh t hot ng ca cung ni la v t s ln dn ca cc a th t cc qu trnhkin to; mc d mt s dng a th ny c th cha cc chui ophiolit, l cc mnh ca v i dng, v chngvn c xem l mt phn ca lc a khi chng thot khi chu trnh chun ca s hnh thnh v cc trung tm tchgin cng nh s ht chm bn di cc lc a. V i dng nng hn v lc a do chng khc nhau v thnhphn cu to nh v i dng cha t silic v nhiu cc nguyn t nng ("mafic") hn so vi v lc a("felsic").[22]Nh l kt qu ca phn tng theo t trng, v i dng thng nm bn di mc nc bin (huht mng Thi Bnh Dng di mc nc bin), trong khi v lc a ni cao hn mc nc bin (xem ng tnhgii thch v nguyn l ny).

Cc kiu ranh gii mng

C ba kiu ranh gii mng c trng cho cc phng thc chuyn ng tng i gia chng. Cc kiu ny cnglin quan n cc hin tng xy ra trn mt t. Cc kiu ranh gii khc nhau l:


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Ba kiu ranh gii mng.

1-Quyn mm; 2-Thch quyn; 3-im nng; 4-V i

dng; 5-Mng ht chm; 6-V lc a; 7-i tch gin trn

lc a; 8-Ranh gii hi t; 9-Ranh gii phn k; 10-Ranh

gii chuyn dng; 11-Ni la dng khin; 12-Sng ni gia

i dng; 13-Ranh gii mng hi t; 14-Ni la dng tng;

15-Cung o ni la; 16-Mng 17-Quyn mm; 18-Rnh i

dng

Ranh gii chuyn dngxut hin khi cc mngtrt tng i theo mt phng nm ngang dctheo cc t gy chuyn dng. Chuyn ngtng i gia hai mng hoc l phay ngang tri(sang bn tri v pha ngi quan st) hoc lphay ngang phi (sang bn phi v pha ngiquan st). t gy San Andreas California lmt v d ca ranh gii loi ny.

1.

Ranh gii phn kxut hin ni m hai mngdi chuyn xa ra nhau. Cc sng ni gia idng (nh sng ni Trung i Ty Dng) vcc i ang c hot ng tch gin (nh thunglng tch gin Ln chu Phi) l cc v d vkiu ranh gii ny.

2.

Ranh gii hi t(hay cc ra ch ng) xuthin khi hai mng trt v pha nhau to thnhi ht chm (nu mt mng chui xung dimng kia) hoc va chm lc a (nu hai mng

u l v lc a). Cc rnh i dng su thnglin quan n i ht chm. Cc phin ang htchm mang theo cc khong vt cha nc, chng s gii phng nc khi b nung nng; lng nc ny sau lm cho manti chy lng to ra cc hot ng ni la. Cc v d v dy ni Andes Nam M v cungni la Nht Bn.

3.

Ranh gii mng chuyn dng

John Tuzo Wilson nhn ra rng[23]do ma st cc mng khng th trt qua nhau mt cch n gin. Thay v th,mt ng sut to ra trong c hai mng v khi n t ti mc vt qua ngng sc cng ca trn mt trong haimt t gy th th nng tch ly s c gii phng dng sc cng. Sc cng mang yu t tch ly v/hoc tcthi ty thuc vo tnh lu bin ca ; lp v d dt mng bn di v manti tch ly bin dng t t qua ng sutct trong khi phn v bn trn gin d to thnh t gy, hoc gii phng p lc tc thi gy ra s chuyn ngdc theo t gy. B mt d dt mng ca t gy cng c th gii phng ngay lp tc khi mc sc cng l quln. Nng lng c gii phng t ng sut sc cng ny gy nn cc trn ng t, l mt hin tng ph bindc theo cc ranh gii chuyn dng.

V d in hnh ca loi ranh gii ny l t gy San Andreas b bin pha ty Bc M,[23]v l mt phn ca hthng t gy cc k phc tp trong khu vc ny. y, mng Thi Bnh Dng di chuyn v hng ty bc cnmng Bc M di chuyn v hng ng nam. Cc v d khc nh l t gy Alpine New Zealand v t gy BcAnatolia Th Nh K. Cc t gy chuyn dng cng c tm thy dng vung gc vi sng ni gia idng (nh i t gy Mendocino ngoi khi bc California).

Ranh gii phn k

cc ranh gii phn k, hai mng di chuyn ra xa nhau v khong khng gia chng dn dn c lp y bi vtliu lp v mi t ngun macma nng chy bn di. Ngun gc ca cc ranh gii phn k mi im ni ba ikhi lin quan n hot ng ca cc im nng. y, cc vng i lu cc k ln mang mt lng rt ln vtcht ca quyn mm nng ln gn b mt v ng nng ny cng ph v thch quyn ra thnh cc phn nh.im nng c th xut hin vo thi im ban u to h thng sng ni gia i Ty Dng, hin ti nm bndi Iceland vi tc m rng khong vi xentimet mt nm.[23]

Ranh gii phn k trn thch quyn i dng to ra s tch gin ca h hng sng ni i dng bao gm sngni gia i Ty Dng v i nng ng Thi Bnh Dng, v trn thch quyn lc a to ra cc thung lng tchgin nh Thung lng tch gin Ln ng Phi. Cc ranh gii phn k c th to ra cc i t gy ln trong hthng sng ni i dng. S m rng thng khng ng u, do vy ni no c tc m rng ca cc khisng ni cn k l khc nhau th s to ra cc t gy chuyn dng ln. Chng l cc i t gy, nhiu trong s


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Cu bc qua thung lng tch gin lfagj

ty nam Iceland, ranh gii gia cc mng

lc a -u v Bc M.

c tn gi, v l ngun gy ra cc trn ng t ln di bin. Bn y bin th hin mt bc tranh khc v cc cu trc khi tng b phnchia bi cc yu t tuyn tnh (http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/baseball.html) vung gc vi trc sng ni. Nu nhn y bingia cc i t gy nh l cc dy ai buc vo sng ni v ko v haipha t trung tm tch gin th s thy cc yu t hot ng ca hthng ny r rng hn. cao chm ca cc sng ni c chy songsong vi trung tm tch gin hin ti s tr nn gi hn v chm su

hn (gim nhit v ln chm).[24]

sng ni gia i dng, ngi ta cng tm thy mt du hiu quantrng v lc tc ng c chp nhn trong hc thuyt tch gin ybin. Cc kho st a t trng t trn khng cho thy kiu mu k dca o cc t i xng hai bn trung tm sng ni. Kiu mu ny lqu cn i c th coi l trng hp ngu nhin do b rng ca cc

di i din l gn nh trng khp vi nhau. Cc nh khoa hc tng nghin cu o cc t v lin kt cLawrence W. Morley, Frederick John Vine v Drummond Hoyle Matthews a ra trong gi thuyt Morley-Vine-Matthews. Cc di t trng khp vi cc thi k o cc t ca Tri t. iu ny c xc nhn bng cco c v tui ca nm trong cc di t ny. Di t v nn mt bn thi gian v khng gian v c tc tch

gin v cc k o cc t.

Ranh gii hi t

Bn cht ca ranh gii hi t ty thuc vo kiu thch quyn ca cc mng tham gia vo s va chm. ni mtmng i dng c va vo mt mng lc a t c hn, mng i dng thng s chui xung di do sc ninh hn thch quyn lc a, to ra i ht chm. Trn b mt, cc dng a hnh c thnh to nh rnh idng nm v pha i dng v dy ni pha lc a.[23]Mt v d v i ht chm i dng-lc a l khu vcdc theo b bin pha ty Nam M, y mng i dng Nazca b ht chm di mng lc a Nam M.

Hot ng ni la b mt (cc ni la di y bin hoc trn lc a) thng xut hin bn trn cc vng nngchy c hnh thnh do cc mng b ht chm. Vn ny vn cn ang tranh lun trong gii a cht giithch c ch sinh ra hin tng ny. Tuy nhin, quan im c s ng ng v hin tng ny l do s giiphng cc cht kh. Khi mt mng b chm xung, nhit ca n tng ln s to ra nhiu cht kh (hu ht l hinc) c cha trong lp v i dng xp rng. Khi lng nc ny tng ln trong manti, n lm gim nhit nng chy ca cc phn xung quanh manti to ra macma cha mt lng ln kh ha tan. Macma ny dng ln trnb mt v cng l ngun ca hu ht cc ni la phun n trn Tri t v chng cha mt th tch ln cc cht khb nn p sut cao (nh ni St. Helens). Macma dng ln trn mt v ngui dn to ra mt chui cc ni la trnt lin t thm lc a v song song vi thm lc a. Lc a pha ty Nam M th c vi kiu hnh thnh ccdy ni la t s ht chm ca mng Nazca. Bc M, dy ni Cascade, m rng v pha bc ca Sierra Nevada,California cng thuc loi ny. Cc ni la ny c c trng bi cc chu k phun tro v yn tnh, v thng btu bng hot ng phun kh v cc ht tro ni la mn dng thy tinh v tro dng sng, theo sau l cc pha phunmcma. Ton b ranh gii Thi Bnh Dng c bao bc bi cc dy ni la v thng c gi l vnh ai nila Thi Bnh Dng.

ni m hai mng lc a va nhau lm cho cc mng b bin dng v chu nn, kt qu l hoc mt mng chuixung hoc trt ln trn (trong mt s trng hp) v s to nn cc dy ni rng ln. Du hiu d nhn thy nhtl ra pha bc ca mng n chui xung di mt phn ca mng -u, nng n ln to ra dy ni Himalayav cao nguyn Thanh Tng nm pha sau. N cng c th y cc phn cn k ca lc a chu dch v pha

ng.[25]

Khi hai mng i dng va nhau, chng s to nn cung o khi mt mng s chui xung bn di mng kia.Cung o c hnh thnh t cc ni la phun tro trn mng nm trn do mng nm di b nng chy pha di

n. S d cung o c dng cung l do b mt cu ca Tri t. Rnh i dng nm pha trc cc cung ny thucv pha mng b ht chm xung di. V d in hnh ca kiu mng hi t ny l Nht Bn v qun o Aleutia Alaska.


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Lc a/Lc a.

1-V lc a; 2-Thch quyn; 3-Quyn

mm; 4-V i dng c; 5-dy ni;

6-Cao nguyn

i dng/Lc a. 1-V i

dng; 2-Thch quyn; 3-Quyn

mm; 4-V lc a; 5-Cung ni

la; 6-Rnh i dng

i dng/i dng. 1-V i

dng; 2-Thch quyn; 3-Quynmm; 4-V lc a; 5-Rnh i

dng; 6-Cung o ni la

Bn kin to mng.

Cc mng thng va chm theo mt gc khc 90 hn l i u nhau (nh mt mng chuyn ng v pha bc,mng cn li v pha ng nam), v c th to nn t gy ngang dc theo i va chm, v c th l ht chm hocnn p.

Khng phi tt c ranh gii mng u d dng xc nh nh cc mng c dng ai vi hng di chuyn khng rrng. Mt v d l ranh gii a Trung Hi-Anp, l ranh gii lin quan n hai mng ln v mt s mng nh. Bncnh , ranh gii ca cc mng khng phi lc no cng trng vi ranh gii ca cc lc a, v d nh, mng BcM bao ph khng ch lc a Bc M m cn tri rng n ty bc Siberi, cng thm mt phn ca i TyDng.

Cc mng kin to chnh

Vic xc nh cc ranh gii mng gip ngi ta phnchia v thch quyn ca Tri t thnh 8 mng kin tochnh:

Mng chu Phi gm ton b chu Phi mng lc

aMng Nam Cc gm ton b chu Nam Cc -mng lc aMng Australia gm ton b Australia - mng lcaMng n gm ton b tiu lc a n vmt phn ca n Dng - mng lc aMng -u gm ton b chu v chu u -mng lc aMng Bc M gm ton b Bc M v ng bcSiberi - mng lc aMng Nam M gm ton b Nam M - mng lc aMng Thi Bnh Dng gm ton b Thi Bnh Dng mng i dng

Bn cnh cn c cc mng nh nh mng Rp, mng Caribe, v mng Juan de Fuca, mng Cocos, mngNazca, mng Philippin v mng Scotia.

Cc bi lin quan

Danh sch cc mng kin to

Lc gy chuyn ngCc mng kin to c th di chuyn do mt tng i ca thch quyn i dng v yu tng i ca quynmm. Qu trnh mt nhit t manti c xem nh ngun gc gy kin to mng. Theo quan im hin ti, mc dvn cn tranh ci, mt qu ln ca thch quyn i dng ang chm xung trong i ht chm l nguyn nhn


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Lc gy chuyn ng.

chnh gy chuyn ng mng. Khi thch quyn idng hnh thnh cc sng ni gia i dng, n tc hn so vi lp quyn mm bn di, nhng n str nn c (nng) hn khi n ngui i do dng i lumanti ko n ra xa v dy hn khi n cng c. Mt thch quyn c ln hn so vi quyn mm bn di chophp n chm su xung trong manti ti i ht chm,v to ra lc chnh gy ra chuyn ng mng. im yu

trong quyn mm cho php cc mng kin to dichuyn d dng v pha i ht chm.[26]Mc d s htchm c xem l lc mnh nht gy ra chuyn ngmng, nhng n khng phi l lc duy nht, v d nh mng Bc M l mng ang chuyn ng nhng khng bht chm bt k ch no. Mng ln -u cng tng t nh vy. Nguyn nhn gy chuyn ng mng l mt itng ang c cc nh khoa hc Tri t nghin cu v tho lun tch cc.

Cc nh a chn 2 v 3 chiu v cu to bn trong Tri t cho thy c s khc nhau v phn b mt theo chiubn trong sut quyn manti. S khc nhau ny c th l do vt liu (thnh phn ha hc ca ), khong vt (ccbin thin trong cu trc khong vt) hoc nhit (thng qua gin n v co ngt nhit t nhit nng) cu thnh

chng. S khc bit v mt theo chiu bn cn do cc dng i lu manti to ra t lc y ni.[27]S i luquyn manti lin quan trc tip v gin tip n chuyn ng mng nh th no l vn ang c nghin cu vtho lun trong a ng lc. Tuy vy, ngun nng lng ny phi c truyn qua thch quyn lm cho ccmng kin to c th di chuyn. C hai kiu nh hng n chuyn ng mng l ma st v lc hp dn.

Ni lc

Ma st

S ma st c ghi nhn gm hai kiu l li ko c s v ht phin.[28]Li ko c s lm cho cc dng i lu lntrong quyn manti truyn qua quyn mm. Chuyn ng c gy ra bi lc ma st gia quyn mm v thch

quyn. Trong khi , "ht phin" xy ra khi cc dng i lu cc b to lc ko xung do ma st, ko cc mngtrong i ht chm ti cc rnh i dng. "Ht phin" c th xut hin trong mi trng a ng lc trong khi sli ko c s vn tip tc tc ng ln mng khi n chm vo quyn manti (mc du c l tc ng ln c mttrn v mt di ca phin mc ln hn).

Trng trng lc

S chuyn ng mng b y bi trng lc ca cc phn ca mng c cao ln hn ti cc sng ni i dngc gi l trt trng lc. Khi thch quyn i dng c hnh thnh ti trung tm tch gin t cc vt cht nngca quyn manti, n dn dn ngui i v dy ln theo thi gian (v cng xa sng ni). Thch quyn i dngngui th c hn vt liu manti nng cng ngun v vi s gia tng b dy n t t chm tr li manti b cho li

theo quy tc y ni. Kt qu l n hi nghing theo chiu bn theo khong cch t trc sng ni.[29]

Ni chnh xc hn th c ch ny l s trt trng lc do a hnh bin thin theo phng ngang nu nhn trn tngth c th thy s bin i ng k v a hnh sng ni tch gin l c im d nhn thy nht. V d: (1) Chphng cong ca thch quyn trc khi n chui xung bn di mt mng gn n to ra mt hnh dng a hnh rrng c th b p hoc t nht l nh hng ti a hnh ca cc sng ni i dng; (2) Chm manti tc ng bndi cc mng kin to c th thay i mnh m a hnh ca y i dng.

Trng hp phin-ko l s chuyn ng ca mng c iu khin mt phn bi trng lng ca cc mng nguiv c hn ang chm vo quyn manti cc rnh i dng.[30]C cc u hiu ng k cho thy s i lu angdin ra trong quyn manti nhiu mc khc nhau. S dng ln ca vt liu ti sng ni gia i dng gn nh

l mt phn chc chn ca dng i lu. Cc m hnh trc y v kin to mng xem cc mng trt trn cc i lu ging nh cc ai chuyn bng ti. Tuy nhin, hu ht cc nh khoa hc ngy nay cho rng quyn mmkhng mnh gy ra s chuyn ng trc tip bng ma st t nhng lc c s nh vy. Phin-ko c xem llc ln nht gy ra chuyn ng mng. Cc m hnh hin nay ch ra rng s ht ti cc rnh i dng cng ng


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Chuyn ng mng theo d liu v tinh thuc thng nh v

ton cu (GPS) ca NASA JPL (http://sideshow.jpl.nasa.gov

/mbh/series.html). Cc vect th hin hng v ln

chuyn ng.

vai tr quan trng trong chuyn ng mng.[28]Tuy nhin, cn phi lu rng, chng hn, mng Bc M khng bht chm ni no. Cc mng khc nh mng chu Phi, -u v Nam Cc cng tng t. Lc gy ra chuyn ngtng th ca mng v ngun nng lng ca n vn l vn ang c nghin cu.[31]

Cc ngoi lc

Trong mt nghin cu cng b vo s pht hnh thng 1-2 nm 2006 trn Geological Society of America Bulletin,

mt nhm cc nh khoa hc v Hoa K rt ra kt lun rng cc thnh phn ca mng c khuynh hng chuynng v pha ty l do chuyn ng t quay ca Tri t v lc ma st thy triu ca Mt Trng. Tri t t quaytheo hng t ty sang ng, nn lc hp dn ca Mt Trng ko nh cc lp trn b mt ca Tri t li v phaty. N cng gi rng (mc d cn mu thun) s quan st ny cng c th gii thch ti sao Sao Thy v SaoHa khng c kin to mng, trong khi Sao Thy khng c v tinh v cc v tinh ca Sao Ha th qu nh gyra thy triu trn Sao Ha.[32]

Tuy nhin, iu ny khng phi l l l mi v trc y n c cha ca gi thuyt kin to mng l AlfredWegener a ra. y l mt thch thc i vi nh vt l Harold Jeffreys, ngi tnh ton rng bin ca mast thy triu cn thit (nu t c) s nhanh chng lm cho chuyn ng t quay ca Tri t phi ngng li tlu ri. Mt s mng chuyn ng v hng bc v ng, cn chuyn ng ch yu theo hng ty ca bn a

Thi Bnh Dng ch n gin l do trung tm tch gin Thi Bnh Dng b lch v pha ng (c d bo lkhng phi do sc ht ca Mt Trng).[33]

ngha ca cc c ch

Vect hp lc ca chuyn ng mng phi l mt hmca tt c cc lc tc ng ln mng. Tuy nhin, ycn tn ti mt vn lin quan n mc m miqu trnh ny ng gp vo chuyn ng ca tngmng.

S a dng v tnh cht v mi trng a ng lc cacc mng phi to ra cc khc bit mt cch r rngtheo mc m cc qu trnh ny tc ng ch nglm cc mng di chuyn. Mt phng php lin quann vn ny l tc tng i ca cc mng angchuyn ng v cc du hiu c th c ca cc lc tcng ln cc mng.[24]

Mt trong nhng tng quan c ngha nht cpht hin l cc mng thch quyn gn vi cc mngang ht chm chuyn ng nhanh hn cc mng khng

gn vi cc mng ang ht chm. Mng Thi BnhDng b bao bc bi cc i ht chm (vnh ai laThi Bnh Dng) v chuyn ng nhanh hn cc mngkhc thuc bn a i Ty Dng, cc mng ny c gn vi cc lc a thay v cc i ht chm. Ngi ta cngngh rng cc lc lin quan n cc mng chm xung (phin-ko v ht phin) l cc lc gy ra chuyn ngmng, ngoi tr cc mng khng b ht chm.[28]

Cc lc gy chuyn ng mng vn l i tng ang nghin cu trong lnh vc a vt l.

Bi cnh lch s

Tri dt lc a

Tri dt lc al mt trong nhng tng v kin to c a ra vo cui th k 19 u th k 20. Hc thuytny li thi, v cc khi nim v d liu ca n c hp nht trong kin to mng.


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Du hiu ha thch chng minh cho s tri dt lc a.

Nn 1915, Alfred Wegener a ra cc lun cnghim tc v tng trong n bn u tin ca quynschNgun gc cc lc a v i dng. Trong quynsch ny ng lu rng b bin pha ng Nam M vb bin pha ty chu Phi c nhn thy nh l chng tng c thi gn vo nhau. Wegener khng phi lngi u tin ghi nhn du hiu ny (nhng ngi nu vn ny trc ng nh Abraham Ortelius,

Francis Bacon, Benjamin Franklin, Snider-Pellegrini,Roberto Mantovani v Frank Bursley Taylor) nhngng l ngi u tin a ra cc ha thch quantrng cng nh cc chng c c a hnh cng nh ckh hu h tr cho quan st n gin ny (v ccc nh nghin cu khc, nh Alex du Toit, ng h).Tuy vy, cc tng ca ng khng c cc nha cht nhn nhn mt cch nghim tc, h ch ra rngkhng c c ch r rng cho s tri dt lc a. C th,h khng th thy v lc a c th cy xi qua v i dng nng hn nh th no. Wegener khng th giithch lc lm cho cc lc a tri dt.

Chng minh ca Wegener khng cn ng vng cho n tn sau khi ng qua i vo nm 1930. Nm 1947, mtnhm cc nh khoa hc, ng u l Maurice Ewing, s dng tu nghin cuAtlantisca Vin Hi dng hcWoods Hole v mt lot cc thit b xc nhn s tn ti ca i nng trung tm i Ty Dng, v nhn thyrng bn di cc lp trm tch di y bin c cu to bi bazan ch khng phi granit (granit l thnh phnchnh cu to nn v lc a). H cng thy rng v i dng mng hn v lc a. Tt c cc pht hin ny tra nhiu cu hi v tranh lun v thuyt tri dt lc a.[34]

u nhng nm 1950, cc nh khoa hc trong c Harry Hess v Victor Vacquier, s dng cc thit b t (tk), mt loi m phng theo thit b s dng trn my bay trong th chin th II nhn dng tu ngm, ghinhn cc thay i k quc ca t trng dc theo y i dng. Pht hin ny, mc d khng c d kin, nhng

khng hon ton gy ngc nhin bi v ngi ta bit rng cc loi bazan ni la giu st, cu to nn phn ln vi dng, cha mt loi khong vt st c t tnh mnh (magnetit) v c th lm lch cc b kim nam chm ca labn. iu ny cng c cc nh hng hi Iceland pht hin vo cui th k 18. S c mt ca t trng trongbazan lm cho n tr thnh i tng c th o c t trng. Quan trng hn, do s hin din ca magnetit to racc thuc tnh t ca bazan nn cc bin thin t tnh mi pht hin ny cung cp mt cch thc khc cho vicnghin cu y i dng su. Khi cc mi hnh thnh ngui i th cc vt liu t ghi li t trng Tri t tithi im .[15]

Khi y bin c lp bn ngy cnh nhiu hn trong thp nin 1950, cc bin thin t ha ra khng xy ra mtcch ngu nhin hay xut hin c lp, m n xut hin c quy lut c th d ghi nhn c. Khi cc kiu mu tny c lp bn cho mt khu vc rng, y i dng ch ra mt kiu ging nh vn ca nga vn. Cc di

nhim t khc nhau xen k nhau chy song song c hai pha ca sng ni gia i dng: mt di c cc t bnhthng v xen vi mt di c cc t b o ngc. Kiu tng th, c xc nh bng cc di xen k ny vi

phn cc t bnh thng v nghch o, gi l vn t.[15]

Khi trong a tng ca cc ra lc a tch bit rt ging nhau, cng c th suy ra rng chng c thnh to vicng mt c ch hay chng l mt th trong qu kh. V d, mt vi phn ca Scotland v Ireland cha cc rtging nhau c tm thy Newfoundland v New Brunswick. Hn na, thnh phn thch hc v cu to a chtca dy ni Caledoni chu u v cc phn ca dy Appalachian Bc M rt ging nhau.[35]

Hc thuyt ny gip cc nh a l sinh vt hc gii thch s phn b a l sinh vt t on ca s sng ngy nayc tm thy trn cc lc a khc nhau nhng c cc t tin tng t.[36]c bit, n gii thch s phn b

Gondwana ca cc loi iu v qun thc vt Nam Cc.

Cc lc a ni


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Vn t y bin: mu trng (o t) v mu cam (ttrng bnh thng).

Quan im thnh hnh l c cc lp v ca a tng bn di cc lc a l tnh. Ngi ta ghi nhn t rt sm lgranit c mt trn lc a, nhng y bin c cu to bi bazan c hn. Ngi ta cho rng c mt lp bazannm bn di cc ca lc a.

Tuy nhin, da trn cc d thng trng lc ( lch ca dy di) trong dy Andes Peru, Pierre Bouguer cho rngcc dy ni t c hn phi c phn lm xung cm vo lp c hn nm bn di.[37]Quan im cho rng cc dyni c "r" cng c xc nhn bi George B. Airy khong hn 100 nm sau khi nghin cu v trng trng lcca dy Himalaya,[38]v cc nghin cu a chn pht hin s thay i tng ng v t trng ring.

Vo gia thp nin 1950, mt cu hi cha c gii quyt l r ca dy ni b gi cht bi bazan xung quanhhay vn ni ging nh mt tng bng. Nm 1958 nh a cht ngi Tasmania, Samuel Warren Carey a rachuyn kho Tip cn kin to cho tri dt lc a h tr cho m hnh Tri t gin n.

Thuyt kin to mng

Cc pht hin vo nhng nm 1960, c bit l v sng ni gia i Ty Dng c nu trong bi bo ca nha cht ngi M, Harry Hammond Hess (Robert S. Dietz cng cng b tng tng t mt nm trc trongtp chNature. Tuy nhin, u tin thuc v Hess, do ng phn pht bn tho khng cng b ca mnh vonm 1960) xut bn nm 1962. Hess ngh rng thay v cc lc a chuyn ngxuyn quav i dng (theothuyt tri dt lc a) th bn a i dng cng vi lc a cn k n chuyn ng trn cng mt n v v haymng.[39]Cng trong nm ny, Robert R. Coats thuc Cc Kho st a cht Hoa K m t cc yu t chnh cacung o ht chm trn qun o Aleutia. Bi bo ca ng, t c ch vo thi im (thm ch b nho bng), c gi l "phi thai" v "tin tri".[40]Nm 1967, W. Jason Morgan xut rng b mt Tri t gm c 12mng cng chuyn ng tng i vi nhau. Hai thng sau, nm 1968, Xavier Le Pichon xut bn mt m hnhhon ho da trn 6 mng chnh vi s chuyn ng tng i ca chng.[41]

Gii thch v vn t

Vic pht hin ra vn t v cc di t ny i xng xung quanh

chm sng ni i dng cho thy mt mi quan h giachng. Nm 1961, cc nh khoa hc bt u gi thit rng sngni gia i dng l mt i c cu trc yu, cng l ni my i dng b tch ra lm 2 phn dc theo nh ca sng ni.Macma mi t di su dng ln mt cch d dng qua i yuny v phun tro dc theo nh ca cc sng ni to thnh vi dng mi. Qu trnh ny sau ny c gi l tch gin yi dng, hot ng lin tc k t hng triu nm trc vtip tc to thnh y i dng mi, hnh thnh mt h thngsng ni gia i dng ko di khong 50.000 km.[42]Hcthuyt ny c chp nhn bi cc du hiu nh:

gn nh sng ni, cc rt tr, v chng ang trongqu trnh tr nn gi hn v chuyn ng xa dn nhsng ni;

1.

Cc tr nht nh sng ni lun lun c cc t bnh thng (t trng ca Tri t hin nay);2.Cc dy chy song song vi nh sng ni c s xen k v cc t trng (bnh thng o bnhthng) l do t trng ca Tri t b o chiu nhiu ln trong qu kh.

3.

Da trn s gii thch v vn t ging nga vn v s hnh thnh h thng sng ni gia i dng, gi thuyt tchgin y i dng nhanh chng nhn c s ng h v th hin mt tin b quan trng khc trong s pht trinca hc thuyt kin to mng. Hn na, v i dng c nh gi nh l mt cun bng t nhin ghi nhn lch

s o cc t ca Tri t.[15]

Pht hin s ht chm


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Bn th hin v tr cc trn ng t (cc chm

mu en) giai on 1963-1998.

Mt h qu ca s tch gin y i dng l s hnh thnh lp v mi dc theo sng ni gia i dng, mt tng cc nh khoa hc, nh S. Warren Carey, cho rng s dch chuyn ca lc a c th gii thch n ginbng s gia tng kch thc ca Tri t k t khi n c hnh thnh.[43]

Tuy vy, gi thuyt "Tri t gin n" khng tha mn gii thch hin tng ny bi v nhng ngi ng h n

khng a ra c c ch chng minh c Tri t gin n,[44]cng nh khng c du hiu cho thy Mt Trnggin n trong 3 t nm qua. Cc cu hi vn cha c p n nh: lm th no lp v mi to ra c b sung mtcch lin tc dc theo cc sng ni gia i dng m khng lm tng kch thc ca Tri t?

Cu hi ny lm cho cc nh khoa hc phi suy ngh v t vn nghin cu. Cc nh khoa hc nh Harry Hess,nh a cht ca i hc Princeton v Robert S. Dietz, nh khoa hc ca Cc kho st o c a hnh v bin HoaK l nhng ngi u tin s dng thut ng tch gin y i dngv cc ng cng l s t trong nhng ngitht s hiu v c ch ny. Nu v Tri t m rng dc theo cc sng ni gia i dng, th theo Hess n phi bchm u . ng cho rng v i dng mi tip tc tch gin ngy cng xa sng ni. Nhiu triu nm sau, lpv i dng chm vo rnh i dng mt vc hp v su dc theo rnh ca bn a Thi Bnh Dng. TheoHess, i Ty Dng ang m rng trong khi Thi Bnh Dng ang co li. Trong khi v i dng c b htxung cc rnh, th macma mi dng ln v phun tro dc theo cc sng ni tch gin to thnh lp v mi.Bn a i dng c vai tr nh l "l ti ch" vi s to ra v mi v ph hy thch quyn i dng c mt cchlin tc. Nh vy, cc tng ca Hess hu nh l gii thch hon ton ti sao Tri t khng ln hn vi s

tch gin y i dng, ti sao c rt t trm tch lng t trn y i dng, v ti sao cc trong i dng trhn cc trn lc a.[45]

Lp bn cc trn ng t

Trong sut th k 20, s pht trin v s dng cc thit b achn nh a chn k gip cc nh khoa hc pht hin rng cctrn ng t c xu hng tp trung nhng khu vc cbit,[15]hu ht cc ghi nhn u xy ra dc theo cc rnh idng v sng ni tch gin gia i dng. Vo cui thp

nhin 1920, cc nh a chn hc bt u khoanh nh mts khu vc ng t song song vi cc rnh i dng, chngb nghing mt gc khong 4060 v cm su vo trong lngTri t hng trm km. Sau , cc i ny c gi l iWadati-Benioff, hoc i Benioff, ghi cng cc nh a chnhc pht hin ra chng l Kiyoo Wadati, Nht Bn v HugoBenioff, Hoa K. Cng vic nghin cu a chn ton cu tnhiu thnh tu ln trong thp nin 1960 vi s lp t hthng tiu chun ha my ghi a chn ton cu (WWSSN) theo di cc v th cc v kh ht nhn di lng t vo nm1963. C rt nhiu d liu thu thp c t cc thit b

WWSSN cho php cc nh a chn lp bn chnh xc cc khu vc tp trung cc trn ng t trn ton cu.[46]

Kin to mng trn cc thin th khc

S xut hin kin to mng trn cc hnh tinh t lin quan n khi lng hnh tinh, vi cc hnh tinh khilng ln hn Tri t c cho l tn ti hin tng kin to mng. Tri t c th l trng hp ti bin, cc hot ng kin to v c nhiu nc.[47](Silica v nc to thnh hn hp eutecti su di t.)

Sao Kim

Sao Kim khng th hin du hin ca kin to mng ang hot ng. C mt du hiu gy tranh ci v hot ngkin to mng trong qu kh ca hnh tinh ny; tuy nhin, cc s kin din ra k t (nh gi thuyt c v hp lv ni chung c chp nhn cho rng thch quyn Sao Kim dy ln trong vng vi trm triu nm) to ra srng buc qu trnh trong h s a cht ca n thnh kh khn. Tuy vy, mt s h va chm c bo tn tt c s dng nh l phng php xc nh nin i xc nh gn ng tui b mt Sao Kim. Tui ca b mt


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Cc du hiu ging hot ng kin to trn Sao Ha

(1) ni Olympus, (2) Tharsis Tholus, (3) ni

Ascraeus, (4) ni Pavonis, (5) ni Arsia, (6) Hm

vc Valles Marineris.

c tnh ton vo khong ~500 n 750 Ma,[3]v c th ln n ~1 Ga.[48]Nghin cu ny dn n gi thuytc chp nhn rng Sao Kim tri qua mt thi k phun tro ni la kin to hon ton b mt t nht mt lntrong qu kh ca n, vi s kin cui cng din ra cng trong khong thi gian bng vi tui ca b mt. Trongkhi c ch ca s kin nhit n tng nh th vn cn l mt vn bn ci trong cc khoa hc nghin cu SaoKim, th mt s nh khoa hc vn ng h cc qu trnh lin quan n chuyn ng mng trong mt s ng cnhnht nh.

Ngi ta gii thch rng Sao Kim khng c kin to mng l do nhit ca n qu cao cho mt lng nc

ng k c th tn ti.[49][50]V Tri t b ngm trong nc, v nc ng vai tr quan trng trong vic pht trincc i ct. Kin to mng i hi cc b mt yu trong lp v m dc theo cc mnh ct lp v c th dichuyn, v c th chc chn rng cc i yu ny khng bao gi din ra trn Sao Kim bi v chng khng c nc.Tuy nhin, mt s nh nghin cu khng nh rng kin to mng c th din ra mt ln trn hnh tinh ny.

Sao Ha

Khng ging nh Sao Kim, lp v ca Sao Ha c cha nctrong v trn n (hu ht dng bng). y l hnh tinh nhhn Tri t, nhng c nhng du hiu tng t nh hot ngkin to. Cc ni la khng l khu vc Tharsis c sp xpthng hng ging nh cc cung ni la trn Tri t; hmValles Marineris to ln c th c hnh thnh bi mt vi dng

s tch gin v ca n.[51]

Nh l kt qu t cc quan st t trng ca Sao Ha do tuthm dMars Global Surveyorthc hin nm 1999, cc kiumu kch thc ln ca vn t cng c pht hin trn hnhtinh ny. gii thch cc kiu mu t ha ny trong v SaoHa, ngi ta cho rng c mt c ch tng t nh kin tomng tng hot ng trn hnh tinh ny.[52][53]Cc d liu

thu thp tip theo t camera lp th phn gii caoca tuqu oMars Expressnm 2007, th hin khu vc AeolisMensae rt r.[54]

Cc v tinh

Mt s v tinh ca Sao Mc thuc nhm Galile c nhng c im c th lin quan n kiu bin dng kin tomng, mc d cc vt cht v c ch c th c th khc vi hot ng kin to mng trn Tri t.[55]

Titan, l v tinh ln nht ca Sao Th, cng c cho l c hot ng kin to theo phn tch cc nh do tu thmd Huygens chp khi h cnh xung Titan vo ngy 14 thng 1 nm 2005.[56]

Xem thm

Hc thuyt a mng, mt hc thuyt li thi dng gii thch v s to ni.Danh sch cc mng kin toMng kin toCc ch lin quan n mng kin toDanh sch cc tng tc kin toVt l kin toKin to chm

T liu tham kho

Ghi ch


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^Read HH, Watson Janet (1975).Introduction toGeology. New York: Halsted. tr. 1315.

1.

^Kious WJ, Tilling RI. Historical perspective(http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/historical.html). ThisDynamic Earth: the Story of Plate Tectonics(http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html) . CcKho st a cht Hoa K. ISBN 0160482208. Truycp ngy 29 thng 1 nm 2008. Abraham Ortelius

trong cng trnh Thesaurus Geographicus ca mnh... xut rng chu M b "tch khi chu u v chu Phibi cc trn ng t v l lt... Cc du vt ca s ctt bc l chnh chng, nu c ai a ra bn thgii v xem xt k lng vng b bin ca ba chulc."

2.

^ abcFrankel Henry (7-1978). Arthur Holmes andContinental Drift (http://www.jstor.org/pss/4025726).The British Journal for the History of Science11(2): tr.130150.

3.

^Joly J (1909).Radioactivity and Geology: An Accountof the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial

History. London: Archibald Constable. tr. 36.ISBN 1402135777.

4.

^Thomson W (1863). On the secular cooling of theearth.Philosophical Magazine4(25): 114.doi:10.1080/14786435908238225 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F14786435908238225).

5.

^Hughes Patrick. Alfred Wegener (1880-1930): AGeographic Jigsaw Puzzle(http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/Giants/Wegener/wegener_2.html). On the Shoulders of Giants.Earth Observatory, NASA. Truy cp ngy 26 thng 12nm 2007. ... ngy 6 thng 12 nm 1912, Wegener...

xut thay th mt s tng tng ln v cc lca tri dt v cc bin ang m rng gii thch stin trin ca a l Tri t.

6.

^Alfred Wegener (1966). The Origin of Continents andOceans. Courier Dover. tr. 246. ISBN 0486617084.Trong n bn ln th 3 (1922), Wegener ch ra cc duhiu a cht rng cch y khong 300 triu nm cclc a gn vi nhau thnh mt siu lc a ni hai ccca Tri t. ng gi n l Pangaea (tt c t lin),...

7.

^Holmes Arthur (1928). Radioactivity and EarthMovements. Transactions of the Geological Society ofGlasgow. quyn 18: tr. 559606.

8.

^Holmes Arthur (1978).Principles of PhysicalGeology. Wiley. tr. tr. 640641. ISBN 0471072516.9.

^1958: The tectonic approach to continental drift.Trong: S. W. Carey (ch bin): Continental Drift Hingh chuyn . i hc Tasmania, Hobart, 177-363(Tri t gin rng t trang 311 ti trang 349)

10.

^Korgen Ben J (1995). A Voice From the Past: JohnLyman and the Plate Tectonics Story(http://www.tos.org/oceanography/issues/issue_archive/issue_pdfs/8_1/8.1_korgen.pdf) (PDF). Oceanography8(1): 1920.

11.

^Spiess Fred, Kuperman William (2003). The MarinePhysical Laboratory at Scripps (http://www.tos.org/oceanography/issues/issue_archive/issue_pdfs/16_3/16.3_spiess.pdf) (PDF). Oceanography16(3):4554.

12.

^Mason R. G., Raff A. D. (1961). Magnetic surveyoff the west coast of the United States between 32N

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Lin kt ngoi

(ting Anh)

The PLATES Project (http://www.ig.utexas.edu/research/projects/plates/), ngun ti nguyn bao hm vi ccti to, phim, hnh nh, danh sch cc n phm, v ti liu ging dy t Vin a vt l i hc Texas,

Trng a khoa hc Jackson.D n bn c (http://www.scotese.com/), trang web ca Christopher Scotese ti to qu kh v tng lai,c a l, v ti liu ging dy.on phim m t hot ng kin to ton cu cch y 750 triu nm (http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/geology/tectonics.html)


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Minh ha d v trong ging dy v kin to mng (http://geology.com/nsta/)Gii thch v cc lc kin to (http://www.tectonic-forces.org/)Bird, P. (2003) M hnh s c cp nht v cc ranh gii mng (http://element.ess.ucla.edu/publications/2003_PB2002/2003_PB2002.htm), cng c dng tp tin PDF ln (13 mb) (http://element.ess.ucla.edu/publications/2003_PB2002/2001GC000252.pdf)Bn cc mng kin to (http://snobear.colorado.edu/Markw/Mountains/03/week3.html)MantlePlumes.org (http://www.mantleplumes.org/), trang web ang tranh lun v s tn ti ca chm mantidi suHuang Zhen Shao (1997). "Speed of the Continental Plates" (http://hypertextbook.com/facts/ZhenHuang.shtml). The Physics Factbook.ImpactTectonics.org (http://www.impacttectonics.org/), nh hng kin to lin quan n cc tc ng casao bng vn tc ln ln cc hnh tinh t GPlates (http://www.gplates.org/), phn mm m phng tng tc ca kin to mng.

(ting Vit)

Kin to mng (http://dictionary.bachkhoatoanthu.gov.vn/default.aspx?param=2749aWQ9MTIzNzcmZ3JvdXBpZD0ma2luZD1leGFjdCZrZXl3b3JkPUtJJWUxJWJhJWJlTitUJWUxJWJhJWEwTytNJWUxJWJhJWEyTkc=&page=1)Kin to hc (http://dictionary.bachkhoatoanthu.gov.vn/default.aspx?param=272FaWQ9MTIzNzYmZ3JvdXBpZD0ma2luZD1leGFjdCZrZXl3b3JkPUtJJWUxJWJhJWJlTitUJWUxJWJhJWEwTytIJWUxJWJiJThjQw==&page=1)

Ch a cht hc Ch Khoa hc Tri t

Ly t http://vi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kin_to_mng&oldid=15379730Th loi: T nhin a vt l Kin to mng Cc hc thuyt a cht

Trang ny c sa i ln cui lc 02:29, ngy 23 thng 1 nm 2014.Vn bn c pht hnh theo Giy php Creative Commons Ghi cng/Chia s tng t; c th p dng iukhon b sung. Xem iu khon S dng bit thm chi tit.Wikipedia l thng hiu ng k ca Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., mt t chc phi li nhun.


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