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right © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece Lectures by Chris Romero Konu 1 Canlılığın incelemesi

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Konu 1. Canlılığın incelemesi. Biyoloji Nedir?. Canlıları inceleyen bilim dalıdır Mikroskobik seviye Makroskobik seviye Küresel seviye Yapı,fonksiyon,büyüme , evrim,dağılım, taksonomi, filogeni, çeşitlilik. 1 Biyosfer. Fig ür 1. 4. Biyolojik Organizasyon Düzeyleri. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

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Page 1: Konu  1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition

Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero

Konu 1Konu 1

Canlılığın incelemesi

Page 2: Konu  1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Biyoloji Nedir?

• Canlıları inceleyen bilim dalıdır

• Mikroskobik seviye

• Makroskobik seviye

• Küresel seviye

• Yapı,fonksiyon,büyüme,evrim,dağılım, taksonomi, filogeni, çeşitlilik

Page 3: Konu  1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Biyolojik Organizasyon Düzeyleri

• Biyosforden - Organizmaya

Figür 1.4

1 Biyosfer

1 Ekosistem

Komünite

Populasyon

Organizmaa

Page 4: Konu  1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Organdan - Hücre - Moleküle

Cell

8 Hücre

6 Organ

7 Doku

10 Moleküller

9 Organeller

50 µm

10 µm

1 µm

Atoms

Figür 1.4

Page 5: Konu  1

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Hücreye yakın bir bakış

• Hücre

- yaşam için gerekli olan tüm aktivitelerin gerçekleştiği, biyolojik organizasyonun en küçük seviyesi

25 µmFigür 1.9

Page 6: Konu  1

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Hücre’nin iki önemli formu

• Tüm hücreler

– Membran tarafından çevrilmiş

– Genetik bilgi olarak DNA

• İki form hücre

– Ökaryotik

– Prokaryotik

EUKARYOTIC CELL

Membrane

Cytoplasm

Organelles

Nucleus (contains DNA) 1 µm

PROKARYOTIC CELL

DNA

(no nucleus)Membrane

Page 7: Konu  1

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Yaşamın üç Domain’i

• Yaşam en üst seviyede 3 domain’den oluşur

– Bakteri

– Archaea

– Eukarya

Protista Bitki Mantar Hayvan

Prokaryotik canlılar

Page 8: Konu  1

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3 domain

Figür 1.15

100 µm

0.5 µm

4 µmBacteria are the most diverse and widespread prokaryotes and are now divided among multiple kingdoms. Each of the rod-shapedstructures in this photo is a bacterial cell.

Protists (multiple kingdoms)are unicellular eukaryotes and their relatively simple multicellular relatives.Pictured here is an assortment of protists inhabiting pond water. Scientists are currently debating how to split the protistsinto several kingdoms that better represent evolution and diversity.

Kingdom Plantae consists of multicellula eukaryotes that carry out photosynthesis, the conversion of light energy to food.

Many of the prokaryotes known as archaea live in Earth‘s extreme environments, such as salty lakes and boiling hot springs. Domain Archaea includes multiple kingdoms. The photoshows a colony composed of many cells.

Kindom Fungi is defined in part by thenutritional mode of its members, suchas this mushroom, which absorb nutrientsafter decomposing organic material.

Kindom Animalia consists of multicellular eukaryotes thatingest other organisms.

DOMAIN ARCHAEA

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition

Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero

Konu 2Konu 2

Canlıların kimyasal içeriği

• Element• Bileşik

Page 10: Konu  1

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Element

• Kimyasal tepkimelerle başka bileşiklere parçalanamayan maddelerdir

• 92 element

• Atomlar’dan oluşmuştur

• carbon C, hydrogen H, oxygen O ve nitrogen N bir organizmanın 96% oluşturan zorunlu elementlerdir

Page 11: Konu  1

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Diğer elementler

Page 12: Konu  1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

İz element

• Çok az miktarda olsa da organizmaın ihtiyaç duyduğu element

• Fe ve Zn

Page 13: Konu  1

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Bileşik

• Belirli bir oranda bir araya gelen iki veya daha fazla element içeren madde

• NaCl (1:1), H2O (2:1)

• Elemetlerinden farklı karakterlere sahip

Sodium Chloride Sodium Chloride

+

Sodyum Klor Sodyum klörürFigür 2.3

Page 14: Konu  1

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Atom

• Maddenin en küçük parçası

• Her elementin belirli atom çeşidi var

NötronProtonElektron

?

Page 15: Konu  1

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Kimyasal Bağ

• Kovalent

• İyonik

• Zayıf Kimyasal Bağlar

• Hidrojen bağı

kuvvetli

Page 16: Konu  1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Kovalent Bağ

Name(molecularformula)

Electron-shell

diagram

Structuralformula

Space-fillingmodel

(c)

Methane (CH4). Four hydrogen atoms can satisfy the valence ofone carbonatom, formingmethane.

Water (H2O). Two hydrogenatoms and one oxygen atom arejoined by covalent bonds to produce a molecule of water.

(d)

HO

H

H H

H

H

C

Figür 2.12

Page 17: Konu  1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Iyonik Bağ

• Atomlar arasında elektron transferi

Cl–

Chloride ion(an anion)

The lone valence electron of a sodiumatom is transferred to join the 7 valenceelectrons of a chlorine atom.

1 Each resulting ion has a completedvalence shell. An ionic bond can formbetween the oppositely charged ions.

2

Na NaCl Cl

+

NaSodium atom

(an unchargedatom)

ClChlorine atom(an uncharged

atom)

Na+

Sodium on(a cation)

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Figür 2.15

Page 18: Konu  1

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Hidrojen Bağı (Zayıf)

Water(H2O)

Ammonia(NH3)

OH

H

+

N

HH H

A hydrogenbond results from the attraction between thepartial positive charge on the hydrogen atom of water and the partial negative charge on the nitrogen atom of ammonia.+ +

Figür 2.16

Page 19: Konu  1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition

Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero

Konu 3Konu 3

Biyolojik Moleküllerin yapısı

Page 20: Konu  1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings20

Makromoleküller

– Küçük moleküllerden oluşan büyük moleküller

– Yapısal olarak kompleks

– Kovalent bağ

Figür 5.1

Page 21: Konu  1

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Makromoleküller

•Çoğu Makromolekül monomerlerden oluşmuş polimerlerdir

• Dört önemli organik molekül (ilk 3 polimerdir)

– Karbohidrat

– Protein

– Nucleik asid

– Lipid

Page 22: Konu  1

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• Polimer

– Monomer olarak bilinen ve tekrarlanan birimlerin bir araya gelmesi

– Her monomer kendine özgü polimeri oluşturur

– Örn: amino acidler proteinlerin monomeri

Page 23: Konu  1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings23

Polimerlerin oluşumu ve parçalanması

• Monomerler dehidrasyon tepkimesi ile daha büyük molekülleri oluşturur

• H2O çıkışı

• Hidroksil (-OH) ve Hidrojen (-H) grubu

Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a polymer

HO H1 2 3 HO

HO H1 2 3 4

H

H2O

Short polymer Unlinked monomer

Longer polymer

Dehydration removes a watermolecule, forming a new bond

Figür 5.2a

Page 24: Konu  1

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Polimerlerin oluşumu ve parçalanması

• Polimerler monomerlerine ortama H2O ilavesi ile (Hidroliz) parçalanabilir

• -H bir monomere, -OH diğer monomere

Hydrolysis of a polymer

HO 1 2 3 H

HO H1 2 3 4

H2O

HHO

Hydrolysis adds a watermolecule, breaking a bond

Figür 5.2b

Page 25: Konu  1

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Karbohidratlar

• Şeker ve bunların polimerlerini (nişasta, selüloz) içerir

• Monosakkaritler en basit şeker

• İki mososakkarit+kovalent bağ= Disakkarit

Page 26: Konu  1

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• Örnek monosakkaritlerTriose sugars

(C3H6O3)Pentose sugars

(C5H10O5)Hexose sugars

(C6H12O6)

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

HO C H

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

HO C H

HO C H

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

C OC O

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

HO C H

H C OH

C O

H

H

H

H H H

H

H H H H

H

H H

C C C COOOO

Ald

oses

Glyceraldehyde

RiboseGlucose Galactose

Dihydroxyacetone

Ribulose

Keto

ses

FructoseFigür5.3

Page 27: Konu  1

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• Monosakkaritler

– Doğrusal (linear)

– Halkasal (ring)H

H C OH

HO C H

H C OH

H C OH

H C

O

C

H

1

2

3

4

5

6

H

OH

4C

6CH2OH 6CH2OH

5C

HOH

C

H OH

H

2 C

1C

H

O

H

OH

4C

5C

3 C

H

HOH

OH

H

2C

1 C

OH

H

CH2OH

H

H

OHHO

H

OH

OH

H5

3 2

4

(a) Linear and ring forms. Chemical equilibrium between the linear and ring structures greatly favors the formation of rings. To form the glucose ring,

carbon 1 bonds to the oxygen attached to carbon 5.

OH3

O H OO

6

1

Figür 5.4

Page 28: Konu  1

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• Disakkaritler

– İki monosakkarit

– Glikozidik bağ

Page 29: Konu  1

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Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of

maltose. The bonding of two glucose units forms maltose. The glycosidic link joins

the number 1 carbon of one glucose to the

number 4 carbon of the second glucose. Joining the glucose

monomers in a different way would result in a different

disaccharide.

Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of sucrose. Sucrose is

a disaccharide formed from glucose and fructose.

Notice that fructose,though a hexose like

glucose, forms a five-sided ring.

(a)

(b)

H

HO

H

HOH H

OH

O H

OH

CH2OH

H

HO

H

HOH

H

OH

O H

OH

CH2OH

H

O

H

HOH H

OH

O H

OH

CH2OH

H

H2O

H2O

H

H

O

H

HOH

OH

O H

CH2OH

CH2OH HO

OHH

CH2OH

HOH

H

H

HO

OHH

CH2OH

HOH H

O

O H

OHH

CH2OH

HOH H

O

HOH

CH2OH

H HO

O

CH2OH

H

H

OH

O

O

1 2

1 41– 4

glycosidiclinkage

1–2glycosidic

linkage

Glucose

Glucose Glucose

Fructose

Maltose

Sucrose

OH

H

H

Figür 5.5

Maltoz &Sükroz

Page 30: Konu  1

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• Polisakkaritler

– Şeker polimeri

– Organizmada çeşitli rol

• Depo polisakkaritleri

• Yapısal polisakkaritler

Page 31: Konu  1

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Depo polisakkaritleri

• Nişasta

– Glikoz monomerlerinden oluşan polimer

– Bitkilerde glikozun depo edilmesini sağlar

– Plastid

Chloroplast Starch

Amylose Amylopectin

1 m

(a) Starch: a plant polysaccharideFigure 5.6

Page 32: Konu  1

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• Glikojen

– Glikoz monomerlerini içerir

– Hayvanlarda ana depo maddesi, dallanma Mitochondria Giycogen

granules

0.5 m

(b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide

Glycogen

Figure 5.6

Page 33: Konu  1

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Yapısal Polisakkaritler

• Selüloz

– Glikoz polimeri

– Bitki hücreleri

– Nişastadan farkı?? (-OH)

– Doğrusal, dallanmaz

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Selüloz&Nişasta

(c) Cellulose: 1– 4 linkage of glucose monomers

H O

O

CH2OH

HOH H

H

OH

OHH

H

HO

4

C

C

C

C

C

C

H

H

H

HO

OH

H

OH

OH

OH

H

O

CH2OH

HH

H

OH

OHH

H

HO

4 OH

CH2OHO

OH

OH

HO41

O

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

O

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

O O

CH2OHO

OH

OH

HO4

O1

OH

O

OH OHO

CH2OHO

OH

O OH

O

OH

OH

(a) and glucose ring structures

(b) Starch: 1– 4 linkage of glucose monomers

1

glucose glucose

CH2OH CH2OH

1 4 41 1

Figure 5.7 A–C

Page 35: Konu  1

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Plant cells

0.5 m

Cell walls

Cellulose microfibrils in a plant cell wall

Microfibril

CH2OH

CH2OH

OH

OH

OO

OHO

CH2OHO

OOH

OCH2OH OH

OH OHO

O

CH2OH

OO

OH

CH2OH

OO

OH

O

O

CH2OHOH

CH2OHOH

OOH OH OH OH

O

OH OH

CH2OH

CH2OH

OHO

OH CH2OH

OO

OH CH2OH

OH

Glucose monomer

O

O

O

O

O

O

Parallel cellulose molecules areheld together by hydrogenbonds between hydroxyl

groups attached to carbonatoms 3 and 6.

About 80 cellulosemolecules associate

to form a microfibril, themain architectural unitof the plant cell wall.

A cellulose moleculeis an unbranched glucose polymer.

OH

OH

O

OOH

Cellulosemolecules

Figure 5.8

Bitki hücre duvarında dayanıklılığı sağlayan yapı

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• Selülozu sindirmek zordur

– İnek’lerin midelerinde bu işlemi kolaylaştıracak mikroplar bulunur

Figure 5.9

Page 37: Konu  1

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• Kitin (diğer önemli polisakkarit)

– Eklem bacaklıların dış iskeleti

– Ameliyat ipi

– Azot yan grubu

(a) The structure of the chitin monomer.

O

CH2OH

OHHH OH

H

NH

CCH3

O

H

H

(b) Chitin forms the exoskeleton of arthropods. This cicada is molting, shedding its old exoskeleton and emergingin adult form.

(c) Chitin is used to make a strong and flexible surgical

thread that decomposes after the wound or incision heals.

OH

Figure 5.9 A–C

Page 38: Konu  1

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Lipidler

• Hidrofobik

• Polimer içermeyen büyük biyolojik molekül

• Yağ

• Fosfolipit

• Steroid

Page 39: Konu  1

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Yağlar

– İki tip küçük molekül, bir gliserol ve genelde üç yağ asidi

– Ester bağı

Page 40: Konu  1

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• Doymuş yağ asitleri

– mümkün olan maksimum hidrojen

– çift bağ yok

(a) Saturated fat and fatty acid

Stearic acid

Figure 5.11

Page 41: Konu  1

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• Doymamış yağ asidi

– Bir veya birden fazla çift bağ

– Çift bağ olan herbir karbonda bir hidrojen eksik

(b) Unsaturated fat and fatty acidcis double bondcauses bending

Oleic acid

Figure 5.11

Page 42: Konu  1

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• Fosfolipidler

– Sadece iki yağ asidi

– Üçüncü yağ asidi yerine fosfat bulunur

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• Fosfolipitlerin yapısı

– Sulu ortamda oluşan hücre membranındaki çift tabakalı yapı

Hydrophilichead

WATER

WATER

Hydrophobictail

Figür 5.13

Page 44: Konu  1

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Steroidler

• Birbirleriyle kaynaşmış dört adet halka içeren karbon iskeleti

– Kolestrol

– Eşey hormonları

Page 45: Konu  1

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• Kolestrol

– hücre membranında bulunur

– bazı hormonların öncüsüdür

HO

CH3

CH3

H3C CH3

CH3

Figür 5.14

Page 46: Konu  1

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Proteinler

• Proteinler çeşitli fonksiyonlara neden olan farklı yapılara sahiptir

• Enzim

• Hücrelerde çeşitli görev

• Monomer; amino asit

Page 47: Konu  1

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• Protein görevlerine genel bakış

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• Enzimler

– Katalist (kimysal reaksiyonları hızlandırıcı) olarak görev yapan proteinler

Substrate(sucrose)

Enzyme (sucrase)

Glucose

OH

H O

H2O

Fructose

3 Substrate is convertedto products.

1 Active site is available for a molecule of substrate, the

reactant on which the enzyme acts.

Substrate binds toenzyme.

22

4 Products are released.Figure 5.15

Page 49: Konu  1

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Polipeptid

• Polipeptid

– a.a oluşmuş polimer (zincir)

• protein

– Bir veya birden fazla polipeptid içerebilir

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• Amino acid

– Karboksil (C terminal) ve amino (N terminal) grupları içeren organik molekül

– R grup (yan zincir) farklı a.a.’leri oluşturur

Page 51: Konu  1

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Yirmi Amino Asid

• 20 different amino acids make up proteins

O

O–

H

H3N+ C C

O

O–

H

CH3

H3N+ C

H

C

O

O–

CH3 CH3

CH3

C C

O

O–

H

H3N+

CH

CH3

CH2

C

H

H3N+

CH3CH3

CH2

CH

C

H

H3N+

C

CH3

CH2

CH2

CH3N+

H

C

O

O–

CH2

CH3N+

H

C

O

O–

CH2

NH

H

C

O

O–

H3N+ C

CH2

H2C

H2N C

CH2

H

C

Nonpolar

Glycine (Gly) Alanine (Ala) Valine (Val) Leucine (Leu) Isoleucine (Ile)

Methionine (Met) Phenylalanine (Phe)

C

O

O–

Tryptophan (Trp) Proline (Pro)

H3C

Figure 5.16

S

O

O–

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O–

OH

CH2

C C

H

H3N+

O

O–

H3N+

OH CH3

CH

C C

HO–

O

SH

CH2

C

H

H3N+ C

O

O–

H3N+

C C

CH2

OH

H H H

H3N+

NH2

CH2

OC

C CO

O–

NH2 O

C

CH2

CH2

C CH3N

+

O

O–

O

Polar

Electricallycharged

–O O

C

CH2

C CH3N

+

H

O

O–

O– O

C

CH2

C CH3N

+

H

O

O–

CH2

CH2

CH2

CH2

NH3+

CH2

C CH3N

+

H

O

O–

NH2

C NH2+

CH2

CH2

CH2

C CH3N

+

H

O

O–

CH2

NH+

NHCH2

C CH3N

+

H

O

O–

Serine (Ser) Threonine (Thr)Cysteine

(Cys)Tyrosine

(Tyr)Asparagine

(Asn)Glutamine

(Gln)

Acidic Basic

Aspartic acid (Asp)

Glutamic acid (Glu)

Lysine (Lys) Arginine (Arg) Histidine (His)

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Amino Asid Polimerleri

• Amino asidler

– Peptid bağlarıyla bağlanırlar

Page 54: Konu  1

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Protein konformasyonu ve Fonksiyonu

• Bir protein’in spesifik konformasyonu (şekil) onun ne işe yarayacığına (fonksiyon) karar verir

Page 55: Konu  1

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Protein yapısındaki dört seviye

• Birincil yapı

(Primary structure)

– a.a.’lerin polipeptid yapısında oluşturduğu eşsiz (spesifik) düzenlenme

Figure 5.20–

Amino acid

subunits

+H3NAmino

end

oCarboxyl end

oc

GlyProThrGlyThr

Gly

GluSeuLysCysProLeu

MetVal

Lys

ValLeu

AspAlaValArgGly

SerPro

Ala

Gly

lle

SerProPheHisGluHis

Ala

GluValValPheThrAla

Asn

AspSer

GlyProArg

ArgTyrThr

lleAla

Ala

Leu

LeuSer

ProTyrSerTyrSerThr

Thr

Ala

ValVal

ThrAsnProLysGlu

ThrLys

SerTyrTrpLysAlaLeu

GluLleAsp

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O C helix

pleated sheetAmino acid

subunitsNCH

C

O

C N

H

CO H

R

C NH

C

O H

C

R

N

HH

R C

O

R

C

H

NH

C

O H

NCO

R

C

H

NH

H

C

R

C

O

C

O

C

NH

H

R

C

C

ON

HH

C

R

C

O

NH

R

C

H C

ON

HH

C

R

C

O

NH

R

C

H C

ON

HH

C

R

C

O

N H

H C R

N HO

O C N

C

RC

H O

CHR

N HO C

RC

H

N H

O CH C R

N H

CC

N

R

H

O C

H C R

N H

O C

RC

H

H

C

RN

H

CO

C

NH

R

C

H C

O

N

H

C

• İkincil yapı (Secondary structure)

– Polipeptid’de tekrar eden katlanma yada kıvrılmalar

– helix ve pilili tabaka

H H

Figure 5.20

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• Üçüncül yapı (Tertiary structure)

– Polipeptidin üç boyutlu yapısı

– a.a’lerin ve R gruplarının etkileşimi

CH2CH

OH

O

CHO

CH2

CH2 NH3+ C-O CH2

O

CH2SSCH2

CH

CH3

CH3

H3C

H3C

Hydrophobic interactions

and van der Waals

interactions Polypeptide

backbone

Hyrdogenbond

Ionic bond

CH2

Disulfide bridge

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• Dördüncül yapı (Quaternary structure)

– Proteini oluşturan iki veya daha fazla polipeptid’in oluşturduğu yapı

Polypeptide

chain

Collagen

Chains

ChainsHemoglobin

IronHeme

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Protein yapısına genel bakış

+H3NAmino end

Amino acidsubunits

helix

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Orak-hücre hastalığı: proteinin birincil yapısında olan basit bir değişim

• Orak-hücre hastalığı

– Hemoglabin proteininde bulunan bir a.a’in değişimi

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Fibers of abnormal

hemoglobin deform cell into

sickle shape.

Primary structure

Secondaryand tertiary

structures

Quaternary structure

Function

Red bloodcell shape

Hemoglobin A

Molecules donot associate

with oneanother, each

carries oxygen.Normal cells

arefull of

individualhemoglobinmolecules,

eachcarrying oxygen

10 m 10 m

Primary structure

Secondaryand tertiary

structures

Quaternary structure

Function

Red bloodcell shape

Hemoglobin SMolecules

interact with one another tocrystallize into

a fiber, capacity to

carry oxygen is greatly

reduced.

subunit subunit

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 721

Normal hemoglobin

Sickle-cell hemoglobin

. . .. . .

Figure 5.21

Exposed hydrophobic

region

Val ThrHis Leu Pro Glul Glu Val His Leu Thr Pro Val Glu

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Protein konformasyunu etkileyen faktörler

• Proteinin bulunduğu fiziksel ve kimyasal çevrenin durumu

• sıcaklık, pH, tuz (denatürasyon)

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• Denatürasyon; potein’in doğal yapısını kaybetmesi

Denaturation

Renaturation

Denatured protein

Normal protein

Figure 5.22

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Protein-katlanma Problemleri

• Çoğu proteinler

– Kararlı yapıya ulaşmadan önce birkaç ara basamaktan geçerler

– Denatüre olmuş protein aktif olarak görev yapamaz

– Sıcaklık ve pH’ta ani değişimler denatürasyona sebeb olur

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Şaperoninler

Proteinlerin düzgün katlanması için gerekli olan protein molekülleri

Hollowcylinder

Cap

Chaperonin(fully assembled)

Steps of ChaperoninAction:

An unfolded poly- peptide enters the

cylinder from one end.

The cap attaches, causing the cylinder to

change shape insuch a way that it creates a hydrophilic environment for

the folding of the polypeptide.

The cap comesoff, and the

properlyfolded protein is

released.

Correctlyfolded

proteinPolypeptide

2

1

3

Figure 5.23

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Nucleik Asid

• Nucleik acidler kalıtımsal bilgiyi taşır ve transfer eder

• Gen

– Kalıtımsal yapının ana ünitesi

– Polipeptidlerdeki a.a’leri belirler

– Nükleik asitlerden oluşur

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Nukleik Asidlerin rolü

• İki nükleik asit

– Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

– Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

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Deoksiribonükleik asid

• DNA

– Genetik materyal

– Kendini replike edebilir

– Spesif proteinlerin sentezi için gerekli bilgileri taşır (RNA sentezi)

– Hücrelerin çekirdeğinde

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DNA görevleri

– RNA sentezi (transkripsiyon)

– RNA’dan protein sentezi (translasyon)

1

2

3

Synthesis of mRNA in the nucleus

Movement of mRNA into cytoplasm

via nuclear pore

Synthesisof protein

NUCLEUSCYTOPLASM

DNA

mRNA

Ribosome

AminoacidsPolypeptide

mRNA

Figure 5.25

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Nucleik Acid yapısı

• Nucleic acid

– Polinükleotid denilen polimerler halinde bulunur

(a) Polynucleotide, or nucleic acid

3’C

5’ end

5’C

3’C

5’C

3’ endOH

Figure 5.26

O

O

O

O

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• nükleotid

– Polinükleotid monomeri

– Şeker + fosfat + azot içeren baz

– Fosfodiester bağıNitrogenous

base

Nucleoside

O

O

O

O P CH2

5’C

3’CPhosphate

group Pentosesugar

(b) NucleotideFigure 5.26

O

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Nükleozid

(c) Nükleozid kısımlarıFigure 5.26

CHCH

Uracil (in RNA)U

Ribose (in RNA)

Nitrogenous bases Pyrimidines

CN

NC

OH

NH2

CHCH

OC

NH

CH

HNC

O

CCH3

N

HNC

C

HO

O

CytosineC

Thymine (in DNA)T

NHC

N C

CN

C

CH

N

NH2 O

N

HCNHH

CC

N

NH

CNH2

AdenineA

GuanineG

Purines

OHOCH2

H

H H

OH

H

OHOCH2

H

H H

OH

H

Pentose sugars

Deoxyribose (in DNA) Ribose (in RNA)OHOH

CH

CH

Uracil (in RNA)U

4’

5”

3’

OH H2’

1’

5”

4’

3’ 2’

1’

Fosfat içermeyen nükleotid kısmıdır

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Nükleotid Polimerleri

• Nükleotid polimerleri

– bir nükleotidin (şekerinin) 3´ karbonundaki -OH ile diğer nükleotidin 5´ karbonunda bulunan fosfat arasında oluşan fosfodiester bağı ile bağlanan nukleotidler

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• DNA double helix (çift sarmal)

– iki antiparalel nükleotid dizisi3’ end

Sugar-phosphatebackbone

Base pair (joined byhydrogen bonding)

Old strands

Nucleotideabout to be added to a new strand

A

3’ end

3’ end

5’ end

Newstrands

3’ end

5’ end

5’ end

Figure 5.27

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