. 1998 4 1999 12 . . . . 2000 9 . , . . . K. Dejean , G. Ilg B. Moser-Mercer , R. Setton . . 2000. 12. 15.

A Message from the President

Two years have passed since the Korean Society of Conference Interpretation was launched in April 1998. In December 1999, the inaugural journal was published, and thanks to the support of our members, reaction to it, both in Korea and from abroad, has exceeded our greatest expectations. As such, the KSCI realizes that it has a great responsibility. The demand for in-depth research in the field of conference interpretation and technical translation continues to grow. To meet this blossoming demand, in September of this year, the Graduate School of Interpretation and Translation of the Hankuk University of Foreign Studies in Seoul, Korea began its doctorate program in interpretation and translation. Based on its accumulated experience, the KSCI must do its part to systematize theory and also to act as a pioneer in the field of interpretation and translation. As society becomes more aware of the professionalism of our discipline, the KSCI must take the necessary steps to increase cooperative ties and exchanges with international scholars. We must also work together so that the results of our studies will not only be widely known in Korea but also abroad. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all the members for preparing such insightful articles as well as Prof. K. Dejean from E.S.I.T. and Profs. G. Ilg, B. Moser-Mercer and R. Setton for taking time out of their busy schedules to enlighten us with their wisdom. I trust that all the members will continue to lend us their full-fledged support and active participation to ensure that the KSCI can continue to grow further. December 2000

Choi, S. H. Jungwha, Ph. D. President Korean Society of Interpretation

Conference

, 2, 2000

*The French version of this text was presented at the Autumn Congress of Japanese French Teachers in Nagasaki on October 27, 1991.

Perfecting Active and Passive Languages Karla Dejean Le Fal

Perfecting Active and Passive Languages*As A Conference Interpreter

Karla Dejean Le Fal Conference interpreter (A.I.I.C.) Professor at ESIT University of Paris Interpretation is generally considered to be a linguistic activity but is in fact more closely related to communication, specifically to transcultural communication. Languages are no more important in interpretation than they are in any other type of communication. Their function is merely to carry messages. The linguistic packaging is needed to convey messages from one person to another but the focus of communication is on the message itself, not its packaging. This also applies to the interpretation process. Cognitive analysis of statements exchanged and their subsequent synthesis in consecutive and simultaneous interpretation constitute the real task of the interpreter. His or her knowledge of languages is only one of the prerequisites to acquiring, and then using, interpretation techniques. However, the interpreter does have to have a sounder and more extensive grounding in languages than is needed for other activities, if only because the interpreter automatically loses a portion of his or her language skills in the process of interpreting. This loss is due to the simultaneous stimulation

of the engrams of two, three, even four different linguistic systems and is noticeable even in the mother tongue, not to mention the foreign language. The interpreter must therefore achieve a high level of language skills to start with to ensure that the level remains high enough when he or she is interpreting. Furthermore, language skills require particularly intensive maintenance. Languages are constantly changing and the interpreter must keep up. Moreover, the practice of interpretation, far from consolidating linguistic knowledge, accelerates its erosion: the interpretation technique is based on an approach which is diametrically opposed to the method required to perfect language skills. If we think of the linguistic form of propositions as packaging, then the task of the interpreter consists of instantaneously removing the packaging from its cognitive content and analyzing the content from every angle so as to find the appropriate packaging for it in the target language. This approach cannot be short-circuited in interpretation because different languages do not slice up reality in the same way and because the written and unwritten rules governing the idiomatic use of language differ from one language to another. The interpreter's reflex must therefore be to get rid of the linguistic packaging as soon as the content is perceived, whereas the opposite is required to perfect languages: here the packaging must on the contrary be kept, examined attentively, classified, labeled, and stored. This incompatibility of approach explains why the practice of interpretation erodes the interpreter's language skills and why the interpreter therefore has to offset this negative effect by constantly working to perfect his or her language skills. Linguistic interference is another reason why the interpreter must pay unremitting attention to maintaining his or her linguistic tools. Interference is detrimental to the clarity of the interpretation and an unceasing battle must be waged against it since it appears to be related to the organization of linguistic engrams in the brain)Veyrac, G.-J. (1931). Etude de l'aphasie

chez les sujets polyglottes, Thse pour le doctorat en m?ecine, Universit de Paris. Paradis, M. (1984). Aphasie et Traduction, Meta, 29(1), 57-67.

and thus to reflect a constitutional, therefore chronic, fault in our ability to handle several languages at the same time. Given the high linguistic level required for interpretation on the one hand and the destabilizing effect which the practice of interpretation has on existing language skills on the other, an unceasing effort is required to perfect linguistic skills. Since what is at issue is indeed perfecting skills and not acquiring them, the methods used in language teaching are generally not appropriate. Interpreters have thus themselves had to take up the task of developing, by trial and error, exercises suited to their needs. But the methods used by interpreters and interpreting students to perfect a language can obviously be of interest to other people as well, in particular those preparing to study interpretation as well as those who, for whatever reason, wish to achieve a true command of a foreign language. It is with this in mind that I wish to present the approach which I recommend to my students at the Ecole Suprieure d'Interpretes et de Traducteurs of the University of Paris III to help them perfect their languages. The approach was developed with the idea of enabling the student to make the most of all contacts with the foreign language, with virtually no outside help and yet without risk of linguistic deformation. Only such exercises are included as can safely be performed with no other person available to correct mistakes.

ACTIVE LANGUAGES, PASSIVE LANGUAGESIt should be pointed out that this approach is recommended primarily for perfecting active languages. Interpreters distinguish between their active and passive languages. Active languages are those into which they can interpret, passive languages those from which they work. This difference in the way languages are used means that a different approach must be taken to perfecting active and passive languages.

PERFECTING A PASSIVE LANGUAGEPerfecting a passive language requires, basically, immersion in that language to accustom the ear to the language and establish the link between the language and the related reality. Such immersion can very quickly produce considerable results if a conscious effort is made to check and memorize every expression encountered for the first time. If the starting point is a good grounding in the language and if the goal is to achieve maximum integration into the society of the host country, a stay of approximately six months can be considered sufficient. Following that, an ongoing effort must be made to maintain and update language skills through regular exposure to the written and spoken language. Reading the language every day and hearing it spoken, if only on radio or television, not only consolidate existing skills but in fact enhance them because no gap will remain undetected for long and every gap, once detected, can be easily corrected. It can also be helpful mentally to repeat what one hears on radio and television, forcing oneself to gradually increase the time lag between the speaker and oneself. This exercise serves to strengthen aural memory. Aural memory is important in interpretation, particularly simultaneous interpretation, and it tends to be weaker in a passive language than in an active one. The perfecting of a passive language is fairly simple, and in fact does not differ markedly from the strategy we adopt spontaneously to expand our vocabulary in our mother tongue.

PERFECTING THE ACTIVE LANGUAGEIn contrast, the perfecting of an active language is highly complex. It will therefore require discussion in greater depth. The difficulty essentially lies in the fact that the goal is to acquire a command of the foreign language quite similar to that of the mother tongue, and this despite the fact that one of the basic preconditions for such mastery is lacking. In an

acquired language we do not have the support of instinct the basic sense of language which guides us and dictates, as if by magic, the most appropriate way of expressing our thoughts. This instinct is not just creative; it is also "corrective" in the sense that it alerts us to every defect of form. When one is speaking in one's native tongue and when one has, for whatever reason, constructed a sentence poorly, one immediately feels ill at ease at having expressed oneself incorrectly or awkwardly. When mentally going over the incorrect sentence, one immediately discovers the imperfection and one is then able to correct it without going through a grammatical analysis. Grammatical analysis would in any case be impossible for most people to perform because, with the exception of those who are professionally required to take an interest in grammar, people have insufficient familiarity with the rules of grammar because they do not need to know them in order to speak their mother tongue correctly. Often, in fact, the only way to find the grammatical rule is to go through a series of spontaneous sentences to derive it. The exact opposite is true in the foreign language, where an instinctive feeling for the language can never be developed beyond a certain point and will never be reliable. This point bears repeating, since the better one knows a language, the greater the risk of forgetting it. We have all experienced the uncertainty that comes from our lack of a sixth sense in a foreign language. This uncertainty due to the lack of instinct is however harmless, even helpful because it alerts us to the fact that our expressive mechanism is unreliable. What is dangerous is that this shortcoming distorts our perceptions. Since we are used to being able to trust them it is difficult to keep reminding ourselves that if we do not, in the foreign language, feel the slight awkwardness which alerts us to mistakes and blunders in our mother tongue, it is not because they are not there but rather because our perceptions are misleading us; and that our belief that we have found, as if by magic, a particularly apt way of expressing something may well be an illusion. It is therefore important to realize the danger of being

misled by our own perceptions and to counter it by adopting a strategy which helps us overcome the deficient feel for the language by using other resources. Paradoxically, to achieve a command of a foreign language which is anything like that which we have of our mother tongue, our approach to it must be completely different. It is essential that this be understood and accepted, since this is one of the main prerequisites for perfecting an active language.

GrammarThe first resource we have to help us overcome the lack of instinct in a foreign language is grammar. We must therefore learn it thoroughly and in addition bear it constantly in mind. It is only by constantly referring to it that we can manage to speak correctly, and in addition acquire good habits and the reflexes which will enable us to establish an embryonic feeling for the language which is otherwise completely lacking in a foreign tongue. If, on the other hand, we acquire such reflexes without reference to grammar, they may include mistakes which will be difficult to eliminate later on. An in-depth knowledge of grammar is therefore a necessary precondition for perfecting a foreign language.

PERFECTING A LANGUAGE DURING A STAY ABROADTo acquire mastery of an active language one must spend a considerable amount of time in the country where it is spoken. However, it would be a mistake to believe that living abroad is enough in itself to learn the language of the country perfectly. Language can be learned by osmosis only in childhood. Only the rare, exceptionally gifted individual can learn a language in this automatic, unconscious way as an adult. The average adult must acquire the second language consciously. Therefore a conscious effort must be made to perfect it.

Changing our reading and listening habitsDuring a stay abroad, the best thing one can do is to reform one's reading and listening habits. Since the language is a means of communication and not an end in itself, one tends, when reading or listening, to notice only the meaning of what is being said and not the way the idea is being expressed. This is why one cannot repeat, word for word, a long passage of a text which one has completely understood and the meaning of which one remembers perfectly. The form of expression is noticed only when it is incorrect, unknown, or particularly felicitous - and in the last case our reaction is not to grammatically deconstruct the phrasing which we find striking, but rather to admire its beauty. It is important, on the other hand, for a person trying to perfect a language to be constantly and consciously noting not only the meaning but also the form of what is heard or read. Perfecting a language requires constant observation of the relationship between form and substance in both the written and the spoken language. To succeed in noting both the meaning and the expression, much concentration is needed; and this concentration is a matter of practice.

Comprehensive readingIt is a good idea to start by practicing on written texts. Read a sentence, paying attention to both the words and the meaning. Then attempt to repeat the sentence word for word without referring to the text. Last, check to see that the repetition has been successful. This exercise is also a test of whether the right balance has been struck between the focus on form and the focus on substance. If it is realized that in repeating the sentence one has remembered the meaning and not the words, then more attention needs to be paid to form. If on the contrary one has remembered a string of words but is unable to reconstruct the sentence, then one has paid too much attention to the form and not enough to the meaning.

Comprehensive listening

One can then choose a moment during the day to practice comprehensive listening for a half-hour or an hour. As in reading, the focus will be on both form and substance. The length of time should then gradually be increased until one has acquired the habit of dividing one's attention equally between form and substance to the point where it has become second nature.

Spontaneous correctionThis type of perception also has the advantage of helping one discover the spontaneous corrections unconsciously provided by native speakers with whom one is conversing. All one has to do is pay particular attention to the answers and responses of one's interlocutor. The more the terms one has used oneself are off target, the more the interlocutor tends to reformulate the idea in his own words - by definition those of a native speaker. It is therefore essential that one note the form of what could be called the second version of the statement, compare it with the first (one's own) and correct oneself in consequence. It is true that some people make a special point of never using the same expressions as those used by people they are talking to, even if the expressions are perfectly appropriate. One must not therefore jump to the conclusion that one has made a mistake simply because one's interlocutor is not using the same terms one has used oneself. But the interlocutor's terms should be noted nonetheless, since they are the ones one did not have at one's fingertips and which therefore need to be upgraded from passive to active. When one afterwards checks to see whether the first expression one used was correct, if it turns out that it was, one then has the double satisfaction of knowing that one has expressed oneself correctly and of having added to one's vocabulary. However, most of the time it will be seen that there are slight differences between the two, even if they are both correct; for example, one expression could be slightly too informal, or too formal, to fit the occasion; or it failed to entirely convey the intended idea or was not appropriate to the subject area.

By paying attention to the linguistic form of the answers and responses we get from native speakers in conversation, we can learn on an ongoing, infinitely varied basis. The practice has other advantages as well. The better one knows a language the less one is inclined to forgive oneself for making a mistake or expressing oneself awkwardly. When an interlocutor unconsciously teaches us, by using a different formulation from our own, that we have made a mistake, we are embarrassed. A lesson learned in this way is not soon forgotten. Furthermore, we escape the usual temptation to justify the expression we have used, since our interlocutor has not consciously corrected us or attempted to teach us anything. And in any case this is the only type of correction which we can count on people to provide; it is a rare native speaker who is willing to take on the tricky and thankless task of being a teacher. Thus we must learn to make use of the help which our interlocutors give us without realizing they are providing it. Despite years spent abroad we will continue to speak incorrectly if we never become aware we are doing it.

Reversing the principle of formWhen practicing comprehensive listening one quickly notices that even when we are paying close attention to form it is difficult to catch the tool words, particularly prepositions, which tie together the key words of a phrase. This is due to another habit which must be broken if we are to avoid sloppiness in language. Our auditory perception, like visual perception, is governed by the principle of form. In other words we understand a message without necessarily perceiving each word of the phrasing. We hear only the key words which resemble the people and objects whose nature, size or color makes them inherently conspicuous in a painting and cause them to stand out against a background which is blank or made up of details which are apparently so insignificant that they seem to have no intrinsic value. These details form the background, and their equivalent in language is the tool words which seem so easy to remember because they occur

so frequently but which are in fact dangerous pitfalls (prepositions, conjunctions, etc.). In the mother tongue, these secondary elements are welded, as it were, to the main elements so that one has only to call up a key word to have the accompanying tool words immediately at one's fingertips. In a foreign language, on the other hand, these tool words seem to have a completely independent existence. They are not automatically associated with the key words. If the distinction is not recognized and if one does not remember it when listening to the language, one will for example remember "top of my head" when in fact "off the top of my head" was the expression used. And when one then later wants to use the same expression oneself it becomes impossible to remember whether it was "off", "from", "in", "out of" or "with" that needs to precede "top of my head". To ensure that one does not make too many tool-word mistakes, one should start by noting them together with the key words they accompany. Every time one hears a key word, one should immediately focus on the tool words that go with it. It is not easy to get used to doing this, because it is at odds with our usual way of responding to visual or auditory stimulation. Add to this the fact that the native speaker tends to rush over tool words because of their brevity or lack of emphasis. It is therefore not always possible to hear them. However, practice makes perfect and perseverance here will make it possible gradually to eliminate a particularly sticky source of error.

Mental repetitionThere is another way of accelerating assimilation and checking for correctness of phrases which consists in mentally repeating speeches, lectures, etc. while listening to them. This is in fact the exercise described under "Perfecting a Passive Language", but this time the goal is different. To get maximum benefit from this exercise in terms of checking and activating linguistic skills, one must leave a

sufficient gap between the speaker and oneself. One must have understood the idea being expressed before repeating the terms in which it was phrased. By leaving a fairly large gap, one can get a sense of the difference between the expressions used by the speaker and those which one would have chosen oneself. This mental repetition makes it possible not only to correct bad habits but also to activate dormant or semi-active knowledge. It often happens that we know a phrase but hesitate to use it for fear of getting it wrong. We thus fail to make optimum use of the language skills we possess. By activating them, we automatically improve our expression.

ExpressionOnce one has realized that because one cannot rely on instinct in a foreign language one has to constantly keep checking one's own expression, it becomes possible to avoid a considerable number of errors; but this is at the expense of spontaneity. This is a negative side-effect which we must also seek to offset.

MemorizingThe first method is to memorize texts selected for the quality of the writing and the neutrality of the style. This exercise makes it possible to acquire certain reflexes, greater confidence in handling expressions and a more reliable sense of the rhythm of the language. To make the most of this exercise and avoid error, one should have a native speaker record the text. The native speaker can at the same time be asked to help with text selection. It is not easy to judge the writing quality of a text in a foreign language. It is even more difficult to tell whether it is written in a sufficiently sober and simple manner to serve as a model for a non-native speaker who should not be trying to use fancy expressions. Since the text has to be read out loud to be recorded, one is certain that the native speaker will have picked up any misprints that one would not necessarily notice oneself when reading a text written in a foreign language. Some misprints

may be missed even by a native speaker if the text is read silently. But when a text is read out loud, a native speaker notices them. This precaution is useful since it would obviously be counterproductive to memorize something that was wrong to start with. To commit the text to memory one should use the written and the recorded versions together. This facilitates memorization. The written text will help to overcome any difficulty in identifying what is being read as one listens; meanwhile the recorded version makes it possible to improve pronunciation and also to steep oneself in the intonation, phrasing and rhythm of the language. In other words, one can automatically take on board all the prosody which is just as essential for oral communication as proper use of syntax and vocabulary. This is why, while choosing a text written in prose for the exercise, one will still get the benefit of the mnemonic synergy which helps us to remember poems: by using the rhythm, one remembers the words and vice-versa. To perform this exercise usefully, one must follow the comprehensive reading exercise suggested above and repeat each sentence until it is remembered perfectly. This method is preferable to memorizing by rote because it associates the idea with the form of the text learned and thus kills two birds with one stone, combining two exercises in one.

ShadowingOne can also replace the mental repetition mentioned above with repetition in a very low voice, in a process called "shadowing". The ear thus records the same words twice - once in the original and once in the repetition - and this boosts memorization. Additionally one is forced to speak more quickly than usual in order to avoid losing the thread. It is important to follow the rhythm of the speaker while at the same time taking care to articulate; speed is more apt to adversely affect articulation in a foreign language than in a native language. For this reason and because speed also increases the risk of error, it is not advisable to speak very fast in a foreign language except when performing this exercise and reading

aloud.

MonologueAnother simple but effective way to make progress in expression is mentally to formulate in the foreign language all the ideas which cross one's mind. To acquire this habit, one should imagine that every time one engages in a train of thought one is expressing the thoughts to someone else or writing them down. This increases the number of opportunities to express oneself. One can also indulge in thinking up the most appropriate expressions which in a real conversation would not necessarily spring to mind. By calling them up in this manner, they will occur more spontaneously when needed.

Overcoming timidityTo use native speakers as a model, one obviously has to seek them out - more particularly those who are well spoken. But there is one circumstance in which conversations with fellow non-native speakers can serve a purpose: overcoming the embarrassment caused by lack of confidence and/or perfectionism which we feel when conversing with native speakers. When talking to other foreigners we feel less constrained and can speak the language with greater ease. The memory of our own "oratorical feats" will then help us to overcome our complexes.

Mother tongue and foreign languageAdults, unlike children, can acquire a foreign language only by going through their mother tongue. The second language has to be grafted onto the first. Because it cannot be circumvented, the mother tongue should be used by deliberately referring to it as often as possible not only as a prop but also as a yardstick. In other words one should get in the habit of asking oneself regularly, when reading texts or listening to a foreign language being spoken, how one would have expressed the same idea in one's own language under the same circumstances.

This regular reference to the mother tongue fosters correct memorization of expressions in the other language. Once one has found the equivalent expression in one's own language it will be possible to compare the two versions and identify both the differences and the similarities in structure, image, degree of abstraction, etc. By systematically comparing the two languages it will be possible to more easily remember the foreign expressions, including their tool words which, unless focused on, might not be properly noted.

CONCLUSIONI believe that everyone who wishes to learn a foreign language thoroughly should follow the following three rules: The simplest one is to perform the few exercises described above as regularly as possible. Anyone practicing a sport knows that it is daily training which makes improvement possible. What is true of sport is even more true of linguistic performance. Next, one should constantly strive to make linguistic use of every situation. Every moment of the day should and must provide opportunities to practice. This is where the study of a language, otherwise so thankless (since a lifetime is never long enough to complete the task), has an enormous advantage over the study of other subjects: one can study anywhere, anytime, provided one wants and remembers to. The third rule is to take a highly critical view of one's own skills. Too much self-assurance may temporarily give the impression that one knows the language, but is not helpful when it comes to actually learning it. It is only by persuading oneself that what one knows may be a lot but is still not enough that one will be able to remain in the completely receptive state needed to make progress. One last comment by way of conclusion: these exercises produce particularly noticeable results when one is spending time abroad, but one should not discontinue them after one returns home. The less contact one has with a language, the more one needs to put each and every opportunity to good use.

, 2, 2000

Translating and Interpreting Grard ILG

Translating and Interpreting*Grard ILG** (University of Geneva)

*This is a summary of the presentation made by Prof. Grard ILG (University of Geneva), Keynote Speaker at the AILA [Association Internationale de Linguistique Appliqu?] World Congress, Waseda University, Tokyo, on August 3, 1999, based on a handout provided on the spot.Grard ILG. (2000). Translating and Interpreting. Conference Interpretation and Translation, 2, 25-47. TRANSLATING (T) and INTERPRETING (I) are truly global linguistic activities, the WRITTEN process of Translating being by far the most common. The ORAL process of professional Interpreting takes several forms. LIAISON or ESCORT INTERPRETING, which usually proceeds sentence by sentence. COMMUNITY INTERPRETING, which is a demanding skill often required by law for the benefit of language- handicapped recent immigrants in their contacts with authorities, education or health workers (Australia, Canada, California). It is taught in graduate courses and involves certification procedures. Furthermore COURT INTERPRETING is a well-defined, specialized activity typically performed in the CONSECUTIVE mode for long stretches, also with certification procedures, occasionally on offer within a formal educational framework (California). Finally CONFERENCE INTERPRETING, notably when performed in the SIMULTANEOUS mode, is an exacting verbal skill preferably taught in post-graduate courses. Academic institutions offering professional T & I training are surveyed, similarities and differences are discussed, including the conceptual and pragmatic borderline between T & I. Future needs and developments, career prospects for intercultural communication, and media work are assessed.

**Grard ILG, emeritus Professor, University of Geneva [ETI Ecole de Traduction et d'Interprtation], past Lecturer, Universit de Paris-IIISorbonne Nouvelle [ESIT Ecole Suprieure d'Interprtes et de Traducteurs] and Universit degli Studi di Trieste [SSLMIT Scuola Superiore di Lingue Moderne per Interpreti e Traduttori], currently visiting Professor, Universit

Catholique de Paris [ISIT Institut Suprieur d'Interprtation et de Traduction], guest Lecturer, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Graduate School of Interpretation and Translation (1998-1999). E-mail rigvoy@worldnet.net.

The two disciplines are taken in the traditional order, first Translating (T), then Interpreting (I), though this distinction tends to get blurred. In some languages, indeed, there is only one word for both activities (Russian for example, perewod). In languages where two separate words exist (German, Uebersetzen/Dolmetschen), scholars have created the hypernym 'Translation' to cover both (Otto Kade, Kommunikationswissenschaftliche Probleme der Translation, 1968, Leipzig). Subsequently the term 'la translation' was coined in France and in Canada. This innovative taxonomic merger confirms that the process of I is basically the same thing as the process of T, but in another setting, within a shorter time-frame, and with specific effects and different expectations on the part of the listener as compared with the reader of a written piece. Graduate and post-graduate courses for TRANSLATION studies have existed in Europe for at least half a century. Currently such courses also exist in North America. Canada came first, which was normal for a nation which is officially bilingual and bicultural. Then the USA, as the traditional onelanguage-for-all system became diluted owing to the presence of a growing Hispanic community and the arrival of many Asian immigrants on the West Coast. A telling example of this process is the Graduate Division of Interpretation and Translation of the Monterey Institute of International Studies (MIIS) in Monterey, California, where Japanese, Chinese and Spanish are much in demand. It was preceded by the School of Languages and Linguistics, Georgetown University, close to the multilateral organizations based in Washington DC (IBRD, IMF, PADB, PAHO, OAS) and the presence of the State Department. Several publications (Picken, 1989, Shuttleworth & Cowie, 1997) give overviews of existing centers of translation studies in English-speaking countries together with descriptions of curriculum design. Very few such centers have courses for non-European languages. Further reliable

information can be obtained from national translators' associations or the British ITI (Institute for Translation and Interpreting). International bodies such as the EU, UNESCO and FIT also maintain guidebooks for linguistic studies. The variety of methods used to teach translation skills mirrors the variety of translation theories. But some of them have proved more immediately useful to construct a reasonably concentrated curriculum, say of two to three years' duration. Bell (1991), de Beaugrande (1993) and Hatim & Mason (1993) provide overviews of the current linguistic theories and translation methodologies used in academic institutions of the British tradition. This presentation adopts the same focus, assuming that AILA Congress attendees in Tokyo are sufficiently informed about North-American trends in the field of T & I. The concept of dynamic equivalence coined by E. Nida (1964), meaning equivalence of effect on the reader, ranks foremost. For this, P. Newmark (1988) prefers the term communicative translation. His successive publications, uncoordinated and therefore repetitive, remain a stimulating source of information. T viewed as a COMMUNICATIVE PROCESS taking place within a social context proved a major advance. The same applies to the notion of REGISTER. And PSYCHOLINGUISTICS brought further helpful insights. The SPEECH ACTS according to J.L. Austin (1962) have continued in this vein. The teaching of T&I has greatly benefitted from TEXT LINGUISTICS (de Beaugrande & Dressler 1981). The distinction of T as either AUTHOR-CENTERED or READERCENTERED is extremely useful to demonstrate to students that a SL text can be approached in different ways according to the task in hand. (The jocular phrase 'sourcerers and targeteers' was adapted from J.-R. Ladmiral's original French dichotomy 'sourciers et ciblistes' (Jean-Ren? LADMIRAL, Traduire, theoremes pour la traduction, [1979] 1994, Paris). A similar influence, particularly noticeable in German and Austrian T programs, is that of the Skopos Theory propounded by H. J. Vermeer (1996, 1998) and C. Nord (1997), which views texts as language in action with a specific purpose.

As to culture-bound aspects of language, the difference between DENOTATION and CONNOTATION, the concept of INTERTEXTUALITY (that is the knowledge-based approach to a source material) are valuable tools to assess the amount of shared reference and of allusion in a SL text with a view to providing the TL reader with much needed prior information. After a long fascination with individual words, T studies finally took on board the LARGER UNITS (sentence, paragraph). This top-down, comprehensive perception of messages makes it easier to probe the semantic core. For instance the so-called SENSE-BASED method, originating at ESIT, Paris (Seleskovitch 1978) and spreading to Canada thanks to J. Delisle (1980/1988) and J.-C. G?ar (Jean-Claude G?ar Traduire ou l'art d'interpreter 1995, Presses de l'Universit? de Qu?ec). It is essentially a reformulation of the situational approach to speech acts within the context of oral I but contributes remarkably to the teaching of written T. This development also promoted the inclusion in the syllabus of SIGHT TRANSLATION as a preparatory phase of more indepth T routines. Teaching methods tend to concentrate on the semantic phase of the T process, i.e. analysing, understanding, assessing the impact of the SL text. And for this the translator needs to know his/her foreign languages very thoroughly. These methods take for granted the second phase of the procedure, namely the communicative reformulation with equivalent effect. But students are seldom able to write correctly (both for substance and style) and effectively. WRITING COMPETENCE should become a major part of the curriculum. On the other hand, considerable progress has been made in terms of PROFESSIONALISM. When today's graduates and post-graduates enter the highly competitive world of professional translating, they are able to negotiate a translation order (adequate time, documentation, ressource persons, computer-based tools, access to data banks) and have learned how to present a neatly revised final product together with a standard invoice. Helpful publications exist (Fuller 1984, Picken 1989, Samuelsson- Brown 1995) and national professional associations stand ready to offer advice to beginners.

Not all translators work as independent freelances. Many join staff translator teams in major banks, in the pharmaceutical industry, in distribution groups, trade bodies or international organizations. Consequently FLEXIBILITY should be taught as a matter of course (though the aim is not to produce linguistic chameleons): how to internalize employers' style sheets and linguistic trademarks. With this in mind, training institutions have given increasing weight to T as a COLLECTIVE TASK, with several translators checking and improving each other's work at each stage (analyzing, researching, documenting, drafting, editing). The notion of QUALITY control and assurance, including ISO 9000, has gained wide acceptance in the field of T. This means that translation jobs are systematically REVISED and EDITED by peers before delivery. Solo exercises are definitely on the way out. Such collective procedures lend themselves well to LITERARY TRANSLATION, where time, patience, trial-anderror are of the essence. Brainstorming is a form of creativity. And the need to keep a literary piece as open as possible to the reader's own mental associations certainly benefits from the presence of a variety of readers and critics of the SL as well as of the TL texts. This by no means anonymizes the lead translator, who does remain responsible for the final product and puts his/her stamp on it. Literary T as a collective endeavour has been researched by a variety of workshops, for instance at Straehlen in Germany, Arles in France, Trieste in Italy, devoted to writers such as Guenter Grass, Umberto Eco, and Claudio Magris (Voyat 1999). MEDIA TRANSLATION (Dalabastita 1995) is an interesting new phenomenon. In Japan it takes the form of daily English versions of major newspapers. Another form is the sampling, editing and translating of publications around the world for the benefit of different target groups. In France Courrier International, with excerpts from the Japanese press, including political cartoons. In Britain articles from Le Monde Diplomatique (Paris) carried once a month by The Guardian Weekly. In Germany the same articles carried by Die Tageszeitung (Berlin) and in Italy by Il Manifesto (Rome). As from the year 2000, an English version of articles translated

from the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung is added to the International Herald Tribune distributed in Germany. And the Financial Times Deutschland reciprocated - on pink-colored newsprint - with German translations of items borrowed from the prestigious City of London financial daily. These new forms also include the ELECTRONIC media, when for instance CNN news items are picked up all over the world and broadcast to local viewers and listeners. Japan operates regular English-language news channels. In Europe there is a leading cultural channel called Arte (based in Strasbourg, in a border region of France) broadcasting in both French and German and working with a permanent team of translators- cum-interpreters. Clearly, T is also a prime object of RESEARCH. Contrastive T studies are less fashionable nowadays (the classic comparisons of end-product v. original and the crosscomparisons of several translations of the same original). Still, TRANSLATION CRITIQUE remains a favorite with many students and supervisors of MA theses. A classic in this field K. Rei's seminal study (Katharina Rei, Moeglichkeiten und Grenzen der Uebersetzungskritik, 1971, Muenchen). TERMINOLOGICAL pursuits seem to have lost ground with the exception of work on PHRASEOLOGY (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958/1995) and collocations. Several authors have deplored the absence of good collocations dictionaries for the English language (Newmark 1988: 175). Again, this is typical for recent interest in larger units and the wider context. Typically, the PROCESS OF TRANSLATION has now come to the fore, i.e. the way and the order in which T tasks are performed and interact mutually. Think-aloud protocols of translators who jot down or dictate their thoughts, reactions and doubts as they proceed are all the rage. In this connection, one rewarding technique is that of BACK TRANSLATION into the SL to check the overall quality of the TL text and measure the extent of deviations. Turning away from machine translation, which seems less promising, T Research prefers to concentrate on MODERN TOOLS such as computer-assisted translation for the execution of repetitive tasks or to achieve inter-textual consistency.

Turning now to INTERPRETATION.It should be recalled that the simpler forms of verbal linguistic mediation have always been with us, ever since people of different cultures needed to communicate live. Major diplomatic events of the past used to be conducted in Latin or, from the XVIIIth century on, in French. After the First World War English and German appeared on the international stage. First in the consecutive mode, meaning that statements were reproduced verbatim or summarised after the original speaker had spoken. The Second World War coincided with the advent of time-saving simultaneous interpretation, in parallel with the original speech. Today, during formal encounters of APEC, ASEM or ASEAN member countries with the 15 EU nations (they work with 9 official languages), simultaneous interpretation out of and into a total of 15 languages is technically quite feasible (and was performed in Singapore a couple of years ago). More typically, interpretation for the World Economic Summits of the so-called G7/8 (held in Japan in the year 2000) involves only six languages, i.e. English, French, German, Italian, Japanese, and Russian. The first European T&I school was founded by Prof. Antoine Velleman, a distinguished Swiss linguist, during the war years in Geneva (1942). And its first graduates stood ready to interpret on the occasion of the ware crime trials at Nuremberg. Since the creation of the United Nations and its specialised agencies (WHO in Geneva, FAO in Rome), of the OECD in Paris, and of the IMF and the World Bank in Washington DC, countless international gatherings have been held with qualified conference interpreters dedicating their specialized linguistic skills to worthy global causes. Later war crime trials such as the Lischka case (Harris 1981) and the Eichmann and Demjanjuk hearings in Jerusalem (Morris 1989), have put COURT INTERPRETATION in the limelight. At present there are daily hearings before the UN War Crimes Tribunal sitting in The Hague, Netherlands, to judge perpetrators of recent atrocities. Interpretation being provided during the investigative phase and during the court room phase for the benefit of the assembled prosecutors, judges and accused, mainly from

and into English and French (Ruanda) and from and into English and Serbo-Croat as it used to be called (former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia). Less dramatically, but certainly very important, interpretation is indispensable in certain domestic courts of justice, for instance for administrative cases (illegal aliens) or criminal cases (mostly drug related). Also in Japan, a heavy caseload has made such linguistic mediation increasingly necessary (Kondo 1996 & Matsubara 1999). What is the essential difference between T & I? Basically it is the same mental process, except for the TIME DIMENSION. Interpretation must be delivered immediately. Therefore, to make this possible, several constraints of written T are relaxed: completeness, accuracy of detail, sequence, formal correspondence. The overriding aim, in the process of oral I, is to convey the atmosphere of a meeting and the content of the discussions whilst reproducing as much as possible the balance of emphasis, nuances, and innuendos. Clearly, all the essential information should be put in the other language, but as far as the form of words is concerned, a considerable measure of freedom is allowed and OPTIONALITY is granted very generously. The process has to be performed in a matter of seconds! Another feature which makes oral I at all possible is the relatively narrow SELECTION of participants and of users of interpretive services, namely of those who come together to discuss a topic of common interest. Another is their physical presence. Such IMMEDIACY is a major advantage, as facial expression and body language help clarify the meaning and intention of the speaker (compared with the remoteness of the writer of a given text and anonimity of its readers in translation. INTONATION is also of great help, both ways, first to decipher and even anticipate the speaker's utterance and then to convey the selfsame speaker's intentions by using suprasegmental features if the appropriate lexicon fails (Shlesinger 1994). Improvised speech tends to be more loosely worded than a prepared written text. Such REDUNDANCY works in favor of the interpreter, who is allowed to edit out spurious errors and meaningless repetitions. DEIXIS, that is cross-referencing, pointing to earlier concepts, also serves to save time and

condense the TL production. Multilingual meetings are conducted according to a given CONFERENCE RITUAL with predetermined structures (copied from parliamentary usage), set pieces (with public speaking phraseology) and rethorical embellishments (Setton 1993). This enables conference interpreters to predict, reshuffle, simplify and thereby gain time. D. Gile has established a convincing list of differences between T and I that goes a long way to explain why and how the process of oral I is at all possible (Daniel Gile, Regards sur la recherche en interpretation de conference, 1995, Presses Universitaires de Lille). Mirroring the situation in the field of T, it is absolutely essential that interpreters in training should have a profound knowledge of the language(s) they work from, and particularly in their spoken form (regional or foreign accents, colloquialisms, sloppy or slurred delivery). In this connexion it might interest my Japanese audience to know that when I have had occasion to teach in T&I training institutions here in Tokyo on the one hand and in Seoul on the other and have compared the levels of achievement of the student bodies over here and over there, I consistently found a distinctly higher level of foreign language proficiency in Korea. This may well have something to do with the way foreign languages are taught and learned in either of the two nations. Output-wise, it is equally essential that future interpreters should possess considerable COMMUNICATIVE skills, persuasiveness, and presence. The process of oral I comes close to a performing art, except that it is not really rehearsable and that there is no prompter at hand. The part of actual improvisation is by no means negligible, requiring split- second decisions. COMMUNITY Interpretation-particularly in a medical or social counselling framework-is an extremely delicate task and requires above all tact and sensitivity. Though the level of language is often relatively simple, the dialogues to be interpreted can be very personal and a community interpreter must constantly maintain an atmosphere of absolute confidence to avoid mutual embarrassment and an impairment of the communicative process (Gentile et al.

1996 & Mikkelson 1996). COURT Interpretation is a particularly demanding variant of interpretive skills, because legal proceedings require the highest possible form of accuracy, specially in the consecutive mode, and often take place in a public setting in which several of the players (judges, prosecutors, defense counsels) are able and authorised to check and correct the court interpreter if necessary (Shlesinger 1991, Morris 1995 Mikkelson, 1998). MEDIA Interpretation is mostly performed in the simultaneous mode and can be extremely stressfull because of work pressure and the hindrance of time zones. On the other hand this form may actually be a combination of quickly written pre-translation and subsequent verbal delivery, in a slightly lagged mode with an opportunity to edit, rehearse or play back (Mizuno 1992-93 & Yasokawa 1999). RESEARCH in this field started some twenty-five years ago with early theoretical and methodological pursuits (Moser[Mercer] 1978, Mackintosh 1985, Tirkkonen-Condit 1989, Gile 1990) and has developed considerably in more recent years (Setton 1999). Today the leading center is undoubtedly Trieste (SSLMIT), with impressive experimental studies in the field of neurophysiology (Gran 1990) and short-term memory (Taylor 1989, Gran & Bellini 1996). Researchers in Paris (ISIT) have a good record of observational and experimental studies, and their methodology (Gile 1995 & 1998). Teachers in Geneva (ETI) have conducted cognitive and methodological studies in particular to assess the intrinsic quality of the process (Moser-Mercer 1996 & 1997). And start was made to assess the effects of stress at the interpreter's workplace (Moser-Mercer, Kunzli & Kovac 1998). The names of other teaching centers, such as Vienna (Austria) or Turku (Finland), feature regularly in specialized publications. A number of respected linguistic Journals play the role of vectors of dissemination of research results all over the world. The leading English-language Publisher in the field T & I is John Benjamins (Amsterdam).

REFERENCES

TRANSLATING CLASSICS Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford: OUP. (1982). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP. CATFORD, John C. (1965). A linguistic theory of translation: An essay in applied linguistics. Oxford: OUP & London: Blackwell. Newmark, P. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice Hall. Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a science of translating. With special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. Vinay, J.-P., & Darbelnet, J. (1995). Comparative stylistics of French and English. French [1958] 1975, Paris, transl. by J. C. SAGER & M.-J. HAMEL. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. CURRENT TRENDS Bassnett, S., & Lefevere, A. (Eds.). ([1990] 1995). Translation, history and culture. London: Cassell. Beaugrande, R. [-Alain] de, & Dressler, W. U. (1981). Introduction to textlinguistics. London: Longman. Bowker, L., Cronin, M., & Kenny, D., et al. (Eds.). (1998). Unity in diversity? Current trends in translations studies. Manchester: St. Jerome. Chestermann, A. (Ed.). (1989). Readings in translation theory. Helsinki: Sager. Delabastita, D.. ([1990] 1995). Translation and the mass media. In Susan Bassnett & Andre Lefevere (Eds.), Translation, history and culture. London: Cassell, 97109. Delisle, J. (1988). Translation: An interpretive approach. French 1980, Ottawa, transl. by P. Logan & M. Creery, foreword by D. Seleskovitch. Ottawa/London: UOP (Translation Studies Series, 8). Hatim, B., & Mason, I. ([1990] 1993). Discourse and the translator. London/New York: Longman (Language in

Social Life Series, General Editor C. N. Candlin, Macquarie U. Sydney). Hickey, L. (Ed.). (1998). The pragmatics of translation. Clevedon/ Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters (Topics in Translation Series, 12, General Editors Susan Bassnett, U of Warwick, & Edwin Gentzler, U of Massachusetts, Amherst). Neubert, A. (1986) Text and translation. (German original 1980, Leipzig). Leipzig: VEB Verlag Enzyklopaedie (Uebersetzungswissenschaftliche Beitraege, 8). Nord, C. (1997). Translating as a purposeful activity: Functionalist approaches explained. Manchester: St. Jerome (Translation Theories Explained, 1, Series Editor A. Pym, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain). Seymour, R., & Liu, C. (Eds.). (1994). Translating and interpreting: Bridging East and West. Honolulu: U of Hawaii Press (Selected Conference Papers, 8). Snell-hornby, M. (1988). Translation studies: An integrated approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia, Benjamins. Toury, G. (1980). In search of a theory of literary translation. Tel Aviv: Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics. Vermeer, H. J. (1996). A skopos theory of translation (Some arguments for and against). Heidelberg: TEXTconText. Vermeer, H. J. (1998). Starting to unask what translatology is about, Target (Amsterdam), 10(1), 41-68. Voyat, R. (1999). The role of cultural codes as a guide to equivalence in translation. Inside a practising translator's workshop, Parallles (Geneva), 20, 107123. Wilss, W. (1982). The science of translation. Problems and methods. (German original 1977, Stuttgart). Tbingen: Narr. OVERVIEWS Beaugrande, R. de. ([1991] 1993). Linguistic theory. The discourse of fundamental works. London/New York: Longman (Longman Linguistics Library, General Editors R. H. Robbins, U of London, & M. Harris, U of Essex). Bell, R. T. (1991). Translation and translating. London: Longman (Applied Linguistics and Language Study

Series, General Editor C. N. Candlin, Macquarie U, Sydney). Bowker, L., Kenny, D., & Pearson, J. (Eds.). (1998). Bibliography of translation studies. Manchester: St. Jerome. Chan, S.-W. (1988). A topical bibliography of translation and interpretation Chinese-English, English-Chinese. Hong Kong: Chinese UP (Chinese U of Hong Kong). Fuller, F. ([1973] 1984). The translator's handbook. University Park: Pennsylvania State U. Meta (Montreal) 33/1 1988, Special issue Translation and interpretation in Japan (Editor Daniel Gile). Meta (Montreal) 44/1 1999, Special issue The theory and practice of translation in China (Editors Xu Yun & Wang Kefei). Picken, C. (Ed.). ([1983] 1989). The translator's handbook. London: Aslib (Institute of Translation and Interpreting ITI, London). Samuelsson-Brown, G. ([1993] 1995). A practical guide for translators. Clevedon/Philadelphia/Adelaide: Multilingual Matters (Topics in Translation, 2, Series Editors Susan Bassnett, U of Warwick, & Andre Lefevere, U of Texas, Austin). Shuttleworth, M., & Cowie, M. (1997). Dictionary of translation studies. Manchester: St. Jerome. TEACHING Baker, M. (1992). In other words. A coursebook on translation. London/ New York, Routledge ITP (Linguistics/Translation Studies). Gile, D. (1995). Basic concepts and models for interpreter and translator training. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins (Benjamins Translation Library Series, 8). Malmkjaer, K. (Ed.). (1998). Translation and language teaching: Language teaching and translation. Manchester: St. Jerome. Payne, J. (1987). Revision as a teaching method in translation courses. In H. Keith & Ian Mason (Eds.), Translation in the modern languages degree (pp. 43-51). London: CILT.

Translation in Foreign Language Teaching. (1983). Round Table FIT-UNESCO, Paris 17-19 March 1983, Sofia: Bulgarian Translators' Union.

INTERPRETING CLASSICS Moser[-Mercer], B. (1978). Simultaneous interpretation: A hypothetical model and its practical application. In David Gerver & H. Wallace Sinaiko (Eds.), Language interpretation and communication. New York/London: Plenum Press, 353-358. Seleskovitch, D. (1978). Interpreting for international conferences. French 1968, Paris, transl. by S. DAILEY & E.N. McMILLAN. Washington DC: Pen & Booth. van Dijk, T. A., & Kintsch, W. (1983). Strategies of discourse comprehension. Orlando, FL USA: Academic Press. Wilss, W. (1978). Syntactic anticipation in German-English simultaneous interpreting. In David Gerver & H. Wallace Sinaiko (Eds.), Language Interpretation and Communication. New York: Plenum Press: 343-352. CURRENT TRENDS Chan, Y., & Chau, S. (1988). The theory and practice of interpreting (in Chin.). Hong Kong: Commercial Press. Chernov, G. V. (1994). Message redundancy and message anticipation in simultaneous interpreting. In Sylvie Lambert & Barbara Moser- Mercer (Eds.), Bridging the gap. Empirical research in simultaneous interpretation. Amsterdam/Philadelphia, Benjamins, 139-154. Dam, H. V. (1993). Text condensing in consecutive interpreting. In Yves Gambier & Jorma Tommola (Eds.), Translation and knowledge (pp. 297-316). Turku: University of Turku, Finland, Centre for Translation and Interpreting. Gambier, Y., Gile, D., & Taylor, C. (1997). Conference interpreting: Current trends in research. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Gile, D. (1990). Methodological aspects of interpretation (and translation) research, Target (Amsterdam), 3(2), 153174. Gile, D. (1995). Fidelity assessment in consecutive interpretation: An experiment, Target (Amsterdam),

7(1)(Special issue Interpreting Research), 151-164. Gile, D. (1998). Observational studies and experimental studies in the investigation of conference interpreting, Target (Amsterdam), 10, (1), 69-93. Gran, L. (1990). A review of experimental research on interpretation conducted at the University of Trieste, in Canada and in the U.S.A. In Laura Gran & Christopher Taylor (Eds.), Aspects of applied and experimental research on conference interpretation at the University of Trieste. Udine, Italy: Campanotto, 4-20. Gran, L., & Bellini, B. (1996). Short-term memory and simultaneous interpretation: An experimental study on verbatim recall. The Interpreters' Newsletter (Trieste), 7, 103-111. Kondo, M., & Mizuno, A. (1995). Interpretation research in Japan, Target (Amsterdam), 7(1), 91-106. Lambert, S. (1998). Information processing among conference interpreters. A test of the depth-ofprocessing hypothesis, META (Montreal), XXXIII(3), 377387. Liu, M. H. (1993). Consecutive interpretation and note-taking: Theory, practice and teaching (in Chin.). Taipeh: TUP (Fu-Jen U). Mackintosh, J. (1985). The Kintsch and van Dijk model of discourse comprehension and production applied to the interpretation process, META (Montreal), XXX(1), 37-43. Mizuno, A. (1996). Basic concepts for the model of consecutive interpreting (in Jap.), Interpreting Research (Tokyo), 11, 16-26. Mizuno, A. (1997). Theory of sense: Problems and an alternative (in Jap.). Interpreting Research (Tokyo), 13, 53-67. Moser-Mercer, B. (1996). Quality in interpreting: Some methodological issues, The Interpreters' Newsletter (Trieste), 7, 43-55. Moser-Mercer, B. (1997). Methodological issues in interpreting research: An introduction to the Ascona workshops, Interpreting (Amsterdam) 2, (1/2), 1-11. Moser-Mercer, B., Kunzli, A., & Kovac, M. (1998). Prolonged turns in interpreting: Effects on quality, physiological and psychological stress (Pilot study), Interpreting

(Amsterdam), 3(1), 47-64. Poechhacker, F. (1994). Simultaneous interpretation: Cultural transfer or voice-over text? In M. Snell-Hornby et al. (Eds.), Translation studies-An interdiscipline (pp. 169178). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Setton, R. (1993). Speech in Europe and Asia: Levels of evaluation in cross-cultural conference interpretation, Interpreting Research (Tokyo), 5, 2-11. Setton, R. (1994). Training conference interpreters with Chinese: Problems and prospects. In R. Seymour & C. Liu (Eds.), Translating and interpreting: Bridging East and West (pp. 55-66). Honolulu: U of Hawaii Press (Selected Conference Papers, 8). Setton, R. (1999). Simultaneous interpreting: A cognitivepragmatic analysis. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins (Benjamins Translation Library, 28. Shlesinger, M. (1994). Interpreter latitude vs. due process. Simultaneous and consecutive interpretation in multilingual trials. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit (Ed.), Empirical research in translation and intercultural studies (pp. 147-155). T?ingen: Narr (Language in Performance LIP Series, 5). Shlesinger, M. (1994). Intonation in the production and perception of simultaneous interpretation. In S. Lambert, & B. Moser-Mercer (Eds.), Bridging the gap. Empirical research in simultaneous interpretation (pp. 225-236). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Taylor, C. (1989). Short-term memory in consecutive interpretation. In J. M. Dodds (Ed.), Aspects of English: Miscellaneous papers for English teachers and specialists (pp. 103-108). Udine, Italy: Campanotto. Tirkkonen-Condit, S. (1989). Theory and methodology in translation research. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & S. Condit (Eds.), Empirical studies in translation and linguistics (pp. 3-18). Joensuu, Finland: U of Joensuu (Faculty of Arts): Viezzi, M. (1989). Sight translation. An experimental analysis. In J. M. Dodds (Ed.), Aspects of English: Miscellaneous papers for English teachers and specialists (pp. 109130). Udine, Italy: Campanotto. Viaggio, S. (1996). Research in simultaneous interpretation.

An outsider's overview, The Interpreters' Newsletter (Trieste) 7, 73-84. TEACHING Gile, D. (1995). Basic concepts and models for interpreter and translator training. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins (Benjamins Translation Library Series, 8). Kondo, M. (1992). Effectiveness of shadowing - European debate (in Jap.), Interpreting Research (Tokyo), 2, 4351. Seleskovitch, D., & Lederer, M. (1995). A systematic approach to teaching interpretation. French 1989, Paris/Brussels, transl. by J. HARMER, Silver Spring, MD USA: Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf RID. Weber, W. K. (1990). The importance of sight translation in an interpreter training program. In David & M. Bowen (Eds.), Interpreting - Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Binghamton, NY: State U of New York SUNY (American Translators Association ATA Scholarly Monograph Series, IV), 44-52. Weber, W. K. (1992). On the process of consecutive interpreting, Interpreting Research, (Tokyo) 2, 13-19. COURT INTERPRETING Edwards, A. B. (1995). The practice of court interpreting. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: Benjamins. Gonzalez, R. D., Vasquez, V. F., & Mikkelson H. (1991). Fundamentals of court interpretation: Theory, policy, and practice. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. Harris, B. (1981). Observations on a cause celebre: Court interpreting at the Lischka trial. In P. R. Roda (Ed.), L'interpretation aupres des tribunaux (pp. 51-72). Ottawa: UOP. Kondo, M. (1996). The SHIP model and its use in understanding court interpreting (in Jap.), Interpreting Research (Tokyo), 12, 78-86. Matsubara, T. (1999). German-Japanese court interpreting (in Jap.), Interpreting Research (Tokyo), 15, 4-10. Mikkelson, H. (1998). Towards a redefinition of the role of the

court interpreter, Interpreting (Amsterdam), 3(1), 2145. Morris, R. (1989). Court interpretation: The trial of Ivan John Demjanjuk - A case study, The Interpreters' Newsletter (Trieste), 2, 27-37. Morris, R. (1995). The moral dilemmas of court interpreting, The Translator (Manchester), 1, 25-46. Paralleles (Geneva) 11/1989, Special issue on Court Interpreting (Editor Gerard Ilg). COMMUNITY INTERPRETING Carr, S. E., Roberts, R. P., Dufour, et al. (Eds.). (1997). The critical link: Interpreters in the community. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Gentile, A., Ozolins, U., & Vasilakakos, M. (1996). Liaison interpreting. A handbook. Melbourne: MUP. Mikkelson, H. (1996). Community interpreting: An emerging profession, Interpreting (Amsterdam), 1, 125-129. Pinkerton, Y. (1996). Are interpreters allowed to 'edit'? A comparison of interpreting principles between Japan and Australia, Interpreting Research (Tokyo), 11, 4-15. Wadensjo, C. (1998). Interpreting as interaction. London/New York: Longman, (Language in Social Life Series, General Editor C. N. Candlin, City U of Hong Kong). MEDIA INTERPRETING Mizuno, A. (1992-1993). Broadcast interpreting, (parts I & II, in Jap.) Interpreting Research (Tokyo), 2, 33-42 & 3(1), 31-37. Shinoda, A., Mizuno, A., Ishiguro, Y., et al. (1998). The world of broadcast interpreting (in Jap.), Tokyo: Ark. Yasokawa, H. (1999). Working for the Japanese section of the BBC World Service (in Jap.), Interpreting Research (Tokyo), 15, 31-36. OVERVIEWS AIIC Global bibliography on interpretation (with selected unpublished dissertations on microfiche), International

Association of Conference Interpreters AIIC, 10 avenue de Secheron, CH-1202 Geneva, Switzerland, 100665.2456@compuserve.com. Jones, R. (1997). Conference interpreting explained. Manchester: St. Jerome (Translation Theories Explained, 5, Series Editor A. Pym, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain). META (Montreal) 33/1 1988, Special issue Translation and interpretation in Japan (Editor Daniel Gile). META (Montreal) 44/1 1999, Special issue The theory and practice of translation in China (teaching centers of interpretation included) (Editors Xu Yun & Wang Kefei). Mok, W.-Y., & Ngan, Y.-W. (1998). A bibliography of publications in English on interpretation activities around the world, International Journal of Translation (Bahri Publications, New Delhi), 10(1-2), 181-196. Poechhacker, F. (1995). Writings and research on interpreting: A bibliographic analysis, The Interpreters' Newsletter (Trieste), 6, 17-31. SELECTED JOURNALS Interpreting (International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting), publ. by Benjamins, Amsterdam (Editors Barbara MOSER- MERCER & Dominic W. MASSARO). Interpreting Research, Tsuyaku riron kenkyu, publ. by Tsuyaku riron kenkyukai, c/o ISS Tsuyaku Kenshu Center, Yokohama ST 8F, Kita-saiwai, Nishi-ku, Yokohama-shi, Kanagawa-ken, Japan 220-0004, Editors Masaomi KONDO, mkondo@ic.daito.ac.jp, Nobutaka MIURA, Fax 81 03 5478 5894, & Akira MIZUNO, amizuno@fa2.so-net.or.jp. META (Translators' Journal), publ. by Presses de l'U de Montreal, Qc Canada (General Editor Andre CLAS). Paralleles (Cahiers de l'Ecole de Traduction et d'Interpretation), publ. by U de Geneve (ETI, Uni-Mail), CH-1211 Geneva 4 (Editors Americo FERRARI, JeanClaude GEMAR, & Gerard ILG). Target (International Journal of Translation Studies), publ. by Benjamins, Amsterdam (Editors Gideon TOURY & Jose LAMBERT).

The Interpreters' Newsletter, publ. by Edizioni U di Trieste EUT, U degli Studi di Trieste per Interpreti e Traduttori (SSLMIT), via Fabio Filzi 14, I-34132 Trieste, Italy (Editors Laura GRAN & David SNELLING). With regular bibliographical updates on interpretation publications worldwide, in particular unpublished M.A. theses, collected by Daniel Gile & Maurizio Viezzi. The Translator (Studies in Intercultural Communication), publ. by St. Jerome Publishing, Manchester (Editor Mona BAKER). SELECTED ACADEMIC CENTERS Graduate Institute of Translation and Interpretation GITIS, National Taiwan U (Fu-Jen U), Taipeh, Taiwan (Prof. Emily HER), t22038@cc.ntnu.edu.tw. Graduate School of Interpretation and Translation, Hankuk U of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Korea (Prof. CHOI Jungwha), jwchoi@hotmail.com. School of Languages and Linguistics, Division of Interpretation and Translation, Georgetown U, Washington DC (Prof. Margareta BOWEN), Bowenm@gunet.georgetown.edu. Graduate Division of Translation and Interpretation, Monterey Institute of International Studies MIIS, Monterey, California 93940 (Prof. Diane de TERRA), Fax 1 831 647 41 99. Department of Translation Studies, U of Turku, Finland (Prof. Yves GAMBIER), yves.bmbier@utu.fi. Ecole Superieure d'Interpretes et de Traducteurs ESIT, Centre Dauphine, U de Paris-III, Place de Lattre de Tassigny, F75116 Paris, France (Prof. Marianne LEDERER), esit@univparis.fr. Ecole de Traduction et d'Interpretation ETI, U de Geneve, UniMail, CH-1211 Geneva 4, (Prof. Barbara MOSER-Mercer & Prof. Robin SETTON), moser@uni2a.uni2a.unige.ch. Institut Superieur d'Interpretation et de Traduction ISIT, Institut Catholique, 21 rue d'Assas, F-75270 Paris, France (Prof. Maria MARTINEZ SMITH), Fax 331 45 44 17 67. Scuola Superiore di Lingue Moderne per Interpreti e

Traduttori SSLMIT, U degli Studi di Trieste, via Fabio Filzi 14, I-34132 Trieste, Italy (Prof. Laura GRAN & Prof. David SNELLING), laurag@dicamp.univ/trieste.it. (Most of the European institutions are members of the Conference des Instituts Universitaires de Traducteurs et Interpretes CIUTI.)

, 2, 2000

The Geneva (ETI) Perspective on Interpretation Research Barbara Moser-Mercer & Robin Setton

The Geneva (ETI) Perspective on Interpretation ResearchBarbara Moser-Mercer & Robin Setton (ETI, University of Geneva) For most of its history (the Ecole d'interprtes was founded in 1941) the Ecole de traduction et d'interprtation of the University of Geneva has concentrated on the postgraduate training of translators and interpreters, allowing itself to be driven by the pragmatic requirements of the demand, particularly from the UN sector, for which it has traditionally been the main supplier of professional translators and interpreters. In recent years ETI has responded to the rising demand for interpreters from the institutions of the EU and trained the first two generations of Swedish interpreters for the European Parliament, as well as two groups of Latvian and one group of Polish interpreters for the same institution. ETI had thus left the territory of translation and interpretation theory to be dominated chiefly by its sister institution in France, the ESIT, which developed an ambitious theoretical framework, the thorie du sens (see Seleskovitch and Lederer 1986; 1989), that had a lasting influence on the training doctrines of major institutions such as the EU, which offered its own in-house training program until 1996). ETI has of course always attracted pioneering pedagogues and researchers - Gerard Ilg, famous among generations of students at both ETI and ESIT; Barbara Moser-Mercer, who proposed the first complete cognitive model of simultaneous interpreting as early as 1976 - as well as leading lights of the profession, including the authors of classic manuals for interpreters, such as Jean Herbert and Jean-Fran?is Rozan, Walter Keiser, Claude Namy, and many more.

Until the early 90s, then, ETI was known for turning out topquality professionals but had not attempted any 'programmatic' reconciliation of the inspirational-practical and scientific research strands which might have formed the basis of an 'ETI doctrine' and an integrated research programme. Unlike ESIT, where a research centre was set up in 1976 and a first doctorate awarded in 1978, ETI had to overcome major administrative and legal hurdles to create a program of study at the doctoral level, for reasons that were related to the lack of full recognition of translation and interpreting as disciplines in their own right by the authorities of the University of Geneva. However, in order to advance the cause of research a special Continuing Education Certificate Course for Interpreter Trainers was set up in 1996, which strives to develop in candidates a theory-based pedagogy. Both the Certificate and the 'Update' course for strengthening or adding B and C languages, which are now offered in alternate years, have recently attracted seasoned professionals as well as younger colleagues with language combinations that include less-widely used languages and for which there is strong demand in the European Union. It was only very recently (1999) that ETI was given the green light to establish DEA (PhD-preparatory) and PhD programmes in interpretation, as well as in translation and in the school's third sector, TIM (Multilingual Information Processing), which covers multilingual terminology, machineassisted translation, research on multilingual corpora and translators' tools. Some of these research areas had originally been the exclusive domain of ISSCO (Istituto per gli studi semantici e cognitivi), which became fully integrated into ETI in 1998. It is now possible to speak of a 'Geneva doctrine' as it has evolved both organically in the school's 60 years of training experience, and more deliberately through an emerging consensus to align research on interpretation and interpreting training with mainstream cognitive science. Currently this synthesis, though still a work in progress, is being pursued by the Section's two professors, Robin Setton (currently Head of Unit) and Barbara Moser-Mercer, who have conducted research into the mechanisms of interpretation along complementary paths within a broadly defined

cognitive science paradigm: Moser-Mercer explores potential applications to interpreting of models developed in cognitive psychology, whereby particular emphasis is placed on identifying and describing component processes such as memory and attention. The development of expertise in interpreting has been the subject of a four-year interdisciplinary research project within the University of Geneva leading to major insights into the acquisition of interpreting skills. Setton is exploring the interface between interpreting studies and models in contemporary linguistics and communication studies, particularly the branches known as cognitive semantics and cognitive pragmatics. Between 1994 and 2000 the interpreting department has pursued research mainly along four lines: 1.Identification and isolation of cognitive abilities required for interpreter training candidates (aptitude testing); 2.Developmental aspects of interpreter training - the development of expertise; 3.Interpreters' working conditions (mental workload, stress, fatigue, impact of new technologies, etc.); and 4.Prosodic aspects of simultaneous interpreting (spoken languages) and sign language interpreting. The first and the fourth have been conducted as interdisciplinary research projects funded by the University authorities, and involve the departments of psychology, linguistics, interpreting, and the medical school. Research on interpreters' working conditions had been spurred by the FTC/AIIC case and has more recently been funded through a trilateral collaboration project with the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), Swisscom (the Swiss Telecom provider) and ETI. Since 1994 all research projects have been interdisciplinary, as this is considered essential if our profession is to produce reliable research results. We have had the good fortune of being able to collaborate with highly respected experts in memory (Alan Baddeley, Geoffrey Underwood), in expertise (K. Anders Ericsson, Robert Hoffman), and many others. This has enabled us to put interpreting on the agenda of other disciplines, such as cognitive psychology, but has also motivated our team of

researchers to work to the highest standards of scientific inquiry. Our research into various aspects of interpreter training (skill components, aptitude testing, development of expertise) has informed our curriculum reform: our one-year intensive program is built on the state of our knowledge with regard to cognitive skill development and the acquisition of expertise. All curriculum components are now closely interrelated and teaching follows a strict sequence designed to build skills in a theoretically and practically coherent manner, consistent with what we have learnt from research on expertise in interpreting and in many other domains. Team teaching has become "de rigueur", as no training program can succeed without everyone pulling in the same direction. Teacher training has evolved into the only Certificate Program for Interpreter Trainers available today and builds very much on the same philosophy of a sound cognitive and theoretical basis for interpreter training. Our "virtual training institute", funded by the European Commission as part of its Thematic Network Project for the Training of Interpreter Trainers, is taking shape with the first training modules going on-line this year. Our service to the profession involves research into interpreters' working conditions. We have taken our inspiration from other "high- stress" professions, such as airtraffic controllers, whose research agenda and list of publications is enviable. We have devoted considerable resources to developing sound research methodology that would link physiological and psychological stress to quality of performance in interpreting. We have been able to show empirically that increased time on task (length of turns) impairs quality of performance and are currently continuing this line of research investigating the impact of new technologies on interpreters' well-being and performance (remote interpreting) with the European Commission and ITU. The role of physiological and psychological stress has yet to be fully understood with regard to interpreting. All of our research projects now include parameters for both physiological and psychological stress. This will allow us to log data across several studies and, we hope, will help us gain a more informed understanding of the role of stress in

interpreting. With the arrival of Robin Setton at the end of 1999, additional research orientations will certainly be developed at ETI. Robin Setton's work has focused on developing a method grounded in contemporary advances in linguistics for the analysis of parallel simultaneous interpretation corpora. Rather than drawing on the more philologically- oriented text-linguistics and discourse analysis traditions, this approach adopts the general model of cognition in human communication proposed in Relevance Theory (Sperber & Wilson, 1986/1995) as a basis for modelling both the coding/ decoding and inference phases of the translation process. The methodology is applied to close comparative analysis of the input and output of SI by professionals and requires the initial generation of three models: a semantic representation of the bare propositional content of input deemed to be available to all uninformed (near)-native comprehenders by virtue of linguistic competence alone, as derivable from syntax and core (prototype) word meanings; a model of the cognitive context available to a prepared and situated comprehender at given points in the discourse; and a semantic representation of the output. The second phase of the analysis refines the representation of meaning actually derived by the interpreter and the TL audience by applying the theoretical effects of 'procedural' markers such as connectives, optional word orders and prosodic contour (Sperber and Wilson 1993) whereby speakers constrain the explicit and implicit message manifest to a hearer (Setton, 1999; forthcoming a). This 'cognitive-pragmatic' approach aims to complement both traditional information-processing analysis and the 'empty centre' interpretivist (Paris school) triangle model by injecting a rigorous and explicit pragmatics, thus aiming at an overall model of the interpreting process which would reconcile the descriptive formalisms of linguistics and cognitive psychology (Setton, forthcoming b). Work done so far in this paradigm seems to confirm the richly associative nature of the mental models constructed by professional interpreters (cf. Moser-Mercer, forthcoming), and may generate instructive by-products, including

1.pedagogical insights, suggesting more emphasis for certain types of discourse on the construction of a mental model and on communicative elements and less on language-bound forms, and 2.new data to investigate the effect of language typology in interpretation between typologically contrasting languages. Do parametric features such as contrasting word order reflect information structure differences significant enough to require special strategies, are these ultimately subordinate to an overwhelmingly conceptual, language-independent form of processing and universal communicative instincts which find natural expression in any language? In conclusion, these two perspectives offer a possible convergence - or at least a useful tension. For example, the 'extended linguistics' approach to corpus analysis can yield models of how speech forms relate to conceptual structures and how such complex representations are assembled and managed during interpretation tasks. Efficiency in the management of complex representations is precisely one of the key components of expertise among interpreters: research on various other high-skill, high-stress professions within the expert-novice paradigm has revealed that experts use more abstract structures, group representations together according to their problem-solving features rather than their syntax, and update them constantly, speeding up processing and saving resources (Moser-Mercer et al. 2000); in other words, the mental model is task-configured. As the ETI research effort develops with successive generations of postgraduate students trained in the issues and methods of interpreting research, we hope to found a true, integrated interdisciplinarity appropriate to this emerging discipline, to replace the sometimes haphazard experiments in parallel but often disconnected paradigms which have characterized the early phases of interpreting research. If a common or at least compatible descriptive language and methodology can be found which would eventually span areas from language processing and text difficulty to the components of expertise and factors contributing to stress, an important step will have been made

towards correlating discourse phenomena with cognitive effort, or skills, opening up rich vistas for future research on interpreting.

REFERENCESMoser, B. (1976). Simultaneous translation. Linguistic, psycholinguistic and human information processing aspects. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Innsbruck, Austria. Moser-Mercer, B., Frauenfelder, U. H., Casado, B. & K?zli, A. (2000). Searching to define expertise in interpreting. In B. E. Dimitrova & K. Hyltenstam (Eds.), Language processing and simultaneous interpreting: Interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 107-132). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Moser-Mercer, B. (forthcoming). Situation models. The cognitive relation between interpreter, speaker and audience. Paper delivered at the ESIT Colloquium Identit, altrit, quivalence? La traduction comme relation, Paris, May 24-26, 2000. Seleskovitch, D., & Lederer, M. (1986). Interprter pour traduire. Paris: Didier Erudition. Seleskovitch, D., & Lederer, M. (1989). Pdagogie raisonne de l'interprtation. Paris: Didier Erudition. Setton, R. (1999). A cognitive-pragmatic analysis of simultaneous interpretation. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Setton, R. (forthcoming) Traductologie et thorie de la pertinence. Paper delivered at the ESIT Colloquium Identit, altrit, quivalence? La traduction comme relation, Paris, May 24-26, 2000. Setton, R. (forthcoming). A methodology for the analysis of interpretation corpora. Paper delivered at the 1st International conference on interpreting studies, Forl?, November 9-11, 2000. Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1986/1995). Relevance: Communication and cognition. Oxford: Blackwell. Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1993). Linguistic form and relevance. Lingua 90, 1-25.

, 2, 2000

- Relevance Theory

- Relevance Theory * ( )

* .Lee, Chang-soo. (2000). Translating metaphors in literary texts from an RT perspective. Conference Interpretation and Translation, 2, 57-83. This paper discusses problems associated with translation of metaphors in literary texts from a relevance theory (RT) perspective. It begins with a general account of how metaphors are treated in translation theories (most notably by dynamic equivalence theory) and expounds the merits an RT-based translation theory has over others in accounting for various aspects of metaphor translation by drawing on such notions as efforts vs. rewards, poetic effects, and interpretive resemblance. Specifically, it is pointed out that the biggest reward (or contextual effect) obtainable from processing a metaphor is the image associated with it that can give rise to multiple implicatures with varying degrees of strength. This leads to the observation that an approach heavily skewed toward dynamic equivalence and thus tolerant to form modification (metaphor deletion, in this case) in favor of message communication may risk stripping RL readers of access to the richness of meaning inherent in metaphors. Based on these theoretical considerations, five specific methods of metaphor translation (MM, M1M2, MS, MP and MS+P) are discussed with an analysis of examples taken from published translations of literary works. The analysis is geared toward elucidating how in each method processing efforts are reconciled with rewards and how this dynamic relationship relates to the goal of achieving equivalent relevance between SL and RL.

I. equivalence

. equivalence , paradigm . , equivalence (entity) (likeness, similarity) , 100 (complete sameness) equivalence (degree) . , (continuum) (scalar) equivalence . , (source language text) (receptor language text) text text (target readers) , (qualities) (Halverson, 1997). text . Eugene Nida(Nida, 1964; Nida & Taber, 1969) (dynamic equivalence) , , . (processing cost vs. cognitive benefit) (relevance theory, RT ) equivalence (cf. Gutt, 1991, 1996). dynamic equivalence (applicability) (explanation power) (cf. Wendland, 1996). , relevance theory dynamic equivalence , text . (metaphor) relevance theory

.

II. metaphor 1. metaphormetaphor (figure of speech) (similarity) . , " ()" . metaphor (metaphor), (object), (image) (sense) (Newmark, 1982, p. 48). , a sunny smile metaphor metaphor = sunny, object = smile, image = sun, sense = cheerful, happy, bright, warm . metaphor , nonliteralness . non-literalness (idiom) . idiom (phrase) (Nida & Taber, 1969, p. 202). , "kick the bucket" " " . non-deductibility , exocentricism . metaphor idiom , non-literalness metaphor . metaphor idiom (collocatios), (proverb), (allegory) (Newmark, 1988, p. 104).

2. metaphor metaphor

. metaphor (arbitrary) (conventional) (Nida & Taber, 1969, p. 202). metaphor (pragmatic associations) , (associations) (cf. Dobrzynska, 1995). , , , , , , , . , idiom , , , (Valero-Garces, 1997). SL RL (function) (form) (identical expressions) . metaphor , metaphor (image) (sense) (Newmark, 1988, p. 104). metaphor (epitome) (Newmark, 1988, p. 113)

III.dynamic equivalence theory dynamic equivalence . (form) (message) (meaning) (reproduce) , (identity) (equivalence) (Nida & Taber, 1969, p. 12). equivalence (receptor, ) (response) (equivalent) (Nida & Taber, 1969, pp. 22-24). , , equivalent effect . text (formal & meaningful structures) (faithfulness)

formal correspondence . dynamic equivalence . (receptor) ? 3 , informative, expressive, imperative (function) (Nida & Taber, 1969, pp. 24-27). informative function , . expressive function (feelings) . imperative function