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A review of renewable energy utilization in islands

YonghongKuang a,b, Yongjun Zhang c, Bin Zhou a,n, Canbing Li a,n, Yijia Cao a, Lijuan Li a,Long Zeng a

a College of Electrical and Information Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, Chinab Hunan Institute of Engineering, Xiangtan 411104, Chinac School of Electric Power, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 19 November 2014

Received in revised form

17 September 2015Accepted 2 January 2016

Keywords:

Island power

Microgrid

Renewable energy

Grid integration

Energy storage

a b s t r a c t

With the surge in the fossil fuel prices and increasing environmental concerns, signi

cant efforts have beenmade to propel and develop alternative energy technologies to cope with the energy shortage for islandpower grids. Recent advancements and developments on power electronic technologies have enabled the

renewable energy sources to be grid-connected with gradually higher penetration in island electricity supply.Consequently, the utilization and efciency of renewable energy resources in islands has received remarkable

attention from both the academia and industry. In this paper, a brief overview on the current status of islandenergy resources is described. Then, the existing utilization status and development potential of various

renewable generations for island power grids, including solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, ocean and geo-thermal energy, are investigated. Furthermore, the advanced technologies to improve the penetration level of

island renewables, including energy storage techniques, hybrid renewable energy system, microgrid, demandside management, distributed generation and smart grid, are presented.

&2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5042. Present situation of energy supply in islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5053. Development status and potential of renewable energy in islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506

3.1. Solar energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5063.2. Wind energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

3.3. Hydropower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5073.4. Biomass energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508

3.5. Geothermal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5083.6. Ocean energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508

4. Strategies to improve the grid-integration of renewable energy in islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

4.1. Energy storage techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5094.2. Hybrid renewable energy system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

4.3. Microgrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5104.4. Demand-side management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

4.5. Distributed generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

4.6. Smart grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5115. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.014

1364-0321/&2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

n Corresponding authors. Tel.: 86 731 8388 9677; fax: 86 731 88664197.

E-mail addresses:binzhou@hnu.edu.cn(B. Zhou), licangbing@qq.com(C. Li).

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 504513

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1. Introduction

There are more than 50 thousand islands on the earth with atotal area of over one sixth of global land area [1]. More than 740

million people inhabited in islands according to geographicinformation system (GIS) analysis [2]. Electricity supply is animportant issue in islands, and the most island power systemsmainly rely on the imported fossil fuels [3,4]. However, the oil

price in islands is 3

4 times higher than that in the mainland [5,6],and the island economy may be vulnerable due to oil price uc-tuations. Some researches indicate that the gross domestic pro-ducts (GDP) of Pacic Islands will be reduced by 1.5% due to ten-

dollar hike for one barrel [7]. In recent years, the demand ofenergy continues to increase in islands, at an annual growth rate of1.7% in Caribbean islands from 1970 to 2009[8]. The oil price, withan annual growth rate of 5% over the past two decades, would

grow at an annual average rate of 3% in the next 20 years [9].Consequently, some measures should be taken to deal with energyshortage and reduce the dependence on imported fossil fuels inislands.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission causes global warming. CO2isthe primary contributor of GHG, and fossil fuel combustionaccounts for 90% of the CO

2

emission[10,11]. Islands are the big-gest victims of global warming, especially for these low elevation

islands and coastal zones. According to the IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates, sea level has risen eightinches since 1870[12]. Eleven islands including Maldives, SolomonIsland and Tuvalu, are facing the crisis of being submerged [13].

Meanwhile, global warming causes the destruction of ecosystemsand frequent extreme weather in islands, including hurricanes,storms, oods and other cases[14,15]. Therefore, the utilization ofrenewable energy is of great signicance for island power grids.

Although islands are faced with severe energy security,renewable energy resources, such as wind, solar, hydropower andbiomass, are abundant to explore opportunities for power con-

version[7,16]. Normally, each island is blessed with more than onerenewable energy source for electricity utilization. Also, 100% of

electricity consumption from renewable energy has even beenachieved in some islands [17]. The European Island Union has

established island demonstration projects to prove that energysupply in islands could rely on indigenous renewable energysources[18].

With the recent rapid development of sustainable energy

technologies and increasing demand for low-emission generation,the utilization of renewable energy shows promising prospects forisland power grids. From the technical and economic aspects, it isquite feasible to substitute fossil fuels with renewable energy for

island power supply[17]. At the same time, microgrid technologiesprovide a exible integrated platform for the development ofrenewable energy, in which distributed energy could be grid-connected with high penetration. Based on the electricity demand,

topographic position and renewable energy distribution, it is sui-table for islands to implement microgrid[9,19]. Meanwhile, withfurther development of smart grid technologies including com-munication, monitoring, control, and self-healing, the island

energy utilization to accommodate multiplying renewable energyresources has been improved [20]. Hence, the ongoing develop-ment of power electronic technologies will further propel theutilization of renewable energy in islands.

The objective of this paper is to give a comprehensive review ofrenewable energy utilization in islands. First, a brief overview onthe current status of island energy supply systems is presented.Then, the development status and potential of renewable energyincluding solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, geothermal and ocean

energy are summarized. Third, the approaches to enhance the

penetration of renewable energy in islands are provided, including

energy storage, hybrid renewable energy system, microgrid,

demand side management, distributed generation and smart grid.

Lastly, the conclusion is drawn.

2. Present situation of energy supply in islands

In islands, due to the isolation, small area and remoteness, the

traditional energy resources are limited. For the majority of islandsin the world, the imported fuel is still the main energy sources of

the power supply[21]. For instance, in Caribbean islands, 90% of

the energy demand relies on imported fossil fuels. In addition, fuel

imports bills occupy up to 20% of annual import costs in majority

of Small Island Developing States (SIDS)[22]. Some islands spend

more than 30% of GDP on fuel imports. Thus, the energy cost is a

great burden for islands. So far, 130 million people worldwide, one

fth of the world's population, have no access to electricity [23],

and a large number of islands, particularly the small and medium-

size islands, are typical areas with low electricity coverage. For

instance, 70% of households in the Pacic Islands have yet no

electricity, with 96% of rural residents in Solomon Island

depending on traditional fuels for lighting[24].

There is usually no grid connection between islands and

mainland, and even between adjacent islands due to high costs of

submarine transmission cables. Therefore, the island power supply

is not stable and reliable, especially under the frequent extreme

weather conditions. Furthermore, most rural areas in the islands

are not always covered by power supply networks. Consequently,

the distributed diesel generators are often utilized for a few hours

at night. Once the fuels are in short supply, the power supply will

be affected and even interrupted.Owing to the deteriorative situation of energy security and

shortage, people inhabited in islands have been seeking for new

energy substitutes. Thus, utilization of renewable energy has been

put on the agenda [7]. Every year SIDS will convene meetings to

draw up plans and share experiences [25]. Besides, the Interna-

tional Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) has established Global

Renewable Energy Island Network (GREIN) to provide a platform

of exchange and cooperation for islands' renewable energy

development. More than 60 European islands signed the Pact of

Islands to achieve European Union (EU) sustainability targets for

the year 2020 [26]. Moreover, Samsoe in the Baltic Sea, Canary

Island in the North Atlantic, Reunion in the Indian Ocean,

Hawaiian Island in the Pacic and Guadeloupe Island in the Car-

ibbean islands have made use of renewable energy to a large

extent.So far, the dominated renewable energy resources used in

islands are biomass energy, hydropower, wind and solar energy,

and electricity generation is the main form of renewable energy

utilization.Table 1shows the current renewable energy utilizationstatus in the selected islands across the world. It can be found that

the proportion of renewable generations in the total electricity

generation varies from 0% to 100% in different islands, which is

59.3% in Fiji, and lower than 10% in most of islands, even close to

zero [21]. In Pellworm, a representative developed island, the

electricity consumption per capita is 20,457 kWh and renewable

energy generation accounts for 65.93% of the total electricity

generation[17]. This is much higher than the world average level

of 22.1% in 2013[31]. Crete is a representative island devoted to

the development of renewable energy. However, there is almost

no renewable energy utilization in most of islands except for tra-

ditional biomass energy, such as Tuvalu in the undeveloped

islands. Up to now, most islands over the world have released the

development targets of renewable energy.

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3. Development status and potential of renewable energy in

islands

There are abundant renewable energy resources in islands, and

the utilization of renewable energy is different for each island. In

this section, the typical islands are selected and surveyed to

investigate their utilization status of renewable energy, based on

the available literatures and reports. Here, the exploitation

potential of renewable energy refers to the maximum utilization

estimates instead of economic efciency.

3.1. Solar energy

The sun emits energy at a rate of 3.81023 kW per second, and

the solar radiation reaching the earth's surface in a year is

approximate to 3,400,000 EJ which is 7,500 times the world's total

annual primary energy consumption of 450 EJ [35]. Generally,

there are two forms of solar energy utilization: solar thermal and

solar photovoltaic (PV). From 1990 to 2013, the solar thermal and

solar PV grew at a rate of 11.6% and 45.5% per annum, respectively

[36]. Furthermore, up until 2013, the global solar power genera-

tion was 106.4 TW h and the total installed capacity had reached

139 GW[36].

The average radiation in islands around the equatorial region is

more than 4.5 kW h/m2/day[27]. Hence, solar energy can be uti-

lized to various aspects including solar water heater (SWH), solar

PV, solar drying and solar cooling, etc. Due to easy installation andlow costs, the SWH is widely used in islands, especially suited for

hotels and families. Hot water heated by the solar energy can be

used for showering, cooking and washing. In order to improve the

popularity of SWH and reduce electricity consumption in some

islands, legislations have been enacted to install SWH on each new

building. Besides, more electricity bills are charged for households

who use electricity to heat water[37].Cyprus is the global leader of SWH usage, in which 92% of

families and 53% of hotels are equipped with SWH systems [32]. It

has been reported that every ve people is equipped with a SWH

[38]and the cumulated unglazed/glazed water collector capacity

in operation was 425 kWth/1000 inhabitants in 2013[39], which

was the second highest in the world. On the other hand, SWHs in

Barbados were commercialized since the 1970s and its average

installed capacity reached 319 kWth/1000 inhabitants in 2013,

which was much higher than the average value of 48.9 kWth/1000

inhabitants in the Caribbean islands [39]. Moreover, 40% of

families and 50% of hotels use SWH to heat water[40], which can

conserve 15% of electricity consumption [37]. In Reunion, SWH

was initially utilized in the early 1990s, and the total area of solar

collectors covered 410,664 m2 in 2009 and 1181.4 GW h of elec-

tricity was saved annually [41]. The total collector area and col-

lector installations of unglazed and glazed water collectors in

selected islands are shown inTable 2.

Though the SWH has great application potential, its popularity

is still fairly low in many islands. For example, although 200 SWHs

have been installed in the 90s in Tuvalu, SWHs fail to prevail dueto lack of maintenance and unsatisfactory benets. It can be found

that the reasons causing the slow development of SWHs include

the costs, the residents' acceptance, the support of government

and other aspects.

Installed capacity of solar PV system is exible, ranging from a

few watts to hundreds of megawatts. Solar PV systems can be

installed readily almost anywhere where there is sunshine, and

low operation costs are more economically competitive compared

to decentralized diesel generators. Consequently, the solar PV

systems in islands have been applied to schools, households and

communities, especially in the remote areas. In Pellworm, the

installed capacity of solar PV reaches 600 kW, which can produce

225 MW h of electricity and accounts for 0.9% of the total power

generation[17]. In Crete, although the potential of solar PV reaches16.5 GW h per year, the actual installed capacity and annual elec-

tricity generation are only 0.67 MW and 0.17 GW h respectively

[42]. Reunion is committed to develop solar PV generations, and

its installed capacity has increased exponentially in recent years.

Hence, there is not only the large-scale PV power plant, but also

the domestic PV system installed on the building roof with the

capacity of less than 1 kW. In 2010, the installed capacity in

Reunion nearly amounted to 80 MW and the total electricity

generation to 60 GW h[41].In the early stages of solar PV systems, high investment is

needed and the PV systems may be damaged by extreme climate

events. Therefore, although many islands enjoy abundant natural

resources to develop PV generation, there is little and even no

development in the electricity generation from solar energy in a

Table 1

Electricity production from renewable energy in selected islands.

Island Total percentage of electricity

production from renewable

energy (%)

Main type of renew-

able energy

Renewable energy plan/target

(percentage of total power)

Electricity consumption

per capita (kWh)

Region Data sources

Samsoe 100 Wind 100% (present) \ The Atlantic Ocean [17]

Pellworm 64.95 Wind, Solar 100% (present) 20,457 The North Atlantic [17]

Fiji 59.3 Wind, Hydropower 90% (2015) 946.8 The South Pacic [27,28]

Reunion 31.2 Hydropower, Biomass,Ocean

100% (2030) 3382 The Indian Ocean [17,28,29]

Crete 26 Wind, Solar, Biomass 50% (2020) 3806 The Mediterranean [17,30]

Cape Verde 21 Wind, Biomass 50% (2020) 595 The Indian Ocean [28,31]

Cyprus 2.8 Wind, Solar 16% (2020) 4081 The Mediterranean [28,32]

Tuvalu 2 Wind, Solar 100% (2020) 489 The South Pacic [33]Barbados 0.0 Solar 29% (2019) 3491 The Caribbean [28,34]

Table 2

Solar thermal utilization in selected islands.

Island Collector area (m2) Capacity of solar collectors Intensity of solar radiation Reduction of carbon dioxide emissions (tons/annual) Data sources

Reunion 410,664 502.6 m2/1000 14002900 h/y 314,904 [28,41]Barbados 219,690 319 kWth/1000 6.1 kW h/m

2/day 38,869 [31,37,39]

Cyprus 700,947 425 kWth/1000 1900 kW h/m2/y 216,475 [31,38,39]

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majority of islands [37]. In addition, there are demonstration

projects for solar utilization and it is far from industrialization.

Table 3 lists the detailed capital costs of renewable energy gen-

eration. It can be seen that the levelized costs of electricity (LCOE)

of solar PV systems is 21007000 $/kW, which is relatively high

among different renewable energy generations.

3.2. Wind energy

Wind energy, the most common and promising renewable

energy resource nowadays, is very rich in most islands. The aver-age wind speed is 310 m/s, with a maximum of 4050 m/s [6].

According to incomplete statistics, more than 50% islands have

achieved wind power generation, and 55.4% of electricity pro-

duced by renewable energy comes from wind power[6].

In Samsoe, the electricity supply mainly relies on wind power

[17], and the existing eleven wind power plants in this island can

produce 11 MW power output to balance the residential electricity

demand. Meanwhile, the residual electricity can be sold to main-

land, reducing 15000 t of GHG emission every year [18]. In Crete,

the wind power has also been extensively used, and the installed

capacity of wind power reached 166 MW in 2009 [43]. Moreover,

the electricity generation from wind power reached 336.7 GW h

per annum [44]. In 2012, the Greek government approved two

new wind power projects with capacity of more than 2000 MW[45]. In Reunion, the wind utilization potential can reach 60 MW,

and two wind power plants with a total installed capacity of

14.7 MW started to operate in 2006 [41]. Also, the electricity

generation from these wind power plants was 15.5 MW h in 2009

[41]. Similarly, the largest average wind speed in Cape Verde has

exceeded 12 m/s[46], and 8330 MW h of electricity was generated

from wind energy in 2008, accounting for 10% of the total elec-

tricity generation[17]. Also, the largest wind power plant with 30

wind turbines has been launched in Cape Verde and the total

installed capacity reached 25.5 MW in 2011. In some islands like

Barbados, wind energy is abundant while the current electricity

generation is quite scarce[34].In many islands, the development and utilization of wind

power is still in the early assessment and monitoring stages [33].

Table 4 tabulates the available potential and current utilization ofwind energy in selected islands. It can be found that the utilizationof wind energy is quite different among islands. Furthermore,

islands are confronted with a series of problems in the exploitationprocess of wind power. The land ownership of wind power plants

is one of the most prominent problems, and hence numerousprojects have been halted or delayed [33]. In addition, the location

selection and accurate assessment of wind power potential arealso the challenges in wind energy utilization.

3.3. Hydropower

Hydropower, as a clean energy resource with almost no emis-

sion of GHG, has received the rst-degree utilization and devel-opment across the world. In 2013, hydropower accounted for16.4% of electricity, and the total installed capacity was 1000 GW

with 3750 TW h of electricity generation[31]. It is also an impor-tant renewable energy source in islands, especially for mountai-

nous region with abundant rainfall and storage reservoir. In Car-ibbean islands, hydropower accounts for 89% of installed renew-

able energy capacity [8]. In recent years, the medium (25250 MW) and small (o25 MW) hydropower projects have beenimplemented to develop the clean hydro energy in islands [57].

In Fiji, the electricity generation from hydropower reached

460 GW h in 2009. Meanwhile, the Nadarivatu Renewable HydroPower Station with installed capacity of 40 MW can generate

110,000 GW h and reduce 66,000 t CO2 emission per year [27],while Reunion also totally depended on hydropower to provide

electricity in 1982. However, with the development of economyand other alternative energy, the proportion of hydropower in

island power systems has declined recently. Hence, the hydro-power with 632 GW h of electricity and 121 MW installed capacity

only accounted for a quarter of the total electricity generation inReunion in 2008[41].

In rural areas of islands with low electricity demand and

scattered population, many small and micro hydropower plantsare utilized to supply the electricity for dispersive consumers.

Although the initial capital costs of these projects are high, their

operation and maintenance costs are low [31]. Moreover, thegeneration output of hydropower can be controlled exibly and

rapidly in a large range, and thus can accommodate the power

uctuation from other renewable energy. In the remote island

rural areas, local electricity generation and consumption can avoidlong-distance transmission losses and oil-dependent energy sup-

ply. Therefore, a variety of small hydropower stations are underplan and construction in these regions, and most of them are

small-scale hydropower projects, micro-hydro projects and ultra-micro-hydro projects, ranging from a couple of kilowatts to up to

tens of megawatts[57].Table 5shows the situation of small hydropower (SHP) development in selected Pacic Islands.

Pumped storage hydropower is developed rapidly over the

years in the world. Pumped hydro storage (PHS), with large sto-

rage capacity, is the most common energy storage method at

Table 3

Status of renewable energy technologies: characteristics and costs [31].

Type of electricity

generation

technology

Hydropower: grid-

based

Hydropower: off-

grid/rural

Solar PV:

ground-mounted

utility-scale

Solar PV:

rooftop

Solar thermal:

domestic hot

water systems

Geothermal

power

Wind:

onshore

Wind: Small-

scale turbine

Plant size 118,0 00 MW 0.11000 kW 2.5250 MW 35 kW

(residential)

710 kWth (single

family)

1100 MW 1.5

3.5 MW

o100 kW

Capital costs

($/kW)

7504000 11756000 12001950 21507000 1472200 19005500 9251950 6040 (United

States)Typical energy

costs (cent/kWh)

223 540 940 (non-

OECD)

2855 (non-

OECD)

1.528 (China) 419 416 1520 (USA)

Table 4

Potential and existing utilization of wind energy in selected islands.

Island Wind

speed(m/s)

Current

installedcapacity

(MW)

Electricity

potential(GWh)

Existing elec-

tricity gen-eration

(GWh)

Data sources

Crete 10.1 134.75 900 336.7 [47,48]Samsoe 6.57.5 33 / 100% Power

supply

[18,49]

Barbados 6.6 0 20 0 [50,51]

Cape Verde 5.75 26 / 8.33 [17,52,53]

Pellworm 5.55 5.7 91.5 15.136 [17,54,55,56]

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present. In 2013, global pumped storage capacity increased by

2 GW and the cumulative installed capacity reached about 140 GW

[31]. PHS is also a solution to maintain a steady electricity supply

for islands and improve the penetration level of renewable energy

integrated into power grids. The power output of PHS stations can

be regulated rapidly, exibly and reliably to accommodate the

volatile and stochastic power from other renewable energy. Thus,

PHS can be employed for peak shaving and frequency regulation in

islands to improve the utilization of renewable energy. Never-

theless, the development of hydropower is fairly difcult forislands with unfavorable geography, such as Cape Verde, Samsoe

and Tuvalu.

3.4. Biomass energy

Biomass energy is an abundant renewable energy resource on

the earth. The total primary energy consumption of biomass

reached approximately 57 EJ in 2013, which accounted for 10% of

global primary energy supply[31]. Also, the biomass supplies the

primary energy consumption in some islands and is widely used

for cooking, heating and lighting. There are two forms to exploit

biomass energy, namely traditional biomass and modern biomass.

Traditional biomass energy is still the main form of utilization in

most of islands, including directly ring solid wood and agri-cultural residues. However, the direct combustion of biomass has a

lower efciency of 515% and produces large amounts of GHG

while modern biomass energy has a higher efciency of 6090%

with less impact on the environment. Therefore, more and more

islands turn to utilize the modern biomass.Modern biomass energy, including methane, fuel ethanol, bio-

logical fuel oil, and so on, has been utilized in islands. In Crete, the

biomass potential is about 360 GW h every year [47], and it can

provide an effective substitute for the traditional energy. Fur-

thermore, the remainders of 600 olive oil processing factories and

other subsidiary agricultural waste can reach 517,719 thousand

tons per year, and can generate 12 MW power outputs from bio-

mass power plants [42]. In Reunion, the biomass energy is the

largest energy source except for fossil fuels. Moreover, the bagasseand coal mixture power plants were built in 2005, and it burned

590 thousand tons of bagasse and had an installed capacity of

108 MW[41]. Consequently, 10.31% of electricity was produced by

sugarcane bagasse in 2008 [29]. Also, the potential of organic

waste to produce electricity is 1281 GW h in Reunion every year

[41]. In Fiji, the biomass energy accounts for more than 50% of

primary energy consumption[27], and lots of sugarcane bagasse

are utilized for heating and electricity generation. About 3% of

electricity was produced by bagasse plants and other biomass

generation in 2008[27]. In order to develop biomass energy, the

government supports the biofuels such as biodiesel, coconut oil

and bio-ethanol with massive subsidies in Fiji[33].Many islands have abundant coconut oil, and it can be tradi-

tionally used for cooking and drying and also be processed into

bio-fuels to replace diesel in electricity generation and transpor-

tation. In Tonga and Solomon Islands, full exploitation of coconut

oil can offset half of annual diesel imports [58,59]. In addition,

compared to the imported fuels, the coconut oil not only has the

price superiority in that the diesel price is $ 0.8/L while coconut oil

price is $ 0.3/L[60], but also is free from import restrictions. Thus,

the coconut oil can reduce the inuence of oil price uctuations on

islands and also improve the energy security. With various mate-

rial sources and utilization forms, the biomass energy enjoys a

promising development.

3.5. Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy refers to the heat from the depths of the

earth, which usually exists in volcanic areas. It is an effective

renewable energy resource which is not intermittent. There are

two forms of geothermal energy utilization: geothermal heating

and geothermal generation. Over the years, the geothermal gen-

eration has undergone a rapid development in the world. Theaverage annual growth rate in cumulative capacity was 3% from

2010 to 2012 and reached 4% in 2013[31]. Thus, the total installed

capacity and electricity generation reached 12,000 MW and

76,000 GW h respectively in 2013[31], and the former is estimated

to increase to 19,800 MW in 2015 [61].Many islands are in the plate junction where the geothermal

energy is rich. For instance, So Miguel is a typical volcanic island,

and its geothermal generation accounted for 42% of electricity in

2007. The total installed capacity of geothermal generation in So

Miguel reached 27.8 MW in 2008[62]. Besides, Guadeloupe is one

of a few islands which utilize geothermal energy to generate

electricity among Caribbean islands. In this island, geothermal

power plant with 15 MW installed capacity produced 102 GWh of

electricity in 2005[63].Fiji and Solomon Islands are located in the junction of the

Pacic plate and the Australian-Indian plate. These areas have

great potentials to exploit geothermal energy resources. However,

the development of geothermal energy in these areas is still at the

planning and deployment stage with zero installed capacity. Forinstance, although St Lucia with 170 GW h potential per year

began to exploit geothermal energy as early as 40 years ago [64],

there is yet no electricity generation so far. On the other hand, the

initial capital costs of geothermal energy are relatively high, and

there are also geographical limitations for the geothermal energydevelopment.

3.6. Ocean energy

Many islands are blessed with various types of ocean energy, in

the forms of wave, tide, marine current, salinity gradient or ocean

thermal gradient[6568]. Compared with wind and solar energy,

the ocean energy is characterized by less volatility and better

predictability, and the existing ocean energy utilization is still in

Table 5

Situation of SHP development in selected Pacic Islands[57].

Island Total percentage of electricity pro-

duction from hydropower (%)

SHP potential installed

capacity (MW)

SHP installed capa-

city (MW)

Annual SHP poten-

tial (GWh)

Barriers to SHP development

Fiji 48.0 14.7 10.0 1089 Lack of funding

Polynesia 38.25 65 47 300 Absent of native experts

Samoa 28 22 11.9 / Lack of incentives for investment in the

electricity market

New Caledonia 12.4 9.4 27.1 300 Excessive dependence on externalassistance

Solomon Islands 0.7 11 0.298 / Lack of systematic hydrological surveys

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the early development and demonstration stages. Most notably,the utilization of wave energy and ocean thermal energy conver-sion (OTEC) has received more attention in islands. There are somedemonstration projects to utilize ocean energy for electricity

supply, such as a 10 MW OTEC power plant in Reunion [41], a1.5 MW wave energy system in Micronesia[33], and a seawater airconditioning project under construction in Oahu Island [35]. Withthe development of energy conversion technologies, ocean power

generation will have a promising and attractive prospect in thefuture.

4. Strategies to improve the grid-integration of renewable

energy in islands

The inherent characteristics of renewable energy sources, such

as the intermittence of wind and solar energy and the seasonalityof hydropower and so on, would lead to the imbalance betweenenergy supply and demand, and then fail to guarantee the con-tinuity and reliability of power supply. Therefore, developing the

grid-integration technologies for utilization of island renewableenergy is important to ensure a continuous and stable powersupply.

4.1. Energy storage techniques

Renewable energy is characterized by inherent volatility andrandomness, while the island power grids should maintain the

balance of supply and demand in a real-time mode. Energy storagetechniques are the effective approaches to cope with the stochasticand volatile behaviors of renewable energy generation, and the

redundant renewable energy can be transformed to mechanicalenergy, electromagnetic energy and chemical energy in variousenergy storage systems (ESSs). Also, the stored energy can bereleased when electricity generation from renewable energy is

insufcient. Hence, the energy storage techniques can provide theenergy buffering to accommodate the output variation of renew-

able energy generation. Blechinger et al.[9] provided a compara-tive analysis for the energy supply system, in which the penetra-

tion level of renewable energy with energy storage can be up to70.9% while the level without energy storage is only 45.8%. It canbe found that a reliable energy storage system is an important andeffective approach to improve the renewable energy penetration

[69,70].Energy storage techniques, including PHS, battery energy sto-

rage (BES), compressed air storage (CAS), ywheels energy storage(FES), hydrogen energy storage (HES), super capacitors storage

(SCS) and so on, have been used in island power grids [71]. TheESSs in island power grids can be determined by various factors,including the storage capacity, charging and discharging time,location selection for ESSs, geographical conditions of islands,

investment and operational costs, etc. So far, BES, HES and PHS aremain energy storage techniques used in islands. Table 6presentsthe characteristic parameters for different ESSs.

BES is one of the most popular energy storage techniques in

market, and the main types of BES include lead-acid battery,lithium-ion battery, vanadium redox battery (VRB), nickelcad-mium battery and sodiumsulphur (NaS) battery. Different BES isapplicable for different situations of island energy systems basedon the characteristics of batteries including energy storage capa-

city, charging and discharging rates, lifetime, roundtrip efciencyand costs. For example, lead-acid battery is applicable for small-scale energy storage system (o10 MW), while lithium-ion batteryand VRB are used more universally in large-scale energy storage

system (410 MW)[72]. The lead-acid battery is the most mature

technique which can be used extensively to provide reliable power Table

6

C

haracteristicsofdifferentenergystoragesystems.

Storagetype

Specicpower

(W/kg)

Specicenergy

(Wh/kg)

Energyefciency

(%)

Cyclingcapability

(k)

Life(year)Capitalcost

($/kWh)

Response

time

Application

PHS

Low

Low

7085

2050

3050

1070

min

Spinningreserve,energystorage,peaksh

aving,

frequencymodula-

tion,phasemodulation

CAS

low

3.25.5

7080

1030

2040

370

min

Spinningreserve,energystorage,peakshaving,frequencymodulation

Lead-acid

180200

3050

7080

0.21.8

515

50270

s

Energystorage,voltagecontrol,uctuationsuppression,powerqual-

itycontroller

Li-ion

245500

80200

7888

1.53.5

1416

9001,300

ms

Energystorage,voltagecontrol,uctuationsuppression,powerqual-

itycontroller

NaS

150230

150240

8090%

440

1015

125250

ms

Powerqualitycontroller,

blackstart,peakshaving,

demandside

management,lossreduction,areacontrol

Vanadiumredox

1050

1660

7085%

215

520

350800

ms

Spinningreserve,blackstart,peakshavin

g,

demandsidemanage-

ment,lossreduction,areacontrol

HES

6001200

100100

0

4070

20

1020

215

s

Energystorage,powerqualitycontroller,

peakshaving

FES

11,9

00

5100

85%

10010,0

00

20

400800

ms

Energystorage,powerqualitycontroller,

peakshaving,spinning

reserve

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supply by combining diesel fuel and renewable energy in islands

[73]. With the assistance of lead-acid battery, the total installed

capacity of renewable energy in Apolima Island can achieve 100%

of electricity demand in 2005[72]. NaS battery with high energy

density and long cycle life is applied to Nan'ao Island, and simu-

lations demonstrate that renewable energy can be integrated into

the isolated grid with high penetration in remote islands [74]. In

Crete, wind power curtailment is minimized by means of the NaS

battery which shifts the electrical energy from wind power fromoff-peak to on peak[75]. Furthermore, lithium-ion battery features

excellent weight-to-energy and weight-to-power ratios compared

to other types of batteries, which is suitable for mobile application.

Besides, VRB can respond to supply or absorb power at once and

the storage capacity can be precisely designed according to system

requirements, and thus some islands have adopted this energy

storage technique. In King Island, a VRB energy storage system has

been installed to improve the utilization of wind power and

decrease the diesel generation[72].PHSs have been widely used, accounting for 98.3% of installed

storage capacity for global power grids in 2011 [76]. The energy

conversion efciency of PHS can achieve 7085% and it would

maintain a rapid growth rate in the coming decades [77]. Large-

scale PHS is applicable for the islands with large peak load demandover 50 MW[70], and it has been widely utilized to improve the

penetration level of alternative renewable energy and reduce

environmental pollution in islands. The variability and predict-

ability of wind power have constrained its full utilization to power

grids, but the PHS can regulate its power output to reduce the

inuence on system stability and frequency quality. It has been

demonstrated that, with an optimum-sized economic analysis for

the wind powered PHS system in Gran Canaria Island, the pene-

tration of renewable energy can be increased by 1.93%, saving

52.55 GW h of electricity, 13,655 t of fossil fuels and reducing

43,064 t of carbon dioxide emissions[78]. Moreover, the PHSs can

be utilized for implementation with high feasibility in islands from

the economic and technical viewpoints. Tao Ma et al. have dis-

cussed the technical feasibility of island energy system with PHS,and then concluded that the PHS can be used as an effective

complement to accommodate the intermittency and volatility of

solar and wind energy. Consequently, a reliable island electricity

supply can be ensured and then GHG emissions were reduced to

achieve the 100% energy self-sufciency[70].Compared with CAS, SCS and FES, the HES with high energy

density can respond rapidly to balance power supply and demand,

improve frequency quality, and smooth the power output of

renewable energy. HES has some interesting characteristics, and

the production, storage and usage of hydrogen are mutually

independent [79]. There are various ways to produce hydrogen,

including gasifying coal/ biomass/fuel, and wind/solar transfor-

mation, etc. On the other hand, hydrogen can be used as fuel cell,

generation fuel and transportation fuel. Hydrogen, as an energyvector, has been applied to the islands of Mljet-Croatia, Porto

Santo-Madeira, Terceira-Azores, and Malta [79]. It has also been

indicated that renewable energy can not only provide 100% power

supply in islands, but also offer 100% transport fuel supply by

converting renewable energy into hydrogen under certain condi-

tions. In Porto Santo Island, due to lack of ESS to restrain wind

power variability, only 45% of the power output from wind tur-

bines can be utilized. Through the hydrogen storage technique, the

utilization rate of wind power can be improved up to 100%[80]. In

addition, an isolated power system with HES has been designed

and implemented in Milos Island, and further comparative ana-

lysis indicates that the system can increase the penetration level of

renewable energy from 0.13 to 0.85, thus reducing 50% of fossil

fuel consumption and electricity costs[81].

In some cases, ESS requires both relatively high energy density

and power density, and hence the hybrid energy storage system is

a better solution than a single storage system, especially for

microgrids. Thus, a hybrid ESS combining the VRB with super

capacitor is applied to microgrid in order to satisfy the energy

storage requirements [82]. In the hybrid ESS, the VRB character-

ized by high energy density and preferable long-time storage is

used for microgrid autonomy, while super capacitor with high

power density and preferable short-time storage is employed tocope with fast power variations [82]. Furthermore, George et al.

analyzed a stand-alone power system with ywheel and battery

storages from the viewpoints of economy and feasibility, and then

concluded that the hybrid energy storage system cannot only meet

the real-time electricity demand, but also show its superiority on

operational costs compared with single battery storage[83].

4.2. Hybrid renewable energy system

Due to its inherent seasonality, variability, periodicity and other

characteristics, a single renewable energy generation, such as

solar, wind, geothermal and hydropower generation, is difcult to

provide a continuous and economic power supply all the time

[80]. Consequently, the hybrid energy system with multiplyingrenewable generations can be formed and utilized to alleviate the

intermittent and unstable effects of electricity supply [17]. For

most of islands, the sunlight is sufcient for generating abundant

electricity from PV panels in summer, and thus more energy from

PV can be used and stored for electricity supply. On the other

hand, the sunlight will be weakened in winter and wind power is

the main contributor to support more electricity supply. In addi-

tion, in the rain season, the islands will give priority to utilizing

the hydropower with low costs. There are various congurations

for hybrid renewable energy systems, such as wind/PV, PV/bio-

mass, wind/hydropower, wind/PV/biomass, etc. [84].Hybrid renewable energy system is an effective solution to

electricity supply for islands as well as remote villages, in which

the electricity generation from renewable energy can exceed 50%of the total generations [69]. Therefore, the extensive investiga-

tions based on hybrid renewable energy system in islands have

been carried out. Ma et al. designed a hybrid solar-wind-battery

system to provide 100% power supply for power consumers, in

which solar and wind energy accounted for 84% and 16%, respec-

tively [84]. Also, from the perspectives of environmental and

ecosystem protection, Katsaprakakis DA analyzed a hybrid power

system which is dominated by wind and solar energy with a diesel

generator as the reserve unit. In this energy system, the renewable

energy can supply 94% of total electricity demand, with low

operational and maintenance costs as well as unrestraint of diesel

price uctuations [85]. Meanwhile, a hybrid renewable energy

system is designed to decrease the high dependency on expensive

fossil fuels. By means of the coordination between wind energyand water reservoirs, the energy system with 90% penetration of

renewable energy can meet the real-time electricity demand, thus

greatly decreasing the electricity costs [86].

4.3. Microgrid

Microgrid is a small-scale localized energy system consisting of

various distributed generators, energy storage devices, and local

loads[19,87]. Microgrid can operate exibly in the islanded mode

and grid-connected mode, and the distributed renewable gen-

erators can be installed in various locations in microgrids. With

the coordinated control of microgrid, the variability and inter-

mittency of renewable energy can be partially dispatchable. Fur-

thermore, local electricity generation and consumption in

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microgrids can avoid the power losses from long-distance trans-mission, and hence is particularly suitable for isolated islands.

So far, various demonstration projects for microgrid have beenimplemented in many islands, and the corresponding techniques

have also been extensively studied to enhance the penetration ofrenewable energy. Williams et al. analyzed the organizationalstructure and development situation of microgrids as well as the

advanced technologies of monitoring, measuring, energy conver-

sion, and control strategies, and then concluded that high-penetration renewable energy was integrated into microgrids to

ensure the stable and reliable electricity supply[19]. Besides, Zhaoet al. presented an optimization approach to design East FukuyamaIsland's microgrid to alleviate the dependence on imported fossil

fuels and reduce the expense on energy services [88]. In PulauUbin Island, an islanding microgrid is designed as a demonstrationproject to utilize local renewable energy for electricity supply. The

proposed microgrid system can not only reduce the electricitycosts, but also alleviate the reliance on traditional fossil fuels[89].

4.4. Demand-side management

In islands, the electricity generation is mainly used for com-

merce and residence. With the advent of advanced communica-tion and information infrastructures, the responsive demand sidemanagement can be utilized to coordinate the residential energy

consumption with varying power generations from renewableenergy sources [90]. Demand side management refers to thecoordination between the power supply and demand through

end-user appliance management. In islands, end-users can switchon electrical appliances when the power generation of renewableenergy is sufcient, and reduce or even switch off them under the

condition of insufcient electricity supply. Therefore, the demandside management can schedule the end-users' appliance usages tobalance the irregular power generation from island renewable

energy. In Reunion, the average growth rate per year of electricitygeneration decreased from 5.3% to 3.6% through demand sidemanagement[41]. In Oahu Island, the hourly demand-side man-

agement is adopted to accommodate the power supply so as toimprove both the operational efciency of thermal plants andwind energy penetration[91].

4.5. Distributed generation

Distributed generation makes use of dispersed available energysources for electricity generation and can be connected directly tothe distribution network or on the customer side. Thus, less

transmission loss and costs, less congurations of transmissionand distribution, and less transmission congestion can be obtainedcompared with conventional centralized generation pattern[92].

In addition, the rating of distribution generation is exible, rangingfrom a couple of kilowatts to up to hundreds of megawatts, which

is suitable for islands with isolated location and spare population.Various scenarios of power supply in Gkceada, which consider

the integration of distributed generation including wind power,PV, diesel generators and so on, are simulated, and not only energycosts can be reduced but also power supply can be provided by

alternative energy, thus increasing the continuity and reliability ofpower supply[93]. Meanwhile, some distributed generation pro-

jects in Dominica are implemented for government and hospitality

sectors in isolated areas and in parks.

4.6. Smart grid

The recently emerged smart grid can maintain a balancebetween electricity supply and demand by virtue of the advanced

information and communications technology. Through advanced

metering technology, the information of renewable energy gen-

eration can be delivered in real time to customers and electricity

demand of customers can also be fed back to the renewable gen-

eration units, which constructs a bidirectional communication

ow. Thus, renewable energy generation can be automatically

regulated to match the electricity demand in order to achieve the

operational objectives as efciently as possible, minimizing

environmental impacts and maximizing system reliability and

stability. Constructing the smart grid is an important measure formany islands to develop renewable energy [41,49]. An energy-

independent smart network utilizing ocean and wind energy is

studied in Aran Island community, and the intelligent controlalgorithm can optimize the electricity consumption to minimize

costs [94]. In Moushuni Island, smart grid technologies play an

essential role in the integration of solar energy to power grid to

obtain economic and environment benets[95].

5. Conclusion

In islands, lack of fuel supply and environmental pollution

issues oblige people to develop and exploit local alternative

renewables for the sustainable electricity supply, and most islandsare blessed with abundant renewable energy resources. So far,

various renewable energy sources have been utilized for electricity

generation in island power grids. While hydropower, wind energy,

and solar power are the main contributor to island energy con-

sumption, only a few islands make use of modern biomass, geo-

thermal and ocean energy for electricity generation. In addition,

the renewable energy installations among islands are different.

Some islands have achieved the goal that 100% of electricity is

generated from renewable energy, while in most of islands only a

small proportion with less than 10% of total energy is produced

from renewable energy. The most obvious obstacle of renewable

energy utilization is the variability and randomness of weather-

dependent renewables, and a series of effective measures have

been employed, including energy storage, microgrid, hybridrenewable energy system, demand side management, distributed

generation and smart grid, to further enhance the utilization of

renewable energy. With the advent of advanced communication

and information infrastructures in the future smart grids, the

utilization of grid-connected renewable energy sources will have a

promising prospect to improve the efciency, economics, relia-

bility, and energy conservation in island energy systems.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the National

High Technology Research and Development of China (863 Pro-

gram: 2011AA050203), the National Natural Science Foundation ofChina (51507056), and also would like to express our sincere

thanks to the organizations and individuals whose literatures have

been cited in this paper.

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