Kumar EtOH Diesel PartII Fuel06

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Ethanol animal fat emulsions as a diesel engine fuel Part 2:Engine test analysis

M. Senthil Kumar, A. Kerihuel, J. Bellettre *, M. Tazerout

Departement Systemes Energetiques et Environnement, Ecole des Mines de Nantes, 4 rue Alfred Kastler,

BP 20722, 44307 Nantes, Cedex 03, France

Received 9 March 2005; received in revised form 22 May 2006; accepted 23 May 2006Available online 23 June 2006

Abstract

This work aims on the efficient use of animal fat in a diesel engine by making its stable emulsions with ethanol and water. A singlecylinder direct injection diesel engine is tested using neat diesel, neat animal fat and animal fat emulsion (optimal emulsion) as fuels undervariable load operating conditions. Results show increased peak pressure and ignition delay with ethanol animal fat emulsion as com-pared to neat fat. Heat release pattern shows improvement in the premixed combustion phase with animal fat emulsion as compared toneat animal fat. Drastic reduction in smoke, nitric oxide, hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions are observed with the emulsion ascompared to neat fat and neat diesel mainly at high power outputs. Only, hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions are found as highwith the emulsion at light loads. In general, animal fat emulsion shows considerable reduction in all emissions and improvement in engineperformance as compared to neat fat. 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Diesel engine; Ethanol; Animal fat emulsion

1. Introduction

Diesel engines are mainly used in industrial, transportand agricultural applications due to their high efficiencyand reliability. However, they suffer from high smoke andnitric oxide emissions[13]. The increase in prices of dieselfuel, reduced availability, more stringent governmental reg-ulations on exhaust emissions and the fast depletion ofworld-wide petroleum reserves provide a strong encourage-

ment to the search for alternative fuels. It is commonlyaccepted that clean combustion in diesel engines can beachieved only if engine development with fuel reformula-tion and the use alternative fuels are implemented [46].In the name of energy security, regional air quality andgreenhouse gas emissions reduction, use of oxygenatedalternative fuels are advocated to reduce emissions in diesel

engines. In this regard, animal fats have come across goodchoice to use as fuel in diesel engines [7,8]. As a compressionignition engine fuel animal fats have cetane number and cal-orific value very close to diesel. The added advantage is thatanimal fats have fixed oxygen present in it [9]. Hence theycan increase the local oxygen concentration in the fuel mix-ture when used as fuel in diesel engines. Contrary to fossilfuels animal fats are free from sulfur. However, the high vis-cosity and poor vaporization characteristics of animal fats

indicate that they need modifications before using them indiesel engines.Animal fats offer the advantage of freely mixing with

alcohols (both methanol and ethanol) and these blendscan be used in the existing diesel engines without modifica-tions. This is a simple process. The major advantages of theblending are the absence of technical modifications and theease of implementation. Blending of animal fats with alco-hols results in significant improvement in physical proper-ties [10]. Viscosity and density are considerably reduced.Volatility is also improved. Although both methanol and

0016-2361/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2006.05.023

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 251858296.E-mail address:[email protected] (J. Bellettre).

www.fuelfirst.com

Fuel 85 (2006) 26462652
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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ethanol reduce emissions in diesel engines, ethanol has theadvantage of having higher miscibility with diesel, vegeta-ble oils and animal fats. Besides being a biomass-basedrenewable fuel, ethanol has cleaner burning characteristicsand a high cetane rating than methanol[11,12]. It has beenreported that the application of ethanol as a supplementary

compressionignition fuel can reduce environmental pollu-tion, strengthen the agricultural economy and reduce dieselfuel requirements[1316]. Therefore, the use of ethanol incompression ignition engines has received considerableattention in recent years.

Though several research projects have been carried outon a number of alternative fuels in diesel engines, not muchdata is available on the performance of constant speed sta-tionary diesel engine fuelled with animal fat. Moreover,study of ethanol animal fat emulsions on diesel enginesseems to be not done anywhere in the past. In Europe,the production of animal fat is very high. Hence it findsattraction to use as fuel in diesel engines. Since low horse-

power stationary diesel engines are commonly used in agri-cultural and transport sectors, there is a need to study theirperformance using alternative fuels. This can be furtherextended to high power output multi cylinder engines also.Therefore, a study is undertaken with the objective of find-ing out the performance of a diesel engine operated on thefuels completely obtained from renewable energy sourcessuch as animal fat and ethanol. The chemical compositionand the different properties of the tested fat and its

emulsion have been measured in the first part of this work[17].

2. Experimental setup and experimental procedure

2.1. Engine test cell

A single cylinder air cooled Lister Petter diesel enginedeveloping a power output of 2.8 kW at 1500 rev/min isused for the work. The Schematic of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. An electrical dynamometer is usedfor loading the engine. An orifice meter connected to alarge tank is attached to the engine to make air flow mea-surements. The fuel flow rate is measured on the volumetricbasis using a burette. Chromel alumel thermocouples inconjunction with a slow speed digital data acquisition sys-tem is used for measuring the exhaust gas temperature.

2.2. Combustion data acquisition

A high-speed digital data acquisition system (AVLInd-iwin) in conjunction with two AVL piezoelectric transduc-ers is used for the measurement of cylinder pressure andfuel line pressure histories. An optical shaft position enco-der is used to give signals at TDC. Engine in cylinder pres-sure and crank angle are sampled for 100 consecutive cyclesat increments of 0.1 crank angle and averaged to obtaincombustion parameters.

DieselTankDieselTank

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1. Test Engine 11. Fast Data Acquisition Sysytem

2. Dynamometer 12. Slow Data Acquisition system

3. Animal Fat Tank 13. Cylinder Pressure Sensor

4. Diesel Tank 14. Injection Pressure Sensor

5. A/D Card for Pressure 15. Diesel Filter

6. A/D Card for Analyser 16. Animal fat Filter

7. Air Tank 17. TDC Encoder

8. Burette for diesel 18. Speed Sensor

9. Burette for Animal Fat 19 Exhaust gas Analyser

10. Charge Amplifier 20. Smoke Meter

Fig. 1. Schematic of experimental setup.

M.S. Kumar et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 26462652 2647


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2.3. Emission instrumentation

An infrared (COSMA) exhaust analyzer is used for mea-suring hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO)emissions. NO in the exhaust is measured by using a Beck-man chemiluminescence NOx analyzer. Smoke levels are

measured using a standard HARTRIDGE smoke meterwhich works on light absorption technique (passing a lightbeam through the exhaust sample and the fraction of lightis absorbed by the exhaust gas). Light extinction coefficientKis used as the measure of smoke density.

2.4. Experimental procedure

Experiments are initially carried out on the engine usingdiesel and neat fat as fuels. The injection timing is set at 20before TDC for all the tested fuels. The engine is stabilizedbefore making all measurements. Readings for enginespeed, fuel flow, air flow, exhaust gas temperature etc.

are recorded for obtaining performance parameters.Exhaust gas analyzers are calibrated before making mea-surements. Observations are made for smoke, NO, HCand CO to analyze the emission characteristics. In all casespressure crank angle data are recorded and processed to getcombustion parameters. Optimum animal fat emulsionobtained, based on viscosity, stability and micro-structureis finally tested in the same engine at the same operatingconditions. Performance, emission and combustion charac-teristics of the optimum emulsion are analyzed and com-pared with neat fat and neat diesel.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Combustion parameters

The variation of maximum cylinder gas pressure at differ-ent power outputs for neat diesel, neat animal fat and its eth-anol emulsion is shown inFig. 2. Neat animal fat results inlower peak pressure as compared to neat diesel. The maxi-mum cylinder pressure is found as 92 bar with neat dieseland 80.7 bar with neat fat at peak power output. However,except at lightest loads the maximum cylinder pressureincreases with the animal fat emulsion. It is found as87 bar with animal fat emulsion at peak power output.The increase in peak pressure with the emulsion of animalfat can be explained by the higher premixed burning rateof emulsion due to the long ignition delay (will be seen later).The low cetane number and high latent heat of vaporizationof ethanol in the emulsion results in increased ignition delay.The increase in ignition delay results in a strong premixedcombustion phase and gives rise to the cylinder gas pressurewith the emulsion. This behavior becomes more obvious athigh engine loads. The increase in the ignition delay withthe ethanol animal fat emulsion increases the amount of fuelburned within the premixed burning phase. At high engineloads more fuel is burned in the premixed burning phase,

causing high value of peak pressure and rate of pressure rise.

Fig. 3illustrates the heat release pattern with neat diesel,neat animal fat and its ethanol emulsion at maximumpower output. Neat animal fat and its emulsion followthe trend similar to diesel. It can be seen that the combus-tion is more pronounced at the diffusion phase rather thanpremixed phase with neat fat. However, ethanol animal fatemulsion indicates improvement in heat release rate atthe premixed combustion period. It clearly shows a delayat the starting position of heat release as compared to thatof the diesel fuel and neat animal fat. The presence of eth-anol and water fraction in the emulsion decreases thecetane number of the emulsion and increases the ignitiondelay period. This results in increased amount of combus-

tible fuel to be prepared within the period of ignition delayand increases the heat release rate. It is important to notethat although more fuel is needed for the emulsion toobtain the same power as compared to diesel, the increasein fraction of the premixed burning phase and shorteningin diffusive burning phase could be still achieved with theemulsions. At low engine loads (not shown), the heatrelease curve revealed a sharp and short premixed burning

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PeakPres

sure(bar)

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Neat Fat

Ethanol Emulsion

Speed : 1500 rpm

Inj. Timing : 20 BTDC

Fig. 2. Variation of cylinder pressure with animal fatethanol emulsion.

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Load : 100 %

Fig. 3. Variation of heat release rate with animal fatethanol emulsion.

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pattern. This can also be explained by the influence of the

ignition delay as long ignition delay will make the combus-tion to postpone to a late stage. At low power outputs thecombustion becomes inferior with the emulsions due tovery low temperature of the cylinder. Hence the heatrelease becomes very weak at low power outputs.

Fig. 4shows the ignition delay for neat diesel, neat ani-mal fat and its emulsion with ethanol and water at allpower outputs. As expected, ignition delay decreases withincrease in power outputs for all the tested fuels. Thedecrease in ignition delay with the increase in engine loadis due to the influence of cylinder gas temperature withinthe ignition delay period. The gas temperature is higher

at high engine loads than that at low engine loads. It is seenthat the ignition delay is more with the emulsions as com-pared to neat fat and diesel at all power outputs. It is foundas 8CA with neat fat, 6CA with neat diesel and 10CAwith ethanol animal fat emulsion at peak power output.The increase in ignition delay with the emulsion can beexplained by the vaporization of ethanol and water in theemulsion which causes the injected fuel spray into a rela-tively low gas temperature environment and increases theperiod of ignition delay. It can be further explained bythe low cetane number of ethanol emulsion.

The total combustion duration decreases with the ani-mal fat emulsion as compared to neat fat as seen inFig. 5. This is mainly due to the increase in rapid burningrate of the emulsion. The addition of ethanol with the ani-mal fat emulsion promotes combustion and shortens thecombustion duration. As being explained in the above sec-tion of heat release analysis, the faster combustion rate inthe premixed burning phase and shorter diffusive burningphase decrease the total combustion duration of the animalfat ethanol emulsion.

3.2. Performance parameters

The relationship between power output and specific

energy consumption with neat animal fat and its ethanol

emulsion is shown inFig. 6. The specific energy consump-tion decreases with the increase in engine load. After a cer-tain percentage of maximum load, any further increase inbrake load causes only a small increase in brake horse-power. This results in increased specific energy consump-tion at very high power outputs. It is seen that neatanimal fat results in higher SEC as compared to neat diesel.This can be explained by the poor combustion of theinjected fat as a result of high viscosity and density. How-ever, there is an improvement in SEC with the emulsions ofanimal fat. Minimum value of SEC is found at 60% of themaximum load with the emulsion. The improvement in

specific energy consumption with the emulsion is attributedto the changes occurring in the combustion process. Thephysical and chemical differences in fuel structure of etha-nol and fat lead to a combination of changes in the com-bustion process. The physical properties of animal fat arechanged when ethanol is added. The addition of ethanolcauses the viscosity of animal fat to decrease. Presence of

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Ethanol Emulsion

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Fig. 4. Variation of ignition delay with animal fatethanol emulsion.

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uration(CA)

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Ethanol Emulsion

Speed : 1500 rpm


Fig. 5. Variation of combustion duration with animal fatethanolemulsion.

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Ethanol Emulsion

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Fig. 6. Variation of specific energy consumption with animal fatethanol

emulsion.



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water in the emulsion leads to secondary atomization(micro-explosion) of the fuel and results in more completecombustion and rapid energy release. All these factorsresult in low specific energy consumption with theemulsion.

The variation of exhaust gas temperature at differentpower output conditions for neat diesel, neat animal fatand its emulsion with ethanol and water is shown inFig. 7. It is clear from the figure that as the powerincreases, the exhaust gas temperature increases with allthe fuels. The maximum exhaust gas temperatures of540 C, 595 C and 480 C are observed at maximum

power output when the engine is running on diesel, neatanimal fat and ethanol animal fat emulsion respectively.The variations in exhaust gas temperature indicate thatthe type of fuel and engine brake load have a significanteffect on exhaust gas temperature. It is seen that animalfat emulsion has lowest exhaust gas temperature as com-pared to neat diesel and neat animal fat. This can beexplained by the high latent heat of vaporization of waterand ethanol which results in lower burning temperatureswith the emulsion. In addition to that, the shorter diffusivecombustion reduces the late burning of fuel. Neat fat dueto its slow burning (late combustion) characteristics pro-duces highest exhaust gas temperature.

3.3. Emission parameters

Hydrocarbon emissions emitted from neat diesel, neatanimal fat and its emulsions are shown inFig. 8. Comparedto neat diesel, neat animal fat emits more hydrocarbonemissions at all operating conditions. The maximumhydrocarbon emission is found as 126 ppm with neat dieseland 625 ppm with neat fat at peak power output. The mainreason for the higher hydrocarbon is the result of incom-plete combustion of neat fat. Animal fat emulsion showslower hydrocarbon emissions (about 215 ppm) as com-

pared to neat fat mainly at high power outputs. Improved

vaporization and atomization of the emulsions result inbetter mixing with air and leads to complete combustionof the fuel at high loads. However, at low power outputsemulsion shows higher hydrocarbon emissions. The hydro-carbon emissions tend to increase because of the quenchlayer of unburned ethanol present in the combustion cham-ber at low power outputs. In addition to that the highlatent heat of vaporization of water produces slow vapori-zation and mixing of fuel and air. In homogeneity of the airfuel mixture may also contribute to leaner mixture in someregions of combustion chamber and results in moreunburned fuels at low power outputs.

Neat animal fat results in higher carbon monoxide emis-sions as compared to neat diesel as shown in Fig. 9. Neatanimal fat results in fuel richness and leads to more carbonmonoxide emissions. It is observed that animal fat emul-sion also results in higher carbon monoxide emission thanneat diesel and neat fat at low power outputs. The increase

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Speed : 1500 rpm


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Ethanol Emulsion

Fig. 7. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with animal fatethanolemulsion.

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Speed : 1500 rpm


Fig. 8. Variation of hydrocarbon emission with animal fatethanolemulsion.

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Fig. 9. Variation of carbon monoxide emission with animal fatethanol

emulsion.



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in the carbon monoxide levels with ethanol emulsions is theresult of incomplete combustion of the ethanolair mixtureat light loads. Factors causing combustion deteriorationsuch as high latent heats of vaporization can be responsiblefor the poor oxidation reaction rate of carbon monoxideand increased CO production. As mentioned earlier, a

thickened quench layer created by the cooling effect ofvaporizing alcohol can play a major role on CO productionat part loads. Although the CO level is higher at light loadsfor the ethanol animal fat emulsion, the CO level is fairlylower than that of neat animal fat and neat diesel at highpower outputs. Since ethanol has less carbon than dieselfuel and its oxygen content increases the oxygen to fuelratio in the fuel rich regions. The increased airfuel ratiodue to the increased volumetric efficiency leads to morecomplete combustion of the fuel. The presence of atomicbound oxygen in the fuel satisfies positive chemical controlover CO formation.

The black smoke emission resulting from combustion of

diesel, neat animal fat and its emulsions is plotted inFig. 10. Smoke levels are high at high power outputs withdiesel and neat animal fat. This is due to the presence offuel rich core at high loads. The maximum smoke level isfound as 7.7 K with neat diesel and 3.6 K with neat fat.It is seen that the smoke level is lower with neat animalfat than neat diesel. The result of low smoke emission withneat animal fat is due to the presence of low carbon contentin the fat. In addition to that the oxygen present in the fathelps in smoke reduction. Smoke emission is furtherreduced with animal fat emulsion. The trend shows drasticreduction (about 0.3 K) in smoke emissions with ethanol

animal fat emulsion. The reduced smoke at high loadscan be explained by the reasons that the use of ethanol,an oxidizer is effectively introduced to the fuel-rich regionsand suppress soot formation in combustion chamber. Eth-anol does not provide the initial radicals for the formationof aromatic rings. The charge cooling increases ignition

delay and thus, enhances the mixing of fuel with air whichin turn makes better air utilization. The high oxygen con-tent of the emulsion combined with low C/H ratio and aro-matic fractions contributes to the reduction of smoke. Highlevel of oxygen atoms present in the fuel also results inoverall leaner mixture. All these factors result in overall

reduction in smoke emission.The NO emission of the engine operating on diesel,neat animal fat and ethanolanimal fat emulsions is giveninFig. 11. It shows that the NO emission is reduced withneat fat as compared to neat diesel. The maximum NOemission is found as 1480 ppm with neat diesel and965 ppm with neat animal fat. The reduction in NO emis-sion with neat fat is due to the reduced premixed combus-tion as a result of slow burning. The NO emission isfurther reduced with the emulsions of animal fat as com-pared to neat diesel and neat fat. The minimum value of246 ppm at maximum power output is found with the ani-mal fat emulsion. The main reason for the drastic reduc-

tion in NO emissions is again due to the high latent heatof vaporization of water. In the absence of nitrogen in thetested fuels, the formation of NO mainly depends on ther-mal NO and prompt NO. The kinetics formation of ther-mal NO are governed by the extended Zeltovitchmechanisms. Since the latent heat of vaporization ofwater is high, the charge temperature becomes low whenthe fuel is injected into the combustion chamber. As aresult the peak combustion temperature becomes lowand leads NO to diminish. Presence of ethanol in theemulsions also helps to suppress the formation of thermalNO. The formation of prompt NO is initiated by the reac-

tion between hydrocarbon radicals and molecular nitro-gen. This kind of NO is principally formed in fuel richconditions. As the appearance of micro-explosion resultsin a better air/fuel mixture, it prevents rich pockets.Indeed, with animal fat emulsions the formation ofprompt NO is reduced to.

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Speed : 1500 rpm


Fig. 10. Variation of smoke density with animal fatethanol emulsion.

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Speed : 1500 rpm


Fig. 11. Variation of nitric oxide with animal fatethanol emulsion.



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4. Conclusions

Influence of ethanol on engine performance, emissionsand combustion characteristics of a diesel engine fuelledwith the optimum animal fat emulsion (explained in Part1) is studied experimentally. Ethanol animal fat emulsion

shows increased cylinder peak pressure and ignition delay.Higher premixed combustion and lower combustion dura-tion are found with the emulsions as compared to neat fat.Further, improvement in performance and significantreduction in smoke, nitric oxide emissions, hydrocarbonand carbon monoxide emissions are achieved mainly athigh power outputs.

Emulsification of animal fat with ethanol and water canbe a promising technique for using animal fat efficiently indiesel engines without any modifications in the engine.Simultaneous reduction in nitric oxide and smoke can beachieved with the use of animal fat emulsions. However,poor part load performance needs attention. Techniques

like exhaust gas recirculation, cetane improvers etc. canfurther improve the emulsion performance at part loads.

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Kumar EtOH Diesel PartII Fuel06