ENG3309

언어와 인지Language and Cognition

조숙환

서강대

마음의진화:

Chomsky의 ‘recursion’ 에 대한

Pinker/Jackendoff의 재해석,

Elinor Ochs의문화학습/사회화

마음의진화

[Economist. Com May 3rd, 2007, "Gestures of intent"]

질문들…동물의 언어는 인간의 언어와 어떠한 관계가 있을까? 우리의조상은 누구일까?

우리는 언제부터 말을 하기 시작했을까?

우리의 DNA와 가장 유사하다는 침팬지의 의사 소통 방법은인간 언어의 기원에 대해 무엇을 시사할까?

Pollick & de Waal (2007)가 시사했듯이, 우리의 언어는 과연보노보의 의사소통 체계와 긍정적인 관계를 지닐까?

이 문제에 대해 스키너, 촘스키, Jackendoff, Pinker는 어떤의견을 갖고 있을까?

William Wordsworth

MY heart leaps up when I behold

A rainbow in the sky:

So was it when my life began;

So is it now I am a man:

So be it when I shall grow old,

Or let me die!

The child is father of the man;

And I could wish my days to be

Bound each to each by natural piety.

(William Wordsworth, 1802, “MY HEART LEAPS UP WHEN I BEHOLD”)

William Wordsworth(번역)

저의가슴은뛴답니다

하늘의무지개를바라볼때면.

그건저의삶이시작되었을때도,

그리고이제성인이된지금에도그렇지요.

나이가지긋이든후에도그럴것같아요.

아니면, 그땐제가떠나는날이겠지요.

아이는어른의아버지!

그리고저는저의삶이매일매일

자연의경애로가득하면좋을것같아요.

(윌리암워즈워드, “바라볼때면가슴이뛴답니다”)

Legerstee, 2005

'가리키기‘ (pointing)와 '눈맞추기‘ (eye-

contacting)는 인간의 본유적능력으로서, 실제로이러한 몸짓을 하지 못하는 아동은 마치 자폐아와같이 나중에 의사소통 능력이 저하되거나 또는발달되지 않는다고 논의한 바 있다. 실제로,

정상적으로 성장하는 아가의 경우, 사전에 훈련을받지 않아도 눈맞추기와 가리키기 행동을 하며, 이행동이 정상적으로 발달되어야 언어 습득이이루어질 수 있다고 한다.

Pollick & de Waal (2007)

침팬지 34마리와 보노보 13마리를

16개월간 연구.

침팬지와 보노보의 의사소통에 18개의 얼굴표정 및 음성 신호, 31개의 몸짓이 사용되고있다는 것을 발견.

Pollick & de Waal (2007) -계속

(가) 얼굴 표정과 음성 신호들은 모든 동물들이 거의 유사한방법으로 사용.

(나) 동일한 형태의 몸짓이 맥락에따라서로다른의미로사용되고 있었음.

(다) 보노보는침팬지보다 훨씬 더융통성있는방법으로여러표현들을조합하여사용. 침팬지와는 달리 음성신호와얼굴표정을함께사용할수 있었음.

Pollick & de Waal (2007) - 결론

침팬지와 보노보 언어도 인간의 언어처럼구조적으로 보편적이고 또한 형태와 의미의 관계도자의적 (arbitrariness)일 가능성을 시사함.

이 논문에서 Pollick & de Waal은몸짓과 표현을다양하게 조합할 줄 아는 보노보의 능력은 인간언어의 진화와 관계가 있을 것이라고 관망했다.

(Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2007)

Tarzan: first talk

Jane Parker: Thank you for protecting me.

Tarzan: Me?

Jane Parker: I said, thank you for protecting me.

Tarzan: [points at Jane] Me?

Jane Parker: No. I'm only "Me" for me.

Tarzan: [points at Jane] Me.

Jane Parker: No. To you, I'm "You."

Tarzan: [points at himself] You.

Jane Parker: No... [Thinks for a second]

Tarzan (-계속)

Jane Parker: I'm Jane Parker. Understand Jane, Jane.

Tarzan: [points at Jane] Jane, Jane.

Jane Parker: Yes, Jane. And you?

Tarzan: [stares]

Jane Parker: [points at herself] Jane.

Tarzan: Jane.

Jane Parker: [points at Tarzan] And you?

Tarzan: Tarzan. Tarzan.

Jane Parker: Tarzan...

[Edgar Rice Burroughs, 1912, 소설 "Tarzan of the Apes"에서 발췌]

Elinor Ochs Language Socialization

As children learn appropriate ways of

speaking, they also learn important

cultural values and ideals of personhood.

They learn to act like someone of their

social position, gender, ethnic group, etc.

Lifelong Socialization

• As we move into new social contexts, we

learn new ways of speaking and relating to

people; we may learn new frames

• Enter college, joining a frat, or moving into

a new job are all language socialization

situations

Peer socialization

• Socialization by members of your own

group (your peers) is one of the primary

ways that children over the age of 5 and

adults are socialized through language

More socialization

• “fat talk”

• Girls are socialized in their groups from a

young age to engage in “fat talk”

• “I’m so fat.”

• “No you’re not.”

Peer socialization

• When children go to school, peers become the main vehicle for their socialization into particular roles (e.g. developing ideas of “being a good friend”)

• Child peer groups often span several years at a time (through siblings, neighborhood friends, etc.) allowing for games and verbal art to be passed down from generation to generation.

Acquisition and Socialization

• Language acquisition refers to the process

of a child/baby acquiring language for the

first time

• Language socialization refers to the

process by which a child gains

communicative competence and is

socialized into a group through language

Children are socialized INTO a linguistic and

cultural system, but children are also

socialized THROUGH language into social

roles and models of behavior

Language acquisition is sometimes

treated by child development

researchers as a mechanical process of

activating an innate capacity that is

minimally accessible to cultural

influence (e.g., Chomsky).

BUT culture surrounds child language

learning, including the significance of

learning language, rules for appropriate

use (Ochs, MacWhinney 등emergentists), and so forth.

What are kids really learning?

Example: Ochs’ research on dinner-table conversation in California

Conversation focuses on children’s activities

Mom does all the conversational work to guide the story

Everyone turns to Dad for a moral judgment at the end.

Becoming Human

What is the first question we ask about a

newborn? Are babies “human”?

Ochs and Schieffelin compare 3 cultures

with regard to ideas about babies and

language development (US middle class,

Samoa, Kaluli)

U.S. White Middle Class

• Infants are treated as a social being.

• Child is directly addressed. Caregivers

may answer for the child.

• Adults accommodate to children. (e.g.

baby talk, baby-proofing)

Papua New Guinea

인도네시아 동쪽 코랄해와 남태평양사이에 위치

Kaluli (Papua New Guinea)

• Babies are “soft” and “have no understanding”

• Caregivers speak “for” babies; don’t modify speech much to accommodate

until it says mother (naw) and breast (bo)

Many rules for interaction are not explicitly

taught. Children learn them through

experience.

• Eye contact

• Interruption patterns

• How to get a turn speaking

• When to stop speaking

• What topics are discussed and what aren’t

discussed, and with whom

Recursion:Chomsky vs. Everett/Jackendoff/Pinker

Chomsky:

syntactic categories (NP, VP, S, etc.) recur by

allowing an embedding to be repeated in a

hierarchical manner.

Everett (1995년 이후계속):

Piraha 언어 (Amazon)에는 embedding 구조가없음.

Recursion (Chomsky)

boy

the

likes

girl

a

DetP

NP NP

DetP

S

boy

the

likesDetP

NP

girl

a

NP

DetP

S

VP

Jackendoff/Pinker (2004, 2005 - )

‘회귀성’은 인간 언어의 특징의 일부에 불과하므로, 언어 지식의생성을 어느 날 갑자기 두뇌의 성장이나 형태의 법칙에서 비롯된‘부산물’ 또는 ‘삼각소간’ (spandrel)으로 총체적으로진화되었다고 설명할 수 없다.

핑커 (2003): 마음은여러도구가집합적으로모여있는 ‘Swiss

army knife’ 같은것으로서, 마치 Pleistocene (홍적세) 시대 (1만-

160만년전)에 우리의 조상들이 그때그때 당면한 일을완수하면서 형성된, 자연선택 (natural selection)의결실로보아야한다. 인간의 언어는 소리, 형태, 문장구조, 담화 등 매우다양한 특징과 복잡하면서 서로 독립적인 지식 구조가 담겨 있기때문에, 어느 날 갑자기 인간의 두뇌에 변화가 생긴 부산물에의해 진화가 발생했으리라는 가설은 언어의 본질을 반영하지못한다