Language Skills Ch 3

8/12/2019 Language Skills Ch 3

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PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUN

A noun is a name of a person, place, thing, idea, living entity,action or quality.

PRONOUN

A pronoun is a word which comes in place of noun in order tobreak the monotony of sentence and also for economy of

words.

VERB

A verb is a word which is used to describe an action or a stateof existence

ADJECTIVE

An adjective is a word which qualifies a noun or simply providesmore information about a noun.

ADVERB

An adverb is a word which qualifies a verb. It gives usinformation about how an action is performed or when an actionis performed or where it is performed.


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PREPOSITION

A preposition is a word that denotes a relation between a nounand a pronoun in a sentence. A preposition usually comes

before a noun, pronoun or noun phrase.

CONJUNCTION

A conjunction is a word that joins two sentences, words orphrases together.

INTERJECTION

An interjection is a word that describes a sudden outburst ofemotion and is followed by an exclamatory mark.

ARTICLE

An article is a word used to introduce a noun.


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N !N "# "$# % && NA'()#A%)

% **$%)I+$

)ypes of nounsa "# "$# N !N

b % && N N !N

c % **$%)I+$ N !N

d A'()#A%) N !N

a "# "$# Noun is a word that refers to a particularperson, place or thing. Names of days, weeks, months,institutions, religions, historical monuments and theiradherents are proper nouns.

$xception in the usage of proper nouns-A proper noun can at times also act as common noun tosignify a particular quality, style, characteristic or behaviourpattern.


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$g - i /e is the modern day (hakespeare.

ii ur boss is the /itler of this age.

In the first example, 0he1 refers to a person who has thequality of 2andhi that is, he possesses nonviolent attitude,perseverance and is morally upright. In the secondexample, the boss has such qualities like dominating,inhuman, shrewd etc.

b % && N Noun refers to a particular class or namegiven to a particular entity and every member of the class

is also referred to with the same name. )o be precise, acommon noun is a name common to all. $g - student,human beings, men etc. %ommon nouns can be furthersub divided in to two categories

i %ount Nouns )he entities which can be counted3singular and plural. $g - shop shops

ii &ass Nouns )he entities which cannot be counted3 noplural form. $g - money

c % **$%)I+$ Noun refers to a group of things,persons or animals. )hough the concept group refers tomore than one entity but we usually think of group as a

whole most of the time as single entity. In $nglish grammarit is important to identify the collective nouns in order tomaintain subject verb agreement in a sentence.


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$g - Army, group, committee, society, public, troupe,majority, faculty, jury, herd, shoal, board, public, navy,council, company etc.

d A'()#A%) Noun refers to entities which areintangible. )hey cannot be physically seen or touched butcan be felt or experienced. )hey are sub divided intocategories such as -

i qualities honesty, dishonesty

ii action valour, movement

iii state slavery, childhood, adulthood

iv Names of subjects related to Arts, (cience, music etc.

Abstract nouns are usually derived from adjectives such ascowardice from coward etc.

2$N4$#According to $nglish language noun gender can be divided intofour categories namely -

i &asculine - boy, bull, husband, actor etc

&asculine gender can also be considered as thepersonification of strength, violence such as- war, summer,death, winter etc.

ii 5eminine - girl, wife, actress, etc


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5eminine gender can be considered as representinggentleness, beauty such as- peace, spring etc.

iii %ommon - parent, teacher, cousin, enemy, sibling etc.

%ommon nouns deal with words which do not refer to aparticular gender.

iv Neuter - pen, street, tree, building, book, table etc.

*ower case animals are also included in the neuter gender.

WAYS TO CHANGE MASCULINE TO FEMININE NOUNS: 4WAYS

6 'y adding 7ess at the end of the word

$g - poet poetess, lion lioness, author authoress

8 'y adding a word either at the beginning or at the end ofthe word

$g - grandfather grandmother, milkman milkmaid

9 'y adding 7ine, ix, a, etc

$g - hero heroine, signor signora3 c:ar c:arina

; )he word might also change completely.

$g - boy- girl3 man- women, monk- nun


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/owever, a word of caution is that in this world of politicalcorrectness gender differences are slowly vanishing. )hus, acompany may have a chairperson and not chairwomen.

N!&'$#Nouns can be classified in terms of singular and plural forms.)he singular form of noun can be changed into plural form in

different ways.6 &ost common and popular way of changing singular to

plural is by adding an 7s at the end of a word

$g - boy- boys3 girl- girls3 toy- toys.

8 Nouns ending in 7s, sh, ch, x, o are changed by adding7es to them

$g - bush- bushes3 buffalo- buffaloes3 catch- catches3 box-boxes

$


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; %ompound nouns change from the singular to the pluralform by adding an 7s to the main word-

5ather in law- fathers in 7law3 passerby- passersby etc.

$


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$g - jeans, spectacles, measles, scissors, tongs, pants

9 )here are some nouns which are used in singular orplural forms depending on their context.

$g - the word 0people1 can be used in both the forms. Inthe collective noun it is used only in the plural form.

$g - the people have started reali:ing the effects ofglobal warming.

/owever, as a common noun the word 0people1 can beused as singular or plural.

$g - )he Indians are food living people.

)he various people of India speak myriadlanguages.

; (ome nouns have different meanings in the singular orplural contexts-

a (ome nouns have more than one meaning in thesingular with only one meaning in the plural-

$g - light Bsingular - brightness, radiance, lamp whilein the plural refers only to lamps.

$g - people Bsingular - nation, men and women,however in the plural, it refers to nations only like

0peoples of $urope1.b )he meaning of some nouns change according to

their two forms-

$g - "hysic medicine3 "hysics- branch of science


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*ight weight3 lights- lamps

5orce strength3 forces defense troops

Air atmosphere3 Airs manners, affectations

&anner method3 &anners behavior

%ustom habit3 customs duties levied on goods orhabits

= (ome nouns have different forms in the pluraldepending on the context-

Index- indices Balgebraic signs , indexes contentstables

@ %ertain collective nouns take up plural verb when theystop acting as a group -

$g - )he jury unanimously decided the case

)he judges in the jury were divided in their opinion.

Nouns derived from foreign languages retain theiroriginal plural form-

$g - monsieur- &essieurs B5rench 3 &adame-&esdames B5rench 3 memorandum- memoranda B*atin

C Abstract nouns are usually not used in the plural forms

except in cases where they are used as common nouns.


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N !N %A($

Nouns can be further divided into = case types-Nominative, bjective and "ossessive

a Nominative - the noun which is used as the subjectof a verb. )he nominative precedes the verb andanswers the question 0who> what1.

$g - (unita broke the window.

Dho broke the windowE (unita 7 noun

)he subject of the verb 0broke1 (unita is in thenominative case

b bjective - the noun used as the object of the verb.It answers the question 0whom> what1

$g - (unita broke the window. )he noun (unita performs the action of breakingthe window. )hus, the object of the verb 0broke1 is

window and therefore 0window1 as a noun is in theobjective or accusative case.

c "ossessive - )he noun in the possession of the

object and it answers the question 0whoseE1$g - Fueen $li:abeth1s 'ritain

)oday is teachers1 day

5or goodness1 sake


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(heela and #am1s apartment

(heela1s and #am1s apartments

)he roof of the house

"# N !NPRO + NOUN= INSTEAD NOUN

"ronoun comes instead of noun and avoids repetition andmonotony.

$g - Ame is a student.

Ame studies in std


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$&"/A)I%

6G " (($((I+$

%A($ Ist "$#( N 8 nd "$#( N 9 rd

(ingular

"lural singular

plural (ingular plural

Nominative

I De Hou Hou /e>she>It )hey

bjective &e !s Hou Hou /im >/er>It )hem

"ossessive

&y ur Hour Hour /is >/er>It )heir

&ine urs Hours Hours /is>/ers>Its

)heirs

6 PERSONAL - It should be kept in mind that the personalpronouns which come instead of noun must conform with thegender, number and person of the noun it replaces.

$g - (ana cannot attend the party. (he is not well.

)he book is stolen. It is not in its place.

8 Nouns> pronouns joined by 0and1, or, 0nor1


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$g - )he teacher and the students are planning to go on apicnic

)he &.4 and treasurer is going to the (tates

$ither 4inesh or you has to pay the penalty.

Neither the doctor nor the nurse is present.

$xception - Neither the doctors nor the nurses neglected theirresponsibilities.

RELATIVE PRONOUN

A relative pronoun is used to join a phrase or clause withanother phrase or clause. )he relative pronouns are- 0who1,0whom1, 0that1 and 0which1.

$g - )his is the shop that you recommended.

In this statement the pronouns relate to the nouns thatprecede them and therefore they are called relative pronoun.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

An interrogative pronoun is asked to question. Dhat> Dhich>Dho> Dhom> Dhose.

$g - Dhat did you doE

Dhom were you speaking withE

Dhose bag is thisE

Dho said thatE


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DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN

)hese pronouns refer to nouns simultaneously. )he verb is inthe singular form.

$g - $ach of these students belongs to the ..

$ither and Neither

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN

A demonstrative pronoun refers to or points to or identifies anoun or pronoun. 0)his1 or 0these1 refers to entities that arecloser in space or time while 0that1 or 0those1 refers to entitiesthat are far away in terms of space or time. )he demonstrativepronouns are 0this1 and 0that1 are used to refer to singular nounsor noun phrases while 0these1 and 0those1 are used to refer toplural nouns and noun phrases.

$g - )his is the book I was talking about.

)hese are the books I got from the library.

)hat villa belongs to my grandfather.

)hese hills surround the valley from all sides.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUN

)he reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject of the clause orsentence.

$g - singular &yself, yourself, himself, herself, and itself

"lural ourselves, yourselves, themselves


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$g - /e hurt himself in the accident.

EMPHATIC PRONOUN

An emphatic pronoun is identical in form to reflexive pronoun with only difference it is used to emphasise its antecedent.

$g - I myself saw the accident

POSSESSIVE PRONOUN

A possessive pronoun refers to the owner of a particular entity.)he possessive personal pronouns are 0mine1, 0yours1, 0hers1,

0his1, 0its1, 0ours1 and 0their1$g - 6 I looked at him

8 Dho is going for the filmE

B the nominative is used when the pronoun performs theaction

9 I looked at him

; Dhom are you chatting withE

B)he objective is used when the pronoun is the receiver of theaction

= It is me

BDhen the pronoun acts as the complement of the verb 0to be1, it

should be in the nominative form

@ It was she who spoke with me.

BDhen the pronoun functions as the object of a verb orpreposition, it should be in the objective form


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llerthan IBamBDhenthenounfoll

ows0than1or0as1the

verb isimplied

VERB+$#' forms a very important part of $nglish sentences and refers to actionbeing done by somebody or is done to some body.

VERB

LEXIREFLEXIVE


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)#AN(I)I+$ AUXILIARY

IN)#AN(I)I+$

1) LEXICAL VERB

*exical verb tells us of an action performed by the subject of asentence. *exical verb can be classified into -

a )ransitive verb

)ransitive verb passes the action to the object of the sentence.

$g - &anasi broke the vase.

b Intransitive verb

Intransitive verb do not pass the action to the object of the sentence.

$g - &anasi laughed.

SUBJECT, VERB AGREEMENT

6 A verb must agree with the subject in number and person.


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$g - 'irds fly

'ird flies

)he nurse and the friend of 4r. #ao are sick. )he nurse and friend of 4r. #ao is sick.

8 Nouns as subjects joined with the rest of the sentence by words as0with1, 0and not1, 0along with1 take singular verb since they areparenthetical and do not affect the verb of the sentence.

$g - )he teacher, along with her students, are going for a picnic.

)he teacher, along with students, is going for a picnic.

9 "hrasal verbs

"hrasal verbs consist of a verb and another word or phrase,usually a preposition. "hrasal verbs in many cases have layers ofmeaning and do not restrict itself to literal meaning.

$g - stand out, stand up, stand against, stand for etc.

ADJECTIVEAn adjective gives us more information about noun.

TYPES OF ADJECTIVE

6 Fuality

8 Fuantity


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9 Numeral

; 4emonstrative

= Interrogative

@ 4istributive

1) A !"#$%&"' ( * -%$.

$g - )he "acific cean is the largest ocean of the world.8 A !"#$%&" ( * /$%$. Bhow much

$g - Hou should take great care of your health.

/e has no ego.

9 A !"#$%&" ( / 0 "2 Bhow many

a %ardinal one, two, threeb rdinal first, second, third

Dhen used together ordinal comes first and then cardinal.

$g - In the first row there are @ students.

4) D"0(/'$2 $%&" A !"#$%&"'

$g - )his cricket bat is big

)hose hills surround the village.


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= I/$"22(3 $%&" A !"#$%&"'

$g - Dhich student are you talking aboutE

Dhose vehicle is thisE

) D%'$2% $%&" A !"#$%&"'

$g - $ach woman carried a basket.

$very word of it is true.

$ither pen will do.

F(20 $%(/ ( !"#$%&"'

6 Adjectives formed from nouns

$g - maturity- mature, girl- girlish3 child- childish

8 Adjectives formed from nouns$g - break- broken3 talk- talkative

9 Adjectives formed from adjectives

$g - black- blackish3 comic- comical3 sick- sickly.

Adjectives ending in 0 ing1 and 0 ed1

Dhile describing a situation we add 0 ing1 to the adjectives and while describing the effect of the situation on a person we add 0ed1 to the adjective.


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$g - &y job is boring.

I1m bored with my job.

DEGREE OF COMPARISON

" (I)I+$ % &"A#A)I+$ (!"$#*A)I+$ 2 4 '$))$# '$()

'$A!)I5!* & #$ '$A!)I5!* & () '$A!)I5!*

*$(( *$(($# *$A()

'A4 D #($ D #()

ADVERBAdverb is a word that qualifies a verb

)H"$( 5 A4+$#'(

6 )I&$


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8 5#$F!$N%H

9 "*A%$

; &ANN$#

= F!AN)I)H

@ A55I#&A)I N # N$2A)I N

#$A( N

C IN)$## 2A)I+$

J #$*A)I+$

6 Adverb of time Bwhen

$g - I visit library everyday

)he students arrived late in class

8 Adverb of frequency Bhow often

$g - I visit temple frequently

4o you come here alwaysE

9 Adverb of place Bwhere

$g - Dhy don1t you move aheadE

"lease come back.


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; Adverb of manner Bhow

$g - /e laughed loudly.

"lease speak clearly.

= Adverb of degree or quantity Bhow much, in what degree

$g - )his is too bad.

I am quite happy.

@ Adverbs of affirmation or negation

$g - (he will definitely come to the party.

I cannot recogni:e him.

Adverbs of reason

$g - /ence, I will go ahead of you.

C Interrogative adverbs

$g - Dhere is your sisterE

/ow are you feelingE

J #elative adverbs


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$g - Is this place where the battle was foughtE

ADVERBS5 FORMS

6 (ome adverbs have the same form as that of adjectives

$g - /e sang in a loud voice. Badj

4o not be loud. Badv

8 (ome adverbs can be used in both the forms$g - "lease be loud

"lease speak loudly

/owever, the meaning might change sometimes.

$g - Hou really worked hard for your project.

Hou hardly worked for your project.

)here are many adverbs which are made from an adjective K*y

Adjectives- Fuick, serious, bad, careful, quiet, heavy

Adverb - Fuickly, seriously, badly, carefully, quietly, heavily

Not all words ending in 0 ly1 are adverbs, some adjectives alsoend with 0 ly1

$g - friendly, lively, lovely, silly, elderly, lonely


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$g - Ann is a careful driver.

Ann drove carefully through the rocky terrain.

ADVERB OF DEGREE6 COMPARISON

" (I)I+$ % &"A#I( N (!"$#*A)I+$

'A4 D #($ D #()

(DI5)*H & #$ (DI5)*H & () (DI5)*H

5A() 5A()$# 5A()$()

5A# 5!#)/$# 5!#)/$()

&!%/ & #$ & ()

*A)$ *A)$# *A()

% NL!N%)I NIf we divide the word 0conjunction1 into two, we get 0con1 which meanscoming in contact or in touch and 0junction1 means to join. )hus,conjunction as parts of speech brings two words or phrases or

sentences together and joins them to form one whole sentence.)here are three types of conjunctions -

6 %o 7 ordinating conjunction

8 %o 7 relative conjunction


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9 (ubordinating conjunction

6 %o 7 ordinating conjunction

%o ordinating conjunctions join two independent sentences ofequal importance together to form one sentence.

$g - It is raining and I will go out to play.

)he party was good but the food was not tasty

8 %o relative conjunction

%o relative conjunctions always come in pairs in a sentence.5or example - $ither or, Neither nor, No sooner than, Notonly but also

$g - $ither you must leave or face the punishment.

9 (ubordinating conjunction

(ubordinating conjunction joins two clauses one of which isdependent on the other. )hese can be divided into seven types -

$g - Hou are shorter than I am.

$g - It was so foggy that we could hardly see each other.

$g - De went to play after it stopped raining.

$g - Hou can leave the country if you have a valid passport.

$g - De work so that we can earn money.


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(ingular

'efore a vowel sound

A or An is called indefinite article because it does not point outany particular or definite person or thing.

RULES

6 As a general rule, a common noun in singular number musthave an article before it.

$g - )his a book

)he book is on the table

$xception A common noun in the singular number will not have

an article before it when it is used in the general sense.$g - &an is mortal.

N )$ - Dhen we speak of a person or thing for the first time wegenerally use the Indefinite Article a or an3 but when we speakof the same person or thing a second time we use the 4efiniteArticle 0the1.

$g - At the end of the road there is a shop.

)he shop remains closed most of the time.

8 As a general rule, %ommon Noun in the plural number do nothave the 4efinite article 0the1 placed before them.


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$g - 'irds build nests.

%hildren like chocolates.

N )$ - /owever, when we speak of particular person or thingsthat we have already mentioned before or that are known to us,

we use 4efinite Article.

$g - )he children of this house do not like the sweets that are soldin the market.

USE OF THE

I Dhen we refer to some particular person or thing.

$g - )he girls of this school are very intelligent.

8 Dhen a (ingular Noun is used to indicate a whole class.

$g - )he dog is a faithful animal. )he rose smells sweet.

9 'efore the names of rivers, seas, oceans, gulfs, mountainranges and group of islands.

$g - )he 2anges

)he 'ay of 'engal )he /imalayas

N )$ - De say- the "unjab, the 4eccan, the !nited (tates ofAmerica.


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; 'efore the names of newspapers and sacred books.

$g - )he )imes of India.

)he +edas

= 'efore common nouns which are names of things unique of theirkind.

$g - )he moon is shining in the sky

)he world is full of sorrow.

@ 'efore directions

$g - )he sun rises in the $ast and sets in the Dest.

'efore the names of races or nations

$g - )he /indus

)he $nglish defeated the 5rench.

N )$ - 0)he1 is not used before the names of languages.

$g - $nglish is easier than /indi.

C 'efore Adjectives in the superlative degree and before rdinalNumeral Adjectives.

$g - )his is the best book that I have read.

4ecember is the last month of the year.

J 'efore an adjective when the noun is understood.

$g - )he rich B rich men should help the poor B poor men .


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"#$" (I)I NA preposition is a word which is placed before a noun or apronoun to show the relation in which the person or thingdenoted by the noun stands to something else.

$g - )he box is on the table.

)he sky is above us.

IN)$#L$%)I NAn interjection is a word that is added to a sentence to conveysudden burst of emotions. It is not grammatically related to anypart of the sentence. An Interjection is depicted in the sentence

with an exclamatory mark B M .

$g - h 2odM Dhat a mess.

!hM AhM uchM.

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Language Skills Ch 3