Lawrence Zbikowski

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    Lawrence M. Zbikowski*

    Metaphor and Music Theory: Reflections from Cognitie !cience

    KEYWORDS: metaphor, cognitive science, analysis, Nicholas Cook

    AS!RAC!: A recent "isc#ssion on the smt$list %oc#se" on Nicholas Cook&s claim in Music,

    Imagination, and Culturethat m#sical analysis is essentially metaphorical' !his essay

    investigates this claim thro#gh a revie( o% recent (ork on metaphor )y cognitive

    scientists' !his (ork )oth s#pports an" mo"i%ies Cook&s original claim' !he latter portion

    o% the essay presents e*amples o% t(o applications o% research on metaphor to m#sic

    theory'

    ". #ntroduction

    +'- .n a recent set o% e*changes on the smt$list, attention %oc#se" momentarily on

    Nicholas Cook&s claim in Music, Imagination, and Culturethat m#sical analysis (as

    essentially metaphorical'/0Altho#gh there (as consi"era)le interest in the topic at the

    time, %#n"amental aspects o% Cook&s claim (ere never consi"ere" in "etail, nor (ere its

    )roa"er implications %or m#sic theory' .n the %ollo(ing . (o#l" like to ret#rn to this claim,

    consi"er recent (ork on metaphor )y cognitive scientists that )oth s#pports an" mo"i%ies

    Cook&s original claim, an" s#ggest (ays metaphor in%orms an" shapes the (ays (e

    theori1e a)o#t m#sic'

    $. The metaphorical nature of musical analysis

    +2'- As Cook notes, the perspective on m#sical analysis he presents in Music,

    Imagination, and Cultureis in%orme" )y the (ork o% the philosopher Roger Scr#ton'

    Scr#ton "irectly a""resses the metaphoricity o% o#r acco#nts o% m#sic in his 345 essay

    67n"erstan"ing 8#sic'6 Scr#ton&s arg#ment centers on a cr#cial "istinction )et(een

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    so#n" an" m#sic' So#n", %rom his perspective, is a material %act, an" as s#ch is a matter

    %or scienti%ic #n"erstan"ing' 8#sic, in contrast, is an intentional constr#ct, a matter o% the

    concepts thro#gh (hich (e perceive the (orl"' !he evi"ence %or this "istinction is

    provi"e" )y the metaphorical nat#re o% o#r characteri1ations o% m#sic: altho#gh (e speak

    o% &m#sical space& 9an" locate tones (ithin it, this space "oes not correspon", in a rational

    (ay, to physical space; altho#gh (e speak o% &m#sical motion,& the motion is at )est

    apparent, an" not real' !he concepts o% space an" motion are e*ten"e" to m#sic thro#gh

    metaphorical trans%erence as a (ay to acco#nt %or certain aspects o% o#r e*perience o%

    m#sic' !hese metaphors are not an a""ition to m#sical #n"erstan"ing, )#t are in %act

    )asic to it' Scr#ton (rites,

    '''in o#r most )asic apprehension o% m#sic there lies a comple* system o% metaphor,

    (hich is the tr#e "escription o% no material %act' An" the metaphor cannot )e eliminate"

    %rom the "escription o% m#sic, )eca#se it is integral to the intentional o)

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    +2'5- Altho#gh Scr#ton&s 9an", )y e*tension, Cook&s assertion a)o#t the metaphoricity o%

    m#sical #n"erstan"ing occ#rs as part o% a larger rationalistic arg#ment a)o#t m#sical

    ontology, there is a )o"y o% recent empirical (ork )y cognitive scientists that s#pports this

    assertion' !his research s#ggests that metaphor is not simply an anomalo#s #se o%

    lang#age or a mark o% the (ay (e conceive intentional o)

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    +5'2- ase" on evi"ence provi"e" )y a large n#m)er o% similar e*amples o% the

    appearance o% metaphorical constr#ctions in every"ay "isco#rse, Fako%% an" Gohnson

    propose" that metaphor (as a )asic str#ct#re o% #n"erstan"ing thro#gh (hich (e

    concept#ali1e one "omain 9typically #n%amiliar or a)stract$$the target "omain in terms o%

    another 9most o%ten %amiliar an" concrete$$the so#rce "omain' H#rther st#"y has

    provi"e" a (ealth o% empirical evi"ence %or this proposal an" contri)#te" to the

    "evelopment o% the %iel" o% cognitive ling#istics'/30

    +5'5- H#n"amental to the theory o% metaphor that sprang %rom Fako%% an" Gohnson&s (ork

    is a "istinction )et(een concept#al metaphors an" ling#istic metaphors' A concept#al

    metaphor is a cognitive mapping )et(een t(o "i%%erent "omains; a ling#istic metaphor is

    an e*pression o% s#ch a mapping thro#gh lang#age' Hor instance, the concept#al

    metaphor S!A!E OH E.N .S OR.EN!A!.ON .N IER!.CAF SBACE maps relationships in

    physical space onto mental an" physical states'/0!he cross$"omain mapping (ro#ght

    )y this concept#al metaphor then gives rise to inn#mera)le ling#istic e*pressions' Some

    o% these e*pressions are commonplace, s#ch as 6Gohn seems a )it downto"ay6 or any o%

    the similar statements given a)ove' Others are highly poetic, as "emonstrate" )y the

    opening o% Keats&s 6O"e to a Nightingale6:

    8y heart aches, an" a "ro(sy n#m)ness pains

    8y sense, as tho#gh o% hemlock . ha" "r#nk,

    Or emptie" some "#ll opiate to the "rains

    One min#te past, an" Fethe$(ar"s ha" s#nk'

    ere the "escent to the mythical river gives a physical correlate to the narcotic state o%

    the narrator$$the act o% sinking is mappe" onto a melancholy emotional state$$an" serves

    as yet another e*pression o% the concept#al metaphor S!A!E OH E.N .S OR.EN!A!.ON

    .N IER!.CAF SBACE'/0

    +5'>- !he process o% cross$"omain mapping o%%ers a systematic (ay to e*plain o#r

    commonplace notions o% m#sical space' !here is ample evi"ence that o#r characteri1ation

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    o% m#sical pitches in terms o% 6high6 an" 6lo(6 is )asically metaphorical' Consi"er 6high6

    an" 6lo(6 on the piano: ho( can D> )e 6a)ove6 C> on the piano (hen they are )oth on

    the same hori1ontal planeJ !hink o% playing the t(o notes on the &cello$$to play the

    6higher6 D>, (e have to move o#r le%t han" down, so that it is closer to the gro#n"'

    ehin" these ling#istic e*pressions is the concept#al metaphor B.!C REFA!.ONS.BS ARE

    REFA!.ONS.BS .N IER!.CAF SBACE, (hich maps spatial orientations s#ch as up-

    downonto the pitch contin##m'

    +5'?- Altho#gh Scr#ton arg#e" that it (as virt#ally inconceiva)le to constr#e pitch in any

    (ay other than an up-downspatial relationship, evi"ence to the contrary comes %rom a

    variety o% so#rces' reek m#sic theorists o% anti=#ity spoke not o% 6high6 an" 6lo(6 )#t o%

    6sharpness6 an" 6heaviness6; in ali an" Gava pitches are not 6high6 an" 6lo(6 )#t 6small6

    an" 6large6; an" among the S#yLM o% the Ama1on )asin, pitches are not 6high6 an" 6lo(6

    )#t 6yo#ng6 an" 6ol"'6/20!he "i%%erences among these (ays o% characteri1ing m#sical

    pitch s#ggests that the #n"erstan"ing o% m#sic is pro%o#n"ly metaphorical: not only is

    the highan" lowo% m#sical pitch metaphorical, )#t it is only one o% a n#m)er o% (ays to

    characteri1e pitch relations'

    +5'@- !he variety o% concept#al metaphors #se" to characteri1e pitch relations lea"s to the

    =#estion o% the #ltimate gro#n"ing o% the process o% cross$"omain mapping' Even i% (e

    grant that (e #n"erstan" a target "omain 9s#ch as pitch relationships in terms o% a

    so#rce "omain 9s#ch as orientation in vertical space, ho( is it that (e #n"erstan" the

    so#rce "omain in the %irst placeJ 8ark Gohnson en"eavore" to ans(er this =#estion )y

    proposing that meaning (as gro#n"e" in repeate" patterns o% )o"ilye*perience'/50!hese patterns give rise to (hat Gohnson calle" image schemata, (hich

    provi"e the )asis %or the concepts an" relationships essential to metaphor' An image

    schema is a "ynamic cognitive constr#ct that %#nctions some(hat like the a)stract

    str#ct#re o% an image, an" there)y connects #p a vast range o% "i%%erent e*periences that

    mani%est this same rec#rring str#ct#re'/>0.mage schemata are )y no means vis#al $$the

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    i"ea o% an image is simply a (ay o% capt#ring the organi1ation in%erre" %rom patterns in

    )ehavior an" concept %ormation'

    +5'- As one e*ample o% an image schema, consi"er the IER!.CAF.!Y schema, (hich might

    )e s#mmari1e" )y a "iagram o% the sort given in E*ample ' We grasp this str#ct#re

    repeate"ly in tho#san"s o% perceptions an" activities that (e e*perience every "ay'

    !ypical o% these are the e*periences o% perceiving a tree, o#r %elt sense o% stan"ing

    #pright, the activity o% clim)ing stairs, %orming a mental image o% a %lagpole, an" (atching

    the level o% (ater rise in the )atht#)' !he IER!.CAF.!Y schema is the a)stract str#ct#re o%

    the IER!.CAF.!Y e*periences, images, an" perceptions' O#r concept o% verticality is )ase"

    on this schema, an" this concept is in t#rn invoke" )y the vario#s concept#al metaphors

    that #se vertical space as a so#rce "omain thro#gh (hich to str#ct#re target "omains s#ch

    as emotions, conscio#sness, health, an" m#sical pitch'

    E*ample : Diagram o% IER!.CAF.!Y schema

    +5'4- y "e%inition, image schemata are preconcept#al: they are not concepts, )#t they

    provi"e the %#n"amental str#ct#re #pon (hich concepts are )ase"' .n conse=#ence, it is

    important to emphasi1e that the "iagrams #se" to ill#strate image schemata are inten"e"

    to represent the key str#ct#ral %eat#res an" internal relations o% image schemata; they are

    not meant to s#mmon a rich image or mental pict#re that (e someho( have 6in min",6

    an" #se to actively str#ct#re o#r tho#ght' 8ore "irectly, (hatever act#ally occ#pies o#r

    tho#ghts isn&t, )y "e%inition, an image schema' We can conceive ofimage schemata,

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    longer resonates in the same (ay, an" the so#rce o% the so#n" seems locate" nearer o#r

    hea"' !he 6#p6 an" 6"o(n6 o% m#sical pitch th#s correlate (ith the spatial 6#p6 an"

    6"o(n6$$the vertical orientation$$o% o#r )o"ies' !he IER!.CAF.!Y schema o%%ers a

    straight%or(ar" (ay to e*plain (hy (e characteri1e m#sical pitch in terms

    o% highan" loweven (hen the act#al spatial orientation o% the means thro#gh (hich (e

    pro"#ce pitches either "oes not rein%orce the characteri1ation or r#ns "irectly co#nter to

    it'

    +5'- !he theory o% image schemata provi"es one (ay o% e*plaining ho( concept#al

    metaphors are gro#n"e"' o(ever, it "oes not, )y itsel%, e*plain (hy some concept#al

    metaphors seem int#itively )etter than others' Hor instance, the concept#al metaphor

    B.!CES ARE HR7.! co#l" provi"e the gro#n"ing %or s#ch 9a"mitte"ly i"iosyncratic

    e*pressions as 6Yo# m#st play the %irst note more like an apple, the secon" more like a

    )anana'6 !o acco#nt %or (hy some metaphorical mappings are more e%%ective than

    others, eorge Fako%% an" 8ark !#rner propose" that s#ch mappings are not a)o#t

    the impositiono% the str#ct#re o% the so#rce "omain on the target "omain, )#t are instea"

    a)o#t the esta)lishment o% correspon"ences )et(een the t(o "omains' !hese

    correspon"ences are not hapha1ar", )#t instea" preserve the image$schematic str#ct#re

    latent in each "omain' Fako%% an" !#rner %ormali1e" this perspective (ith the .nvariance

    Brinciple, (hich !#rner states as %ollo(s:

    .n metaphoric mapping, %or those components o% the so#rce an" target "omains

    "etermine" to )e involve" in the mapping, preserve the image$schematic str#ct#re o% the

    target, an" import as m#ch image$schematic str#ct#re %rom the so#rce as is consistent(ith that preservation'/@0

    +5'- 8apping the spatial orientation up-downonto pitch (orks )eca#se o%

    correspon"ences )et(een the image$schematic str#ct#re o% components o% the spatial

    an" aco#stical "omains' oth space an" the %re=#ency spectr#m are contin#a that can )e

    "ivi"e" into "iscontin#o#s elements' .n the spatial "omain, "ivision o% the contin##m

    res#lts in points; in the aco#stic "omain, it res#lts in pitches' 8apping up-downonto pitch

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    allo(s #s to import the concrete relationships thro#gh (hich (e #n"erstan" physical

    space into the "omain o% m#sic, an" there)y provi"e a coherent acco#nt o% relationships

    )et(een m#sical pitches' 8apping vario#s %r#its onto m#sical pitches (orks less (ell

    )eca#se %r#it "o not 9in any or"inary (ay constit#te a contin##m' !o employ this

    mapping is to highlight instea" the "iscontin#ity among m#sical pitches, as (ell as ho(

    they are unlikeone another 9an emphasis on "i%%erence s#ggeste" )y the i"iomatic phrase

    6like apples an" oranges6'

    +5'2- One a""itional %actor that g#i"es cross$"omain mapping is c#lt#ral kno(le"ge' As

    seen a)ove, "i%%erent c#lt#res have "i%%erent (ays o% organi1ing their #n"erstan"ing o%

    pitch relationships; the same goes %or virt#ally every other aspect o% m#sic'/0Accor"ing

    to one theory, concept#al metaphors re%lect the in%l#ence o% i"eali1e" cognitive mo"els,

    (hich are kno(le"ge str#ct#res that g#i"e in%erence an" reason an" that are part o% the

    kno(le"ge that is essential to c#lt#re'/40. shall not attempt a revie( o% s#ch kno(le"ge

    str#ct#res here/30; ho(ever, it is (orth noting that s#ch str#ct#res provi"e the

    mechanism thro#gh (hich the &repertoire o% means %or imagining m#sic& spoken o% )y

    Cook may )e e%%ecte"'

    &. !ummary

    +>'- Research over the past t(o "eca"es has ma"e a strong arg#ment that metaphor is

    not simply an anomalo#s #se o% lang#age )#t is in %act central to h#man #n"erstan"ing'

    H#n"amental to the ling#istic e*pression o% metaphor are concept#al metaphors, (hich

    esta)lish mappings )et(een t(o "omains' !he theory o% image schemata provi"es a (ay

    to e*plain ho( concept#al metaphors are gro#n"e", as (ell as ho( metaphorical

    mappings )et(een "omains are constraine"'

    +>'2- .nasm#ch as m#sic theory is part o% h#man #n"erstan"ing, it %ollo(s that metaphor

    m#st play a part in o#r theories o% m#sic' .n light o% this, Cook&s claim that &a Schenkerian

    analysis is not a scienti%ic e*planation, )#t a metaphorical one& seems inevita)le' o(ever,

    the claim, as s#ch, is only a )eginning' Research on metaphor not only gives s#pport to the

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    claim, )#t also o)ligates the claimant to #n"ertake a systematic ela)oration

    o% howmetaphor is instantiate" in Schenker&s$$or anyone&s $$acco#nts o% m#sic' .n the

    %ollo(ing, . (o#l" like to give e*amples o% t(o applications o% research on metaphor to

    m#sic theory, an" )rie%ly "isc#ss t(o e*tensions o% research on metaphor that hol"

    promise %or a )etter #n"erstan"ing o% ho( (e concept#ali1e m#sic'

    '. (pplications to music theory

    +?'- An #n"erstan"ing o% the role o% metaphor in str#ct#ring o#r tho#ght can )e #se" to

    make e*plicit the )ases o% the theoretical constr#cts that g#i"e o#r #n"erstan"ing o%

    m#sic' Consi"er, %or instance, the notions em)race" )y the erman (or" Spannungas it is

    #se" )y Schenker in Der freie Satz' ere are t(o passages in (hich the term is prominent:

    Den 8enschen is "ie Er%ahr#ng eines En"es, "es ErlLMschens aller Spannungen#n" iele

    gege)en' .n "iesem Sinne ist es #ns ein natLMrliches e"LMr%nis, a#ch "ie 7rlinie )is

    hina) 1#m r#n"ton 1# %LMhren, (ie a#ch "en aLM (ie"er 1#m r#n"ton "es Klanges

    1#rLMck%allen 1# lassen; mit . erlLMschen alle Spannungeneines K#nstorganism#s'

    93?@: sec, , p' >5; emphasis a""e" +!o man is given the e*perience o% en"ing, the

    cessation o% all tensions an" e%%orts' .n this sense, (e %eel )y nat#re that the %#n"amental

    line m#st lea" "o(n(ar" #ntil it reaches , an" that the )ass m#st %all )ack to the

    %#n"amental' With . all tensions in a m#sical (ork cease' 933: sec' , p' 5-

    Hreilich, )ei Spannungen#e)er grLMssere Strecken ist enie, "ie a)e "er .mprovisation

    #n" "es WeithLMrens Iora#sset1#ng' 93?@: sec' 5, p' ?; emphasis a""e" +#t geni#s,

    the gi%t o% improvisation an" long$range hearing is re=#isite %or greater time spans' 933:

    sec' 5, p' 4-/20

    +?'2- .n the %irst passage Spannunginvokes a concept#al metaphor that correlates the

    "omain o% h#man e*perience (ith that o% pitch organi1ation; in its )roa"est %orm, this

    metaphor co#l" )e state" as 87S.CAF B.!CES ARE F.I.N ORAN.S8S' !his concept#al

    metaphor is important thro#gho#t Schenker&s (ork, an" is associate" (ith his

    interpretation o% pitch relationships as highly "ynamic'

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    +?'5- A "i%%erent concept#al metaphor #n"erlies the secon" passage' !his metaphor

    correlates the "omain o% physical str#ct#re (ith the elements o% m#sic, an" can )e

    ren"ere" as 87S.CAF EN!.!.ES ARE BAR!S OH A 7.FD.N' !he &spans over large

    stretches& spoken o% )y Schenker s#ggest a rather more static image than the %irst #se

    o% Spannung, an" one that is "irectly linke" to the notion o% &str#ct#re& that perva"es

    m#ch analytical (riting'

    +?'>- .t is important to note that these t(o concept#al metaphors, altho#gh invoke" )y

    the same (or", are incommens#rate' !he tension inherent in living )eings is not the same

    thing as a span across physical space' Altho#gh (e might speak o% s#ch a span as )eing

    6#n"er tension,6 this tension can )e correlate" (ith li%e$%orce only thro#gh metaphor' .t

    m#st also )e note" that Schenker&s theory o% m#sic is in no (ay "e%icient in its reliance on

    a n#m)er o% concept#al metaphors, %or the metaphors serve "i%%erent p#rposes' !he

    image evoke" )y the #se o% Spannungin the %irst passage comes %rom a perspective that

    vie(s m#sic as highly charge" an" essentially"ynamic' !his perspective, engage" an" at

    times passionate, is one o% the things that makes Schenker a compelling (riter' !he image

    evoke" )y the #se o% Spannungin the secon" passage comes %rom a perspective that

    vie(s m#sic as a ma"e o)

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    theoretical tho#ght that are #n"ertaken in these three essays ela)orate many points that

    are only glosse" here'

    +?'@- Research into metaphor can also )e #se" to e*plain more imme"iate, less overtly

    theoretical (ays that (e #n"erstan" m#sic' As an e*ample, let #s consi"er a )it o% te*t

    painting %rom the Cre"o o% iovanni "a Balestrina&s Pope Marcellus Mass; the m#sic is

    given in E*ample 2' As can )e seen, (ith the %irst occ#rrence o% the (or" 6"escLMn"it,6

    each voice )egins a scalar "escent' !he commonplace ans(er to (hy this te*t painting

    (orks is that the "escent evoke" )y the te*t correlates (ith the "escent thro#gh m#sical

    space' o(ever, as . sho(e" a)ove, there is no necessity to this correlation: 6"escLMn"it6

    also correlates (ith an increase in heaviness, an increase in the si1e o% the notes, an" the

    gro(ing age o% each note' Which t(o "omains are correlate" "epen"s only on the

    concept#al metaphor #se" to str#ct#re pitch relations' A %all$)ack ans(er is that the

    correlation )et(een physical space an" m#sical pitch is simply styli1e": altho#gh there is

    no necessity to it, it has )een "one so o%ten that (e rea"ily accept the mapping' A

    some(hat more interesting ans(er is that the physical sensations associate" (ith "escent

    are (ell represente" )y a series o% pitches pro"#ce" )y s#ccessively less$rapi" vi)rations

    o% the so#n"ing me"i#m' !he "escent o% o#r )o"ies thro#gh physical space 9#nai"e" )y

    arti%icial means involves a lessening o% kinetic energy an" a contin#o#s action in one

    "irection, artic#late" )y the reg#lar trans%er o% (eight %rom one leg to another'/2>0!he

    DESCEN! image schema (ill incl#"e these sensations, as (ell as a motion "o(n(ar" in

    physical space' !he act o% singing a "escen"ing scale correlates (ell (ith the )asic

    str#ct#re o% this image schema: the rela*ation many singers %eel as they sing a "escen"ing

    scale matches the lessening o% kinetic energy; the temporary pa#ses on each note o% the

    scale match the reg#lar trans%er o% (eight (hich artic#lates a physical "escent' !he te*t

    painting o% 6"escLMn"it6 is th#s s#pporte" )y o#r em)o"ie" kno(le"ge o% "escent'

    Altho#gh the te*t painting is not necessary, it seems so int#itively right that it is only (ith

    a str#ggle that (e can imagine the alternatives'

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    E*ample 2: 8eas#res ?5 thro#gh ?4 o% the Cre"o o% the Pope Marcellus Mass

    +Real A#"io so#n" %ile-

    +?'- !his approach co#l" )e e*ten"e" to provi"e an acco#nt o% s#ch kinesthetic notions

    as gest#re, tension, an" release' ro#n"ing s#ch notions in em)o"ie" kno(le"ge (as

    propose" )y Ray Gacken"o%% a %#ll ten years ago' Gacken"o%% propose" that m#sic is

    represente" cognitively thro#gh a level o% mental representation he calle" bodily

    representation, 6essentially a )o"y$speci%ic enco"ing o% the internal sense o% the states o%

    the m#scles, lim)s, an"

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    +@'- Recent (ork on metaphor )y cognitive scientists has m#ch to o%%er m#sic theory: a

    systematic approach to the role o% metaphor in str#ct#ring o#r m#sic$theoretical tho#ght;

    a means to integrate em)o"ie" kno(le"ge into the (ays (e #n"erstan" m#sic; an"

    theoretical para"igms %or e*ten"ing an" mo"i%ying the application o% cross$"omain

    mapping to m#sic' !here seems little "o#)t that m#sical analyses are not scienti%ic

    e*planations, )#t metaphorical ones' .t remains to e*plore the nat#re an" "epth o% these

    metaphors, an", in "oing so, to come to a )etter appreciation o% the processes thro#gh

    (hich (e organi1e o#r #n"erstan"ing o% m#sic'

    Lawrence M. Zbikowski

    Chicago umanities #nstitute

    +niersity of Chicago

    "",, -ast 'th !treet

    Chicago/ #L ),)%

    L0Z1#234!2#5+C#C(63.-7+

    Ret#rn to )eginning o% article

    References

    ' !he "isc#ssion )egan (ith Farry Solomon&s posting o% 8ay 3, 33, an" can )e

    retrieve" thro#gh the S8! "isc#ssion archive at %tp:societym#sictheory'orgp#)smt$

    talk'

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    2' Roger Scr#ton, 67n"erstan"ing 8#sic,6 atio2?, no' 2 9345: @'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    5' Scr#ton, 67n"erstan"ing 8#sic,6 '

    Ret#rn to te*t

    >' Nicholas Cook, Music, Imagination, and Culture9O*%or": Claren"on Bress, 33, >'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    ?' Cook, Music, Imagination, and Culture, >'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    @' See, %or instance, Cynthia r#n", 68etaphors, Co#nter%act#als an" 8#sic,6 in !ssays on

    the Philosophy of Music, e"ite" )y Ieikko Rantala, Fe(is Ro(ell, an" Eero !arasti, Acta

    philosophica Hennica, vol' >5 9elsinki: Bhilosophical Society o% Hinlan", 344, 24$?5; an"

    Daniel Charles, 68#sic an" Antimetaphor 9to Eero !arasti,6 in Musical Signification"

    !ssays in the Semiotic #heory and $nalysis of Music, e"ite" )y Eero !arasti, Approaches to

    Semiotics, vol' 2 9erlin: 8o#ton "e r#yter, 33?, 2$>2'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    ' See, %or instance, 8arion A' #ck, 6!(o !ypes o% 8etaphoric !rans%er,6 in Metaphor" $

    Musical Dimension, e"ite" )y Gamie C' Kassler, reprint, 33, 8#sicology, vol' ? 9asel:

    or"on an" reach, 33>, $2; an" Ro)ert S' atten, 68etaphor in8#sic,6 in Musical

    Signification" !ssays in the Semiotic #heory and $nalysis of Music, e"ite" )y Eero !arasti,

    Approaches to Semiotics, vol' 2 9erlin: 8o#ton "e r#yter, 33?, 55$3'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    4' eorge Fako%% an" 8ark Gohnson, Metaphors %e &i'e (y9Chicago: 7niversity o% Chicago

    Bress, 34'

    Ret#rn to te*t

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    3' Hor a revie( o% the empirical evi"ence s#pporting metaphor as a )asic cognitive process

    see Raymon" W' i))s, Gr', #he Poetics of Mind" )igurati'e #hought, &anguage, and

    *nderstanding9Cam)ri"ge: Cam)ri"ge 7niversity Bress, 33>' Hor "isc#ssion o% the link

    )et(een the st#"y o% metaphor as a cognitive process an" the central concerns o%

    cognitive ling#istics see eorge Fako%%, 6!he .nvariance ypothesis: .s A)stract Reason

    ase" on .mage$SchemasJ6 Cogniti'e &inguistics, no' 933: 53$>'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    ' !he concept#al metaphor S!A!E OH E.N .S OR.EN!A!.ON .N IER!.CAF SBACE is a

    variant o% the S!A!ES ARE FOCA!.ONS concept#al metaphor "isc#sse" )y eorge Fako%%

    an" 8ark !#rner in More #han Cool eason" $ )ield +uide to Poetic Metaphor9Chicago:

    7niversity o% Chicago Bress, 343' On cross$"omain mapping as a general phenomenon

    see Fako%% an" !#rner, More #han Cool eason, >; eorge Fako%%, 6!he Contemporary

    !heory o% 8etaphor,6 in Metaphor and #hought, 2" e"', e"ite" )y An"re( Ortony

    9Cam)ri"ge: Cam)ri"ge 7niversity Bress, 335, 22$?; i))s, #he Poetics of Mind; an"

    illes Ha#connier, Mappings in #hought and &anguage9Cam)ri"ge: Cam)ri"ge 7niversity

    Bress, 33' Hor a %ine essay that anticipates a goo" portion o% the theoretical perspective

    on cross$"omain mapping . o#tline here, see 8arianne Kielian$ il)ert, 6.nterpreting

    8#sical Analogy: Hrom Rhetorical Device to Bercept#al Brocess,6 Music Perception4, no'

    9Hall 33: @5$3>'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    ' !he concept#al metaphor 87S.C .S A FAN7AE str#ct#res m#ch o% o#r "isco#rse

    a)o#t m#sic, an" o%ten plays a part in semiotic analyses o% m#sic 9inasm#ch as theattri)#tion o% ling#istic tropes to m#sical events is o%tentimes "epen"ent on this

    metaphor' Hor an intrig#ing analytical essay that #ses the 87S.C .S A FAN7AE

    metaphor as a point o% "epart#re, see G#stin Fon"on, 68#sical an" Fing#istic Speech

    Acts,6ournal of $esthetics and $rt Criticism?>, no' 9Winter 33@: >3$@>'

    Ret#rn to te*t

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    2' On the matter o% the characteri1ation o% pitch )y reek m#sic theorists o% anti=#ity

    see An"re( arker 9e"', +reek Musical %ritings, olume II" .armonic and $coustic

    #heory9Cam)ri"ge: Cam)ri"ge 7niversity Bress, 343, n' >5, p' 5>' Hor in%ormation

    a)o#t the characteri1ation o% pitch in ali an" Gava . am in"e)te" to en' Gohnson, #he (ody in the Mind, 2' .t sho#l" )e note" that, %or the most part, the image

    schema remains a theoretical constr#ct' Nonetheless, t(o in"epen"ent lines o% research

    have leant cre"ence to the notion: Raymon" W' i))s Gr' an" er)ert F' Colston provi"e a

    revie( o% evi"ence %or image schemata "ra(n %rom a (i"e variety o% psychological st#"ies

    in 6!he Cognitive Bsychological Reality o% .mage Schemas an" !heir

    !rans%ormations,6 Cogniti'e &inguistics@, no' > 933?: 5>$4; eral" E"elman "isc#sses

    connections )et(een image$schema theory an" research in ne#roscience in #he

    emembered Present" $ (iological #heory of Consciousness9Ne( York: asic ooks, 343,

    chapter 4'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    ?' .t is also important to note that image schemata "o not simply re"#ce to gest#res, nor

    gest#res to image schemata' Hor a "isc#ssion, see Davi" 8cNeill, .and and Mind" %hat

    +estures e'eal $bout #hought9Chicago: 7niversity o% Chicago Bress, 332, 2@5$@>'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    @' 8ark !#rner, 6Aspects o% the .nvariance ypothesis,6 Cogniti'e &inguistics, no' 2

    933: 2?>; emphasis as in original' Hor a""itional (ritings on the .nvariance Brinciple

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    9(hich at %irst (as calle" the .nvariance ypothesis see Fako%%, 6!he Contemporary

    !heory o% 8etaphor6; Fako%%, 6!he .nvariance ypothesis6; 8ark !#rner, 6An .mage$

    Schematic Constraint on 8etaphor,6 in Conceptualizations and Mental Processing in

    &anguage, e"ite" )y Richar" A' eiger an" rygi"a R#"1ka$Ostyn, Cognitive Fing#istics

    Research, vol' 5 9erlin: 8o#ton "e r#yter, 335, 23$5@; an" 8ark !#rner, #he

    &iterary Mind9Ne( York: O*%or" 7niversity Bress, 33@, chapter 5'

    A preliminary "isc#ssion o% a similar sort o% topographical invariance, (ith applications to

    m#sic, can )e %o#n" in Beter LMr"en%ors, 6Semantics, Concept#al Spaces an" the

    Dimensions o% 8#sic,6 in !ssays on the Philosophy of Music, e"ite" )y Ieikko Rantala,

    Fe(is Ro(ell, an" Eero !arasti, Acta philosophica Hennica, vol' >5 9elsinki: Bhilosophical

    Society o% Hinlan", 344, 3$2'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    ' A partic#larly interesting e*ample o% ho( a c#lt#re organi1es their #n"erstan"ing o%

    pitch relationships 9an" one (hich )#il"s on Fako%% an" Gohnson&s early (ork is provi"e"

    )y Steven Hel"&s "isc#ssion o% m#sic theory among the Kal#li o% Bap#a Ne( #inea' See

    Hel", 6Hlo( Fike a Water%all: !he 8etaphors o% Kal#li 8#sical !heory,6 2earbook for

    #raditional Music5 934: 22$>'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    4' Hor a""itional "isc#ssion o% i"eali1e" cognitive mo"els an" their relationship to

    c#lt#ral kno(le"ge see illes Ha#connier, Mental Spaces" $spects of Meaning Construction

    in 3atural &anguage, 2" e"', (ith a %ore(or" )y eorge Fako%% an" Eve S(eetser, reprint,

    34? 9Cam)ri"ge: Cam)ri"ge 7niversity Bress, 33>, chapter ; eorge Fako%%, %omen,

    )ire, and Dangerous #hings" %hat Categories e'eal $bout the Mind9Chicago: 7niversity

    o% Chicago Bress, 34, part .; Naomi P#inn an" Dorothy ollan", 6C#lt#re an"

    Cognition,6 in Cultural Models in &anguage and #hought, e"ite" )y Dorothy ollan" an"

    Naomi P#inn 9Cam)ri"ge: Cam)ri"ge 7niversity Bress, 34, 5$>; i))s, #he Poetics of

    Mind, chapter >; an" ra"" Shore, Culture in Mind" Cognition, Culture, and the Problem of

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    Meaning9Ne( York: O*%or" 7niversity Bress, 33@, chapter 5'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    3' . have, ho(ever, "isc#sse" s#ch kno(le"ge str#ct#res else(here' See Fa(rence

    )iko(ski, &arge-Scale hythm and Systems of +rouping, Bh'D' Diss' 9Yale 7niversity,

    33, chapter >; an" Fa(rence )iko(ski, 6Charles Seeger&s 7nitary Hiel" !heory %or

    8#sicology an" Recent !heories o% Fing#istic an" Cognitive Str#ct#re,6 in )oundations of

    Modern Musicology" *nderstanding Charles Seeger, e"ite" )y ell Y#ng an" elen Rees,

    %orthcoming'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    2' einrich Schenker, Der freie Satz, 2" e"', e"ite" )y Os(al" Gonas, Ne#e m#sikalische

    !heorien #n" Bhantasien, vol' 5 9Iienna: 7niversal E"ition, 3?@; English translation %rom

    einrich Schenker, )ree Composition 4Der )reie Satz5, e"ite" an" translate" )y Ernst Oster,

    Ne( m#sical theories an" %antasies, vol' 5 9Ne( York: Schirmer ooks, 33' . have #se"

    the 3?@ e"ition o% Der freie Satzon acco#nt o% its general availa)ility' . have #se" Oster&s

    33 translation %or similar reasons, an" also )eca#se it invokes a "e)ate a)o#t

    translation that may )e pro%ita)ly vie(e" thro#gh the lens o% cross$"omain mapping' Hor

    one vie(point on this "e)ate see Ro)ert Snarren)erg, 6Competing 8yths: !he American

    A)an"onment o% Schenker&s Organicism,6 in#heory, $nalysis and Meaning in Music, e"ite"

    )y Anthony Bople 9Cam)ri"ge: Cam)ri"ge 7niversity Bress, 33>, 23$?@' 8y thanks to

    Ganna Sasla( %or )ringing the "i%%erent #ses o% Spannungin Der freie Satzto my attention'

    Hor a )rie% "isc#ssion o% a similar contrast )et(een meanings o% Spannungin the %irst

    vol#me o% Das Meisterwerk in der Musiksee Ro)ert Snarren)erg, Schenker6s Interpreti'e

    Practice, Cam)ri"ge St#"ies in 8#sic !heory an" Analysis, vol' 9Cam)ri"ge: Cam)ri"ge

    7niversity Bress, 33, 35$3>'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    2' Ganna K' Sasla(, 6Horces, Containers, an" Baths: !he Role o% o"y$Derive" .mage

    Schemas in the Concept#ali1ation o% 8#sic,6ournal of Music #heory>, no' 2 9Hall 33@:

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    2$>5'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    22' Ganna K' Sasla(, 6Fi%e Horces: Concept#al Str#ct#res in Schenker&s )ree

    Compositionan" Schoen)erg&s #he Musical Idea6 97n"er revie('

    Ret#rn to te*t

    25' Fa(rence )iko(ski, 6Concept#al 8o"els an" Cross$Domain 8apping: Ne(

    Berspectives on !heories o% 8#sic an" ierarchy,6ournal of Music #heory>, no' 2

    933'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    2>' 8ost o% #s %in" "escent$$especially scalar "escent$$(ell represente" )y the tho#ght o%

    (alking "o(n a staircase, )#t . think it co#l" )e arg#e" that (alking "o(n a hillsi"e (orks

    as (ell' !he reason is that it isn&t so m#ch the neat, t(o$"imensional image o% stairs that is

    operative )#t the reg#lar trans%er o% (eight %rom one leg to another' .n"irect evi"ence is

    provi"e" )y a striking anec"ote relate" )y Gohn ocken)erry, %rom a time (hen he (as a

    reporter %or National B#)lic Ra"io' .n or"er to get to a gro#p o% K#r"ish re%#gees on a

    remote e"ge o% .ra=i K#r"istan "#ring the a%termath o% the #l% War, ocken)erry, a

    paraplegic since 3@, ha" to temporarily a)an"on his (heelchair an" get a ri"e on a

    "onkey' e comments on the e%%ect o% )ecoming reac=#ainte" (ith a non$(heele" mo"e

    o% transportation thro#gh the rhythm o% the "onkey&s gait: 6.t (as (alking, that %eeling o%

    groping an" clim)ing an" %loating on stilts that . ha" not %elt %or %i%teen years' . ha" long

    ago gro(n to love my o(n (heels an" their special physical grace, an" so this cl#msy leg

    (alk (as not something . misse" #ntil the sensation came r#shing )ack thro#gh my )o"y

    %rom the sho#l"ers o% a "onkey'6 Gohn ocken)erry, Mo'ing iolations" %ar 7ones,

    %heelchairs, and Declarations of Independence9Ne( York: yperion, 33?, 2$5'

    Ret#rn to te*t

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    2?' Ray Gacken"o%%, Consciousness and the Computational Mind9Cam)ri"ge, 8ass': 8.!

    Bress, 34, 254'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    2@' oltLMn KLMvecses, !motion concepts9Ne( York: Springer$Ierlag, 33'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    2' i))s, #he Poetics of Mind, chapter '

    Ret#rn to te*t

    24' Hor (ork on concept#al )len"ing an" concept#al integration see 8ark !#rner an"

    illes Ha#connier, 6Concept#al .ntegration an" Hormal E*pression,6 Metaphor and

    Symbolic $cti'ity, no' 5 933?: 45$2>; illes Ha#connier an" 8ark !#rner,

    6Concept#al .ntegration Net(orks,6 Cogniti'e Science933@; Ha#connier, Mappings in

    #hought and &anguage, chapter @; an" !#rner, #he &iterary Mind, chapters ? an" @'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    23' Fa(rence )iko(ski, 6Concept#al len"ing an" Song,6 #np#)lishe" paper 933'

    Concept#al )len"ing can also )e #se" to acco#nt %or relationships )et(een instr#mental

    (orks, te*t, an" images, s#ch as those o#tline" in Kielian$il)ert&s analysis o% Erik Satie&s

    6Fe Water$ch#te6 in 6.nterpreting 8#sical Analogy,6 3$3'

    Ret#rn to te*t

    Ret#rn to eginning

    Copyright !tatement

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    Copyright LM 334 )y the Society %or 8#sic !heory'

    All rights reserve"'

    +- Copyrights %or in"ivi"#al items p#)lishe" in Music #heory 8nline9M#8 are hel" )y

    their a#thors' .tems appearing in 8!O may )e save" an" store" in electronic or paper

    %orm, an" may )e share" among in"ivi"#als %or p#rposes o% scholarly research or

    "isc#ssion, )#t may not)e rep#)lishe" in any %orm, electronic or print, (itho#t prior,

    (ritten permission %rom the a#thor9s, an" a"vance noti%ication o% the e"itors o% M#8'

    +2- Any re"istri)#te" %orm o% items p#)lishe" in M#8m#st incl#"e the %ollo(ing

    in%ormation in a %orm appropriate to the me"i#m in (hich the items are to appear:

    !his item appeare" in Music #heory 8nlinein +IOF78E Q, .SS7E Q- on

    +DAY8ON!YEAR-' .t (as a#thore" )y +H7FF NA8E, E8A.F ADDRESS-, (ith (hose

    (ritten permission it is reprinte" here'

    +5- Fi)raries may archive iss#es o% M#8in electronic or paper %orm %or p#)lic access so

    long as each iss#e is store" in its entirety, an" no access %ee is charge"' E*ceptions to

    these re=#irements m#st )e approve" in (riting )y the e"itors o% M#8, (ho (ill act in

    accor"ance (ith the "ecisions o% the Society %or 8#sic !heory'

    !his "oc#ment an" all portions thereo% are protecte" )y 7'S' an" international copyright

    la(s' 8aterial containe" herein may )e copie" an"or "istri)#te" %or research p#rposes

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