BLOCKSnegatetheresolved:Resolved:Adolescentsoughttohavetherighttomakeautonomousmedicalchoices.Definitions:Medical:Oforrelatingtothescienceofmedicine,ortothetreatmentofillnessandinjuriesOxforddictionaryvalueismoralitybecauseoughtinvokesmoralsignificanceObjectiveMoralityexists.ShaferLandau2004:somemoralviewsarebetterthanothers,despitethesincerityoftheindividuals,cultures,andsocietiesthatendorsethem.Somemoralviewsaretrue,othersfalse,andmythinkingthemsodoesntmakethemso.Mysocietysendorsementofthemdoesntprovetheirtruth.Individuals,andwholesocieties,canbeseriouslymistakenwhenitcomestomorality.Thebestexplanationofthisisthattherearemoralstandardsnotofourownmaking.[24]Objectivismcannotbereplacedbyacoherentmoralphilosophy,sorefutingobjectivismtriggersskepticismLevin2001:Eventheenemiesofobjectivityrelyonit.Theskepticstatesapositionthatcannotpossiblybesustainedorrationallybelieved[because]heisineffectaskingyounottoapplyhisassertiontohisownposition,withoutgivinganyreasonforexemptinghisownwordsfromhisowngeneralclaim.Hispositionisfutileandselfrefutingitcanbestated,butitcannotconvinceanyonewhorecognizesitsimplications.[19]

AsMoziconfirms,objectivemorallawsarederivedfromtian,translatedasnatureorheaven,Mou2001:

Textreadinspeech:Mozididappealtoareality.forsomeofhisargumentsinfavoroftranscendingsocialritual.Itwastian.Tianwastheauthorofthemoralstandard,utility,towhichMoziappealsinhismoralreform.Mozistressedthattianwasuniversal,notboundedinthewayscultures,states,andsocietieswere.Itwasconstantwhereculturesandconventionscouldchange.TheseclaimsdonotentailthattianistheChinesenamefortheWesternGod,Elohim.Nordoesitconflictwiththeassumptionthattianisapartofnature..Itessentiallygavea"naturalistic'basisfor[Mozis]themoralnorm[s]of maximizingutility.Itgroundedaconceptionofanaturalvalueasopposedtoasocialone,butnotnecessarilyofatranscendent,supernatural,orspookyvalue..Infact,theMozisuseoftian'sstandardapproximatestheusepragmatistsmakeofnatureintheirargumentsforextractingnormsfromnatureandsocialpractice.Mozididnotf indhow thestandardw orkedbyrevelationorbyhearingaboomingvoicecommanditorseeingaf ingerof f irew riteit.

Toeliminatesocialdisorder,everyonemustfollowobjectivemoralsMozi1stmillenniumBCEMozisaid:Inthebeginningofhumanlife,whentherewasyetnolawandgovernment,thecustomwas"everybodyaccordingtohisownidea."Accordinglyeachmanhadhisownidea,twomenhadtwodifferentideasandtenmenhadtendifferentideasthemorepeoplethemoredifferentnotions.Andeverybodyapprovedofhisownviewanddisapprovedtheviewsofothers,andsoarosemutualdisapprovalamongmen.Asaresult,fatherandsonandelderandyoungerbrothersbecameenemiesandwereestrangedfromeachother,sincetheywereunabletoreachanyagreement.Everybodyworkedforthedisadvantageoftheotherswithwater,fire,andpoison.Surplusenergywasnotspentformutualaidsurplusgoodswereallowedtorotwithoutsharingexcellentteachings(Dao)werekeptsecretandnotrevealed.Thedisorderinthe(human)worldcouldbecomparedtothatamongbirdsandbeasts.

Fraser2010TheconceptionofactionIhavebeensketchingisillustratedbytheMohistshypotheticalaccountofthestateofnaturethatobtainedbeforetheadventofpoliticalsociety.10AccordingtotheMohists,peopleinthestateofnaturearestrongly,evenobstinatelycommittedtotheirpersonalconceptionofy,orwhatisright.Sincedifferentpeoplesconceptionsofydisagree,however,thiscommitmentleadstoconflictandeventuallyviolentdisorder.TheMohistsdescribepeoplesattitudesbysayingthattheyshtheiryandonthatbasisfiothersy,andthusfieachother(11/2).Thatis,theyeachdeemtheirytobesh,onthosegroundsdeemothersfi,andthusfallintoacycleofreciprocalcondemnation.Akeyobservationisthatpeoplesattitudeofdeemingtheirytobesh[orright]andothersfi[orwrong]isaccompaniedbyastrongmotivationtoactontheirconvictions,whichultimatelyleadstosocialturmoil.ThiscorrelationbetweenshfiattitudesandconductisunderscoredbythetightlinkMohistpoliticaltheorydrawsbetweenemulatingtheshfiattitudesandstatements(yn)ofpoliticalsuperiors,whoserveasmoralrolemodels,andemulatingtheirconduct(xng).

Therearetwoconsequences:

1. Rejectingobjectivismortheprimacyoftianasametaethicalframeworkinthisdebateroundencouragesprefiatchaos,warandmisery.Affirmingwillnecessarilyaverttheseimpacts.

2. Thisincitementofchaoshasanontrivialriskofleadingtoawarofallagainstall,inwhichmoralitydoesnotexist,triggeringskepticism.Hobbes1651:Tothiswarreofeverymanagainsteveryman,thisalsoisconsequentthatnothingcanbeUnjust.ThenotionsofRightandWrong,JusticeandInjusticehavetherenoplace.WherethereisnocommonPower,thereisnoLaw:wherenoLaw,noInjustice.Force,andFraud,areinwarrethetwoCardinallvertues.Justice,andInjusticearenoneoftheFacultiesneitheroftheBody,norMind.Iftheywere,theymightbeinamanthatwerealoneintheworld,aswellashisSenses,andPassions.TheyareQualities,thatrelatetomeninSociety,notinSolitude.Itisconsequentalsotothesamecondition,thattherebenoPropriety,noDominion,noMineandThinedistinctbutonelythattobeeverymansthathecangetandforsolong,ashecankeepit.Andthusmuchfortheillcondition,whichmanbymeerNatureisactuallyplacedinthoughwithapossibilitytocomeoutofit,consistingpartlyinthePassions,partlyinhisReason.

Corneli2014furthersandclarifies:Thereisanintimateconnectionbetw eenHobbesview sonpropertyandHobbesmoralphilosophy(LV18.10).Hobbesisexplicitthattherecannotbeanymoralityinthestateofnaturebecausethereisnoproperty:nomineoryours(LV13.131418.1021.8).Ivebeenthinkingaboutthew aysinw hichHobbescouldavoidsayingthatlibertyissuff icientformoralagencyand,inlightof RussellsreadingofHobbes,how issuesconcerningmoralagency,thecontractand,now ,propertyarerelated.ForHobbes,thesocialcontractinvolveseachindividualsubmittingtheirw illstothesovereign:inparticular,thissubmissionneedstobeofaparticularkind.Itmustauthorizetheactionsofthesovereign.How ?ForHobbes,thisinvolvesaparticularkindofproprietaryrelationship:individualsneedtoowntheactionsofthesovereign.Theyneedtobe,inotherw ords,authorsofthesovereignsactions(SeeCh.16and17.13).Theow nership,or

property,of actions(orw ords)Hobbescallsauthorship(16.4).Naturalpersons,accordingtoHobbes,arethosethatow ntheirow nactions(orw ords)(16.1).Thus,personsareauthorsof theirow nactions.Iw illcallthisview possessiveagency.Naturalpersonsarepossessiveagents.

PreferaMohistframeworkbecauseitstheonlyframeworkthatpromotesrealworldmoraleducationMozi1stmilleniumBCEOurMasterMozisaid,Thoseintheworldwhoperformanytaskcannotworkwithoutmodels(fa)andstandards.Toworkwithoutmodelsandstandards,yetcompletetheirtasksuccessfullynoonecandoit.Evenofficersservingasgeneralsorministers,theyallhavemodelseventhehundredartisansperformingtheirtasks,theytooallhavemodels.ThehundredartisansformsquareswiththeLsquare,circleswiththecompass,straightedgeswiththestring,verticallineswiththeplumbline,[evensurfaceswiththelevel].Whetherskilledartisansorunskilled,alltakethesefiveasmodels.Theskilledcanconformtothemexactlyastotheunskilled,thoughtheycannotconformtothemexactly,iftheyfollowtheminperformingtheirtasks,theystillsurpasswhattheycandoontheirown.Sothehundredartisansinperformingtheirtasksallhavemodelstomeasureby.

Nowforthemostpowerfultoordertheworldandtheirdeputiestoordergreatstatesandyethavenomodelstomeasureby,thisistobelessdiscriminatingthanthehundredartisans.

Thus,promotingsimple,accuratestandardsisnecessary toeducateonhowtomakemoralchoicesthatmaintainorderinaccordancewithtian

Mou2001:

Textread:TheMozisreplacementfor[Confucianmorality]isalsonaturalistic.Hismodelofstandardsforsettlingquestionsof[morality]arethecraftsmansoperationalmeasurementtools.Wedonot

relyonanintuition...oronreason.MeasurementisnotaPlatonicabsolute,butanoperationinthenaturalworld.Itishighlyreliable,intersubjective,butpragmatic(ratherthanabstract...)interpretationofsocietysguidingdiscourse.Mohistfocusonstandardsintroducesakeymechanismforquasiobjectivity.Thus,preferatianjustifiedframeworkwithclearstandards(orfa)becauseitintroducesmoreobjectivityneedtoprotectgoodofthestatefirst(frameworkcriterion),Frazer2014(replace!)

ThiscommunitarianfocusisamajorpointofcontrastwithWesternsocialcontracttheoriesandutilitarianpoliticaltheory.Utilitariansandsocialcontracttheorists(exceptingperhapsRousseau)typicallytreatindividuals'interestsasprimaryandconstructsocialgoodoutofindividualgood.Thestateisjustifiedbecauseitpromotesindividuals'rightsandinterestsbetterthananyalternative.FortheMohists,bycontrast,thestateisinstrumentallyjustifiedbecausesocialorder(zhi)isanintrinsicgood,soughtbyall,andgovernmentbyahierarchyofmoralleadersisneededtoachieveit.

Indeed,aswemightexpectfromtheircommunitarianism,theMohists'conceptionofzhi(order)containstheseedsofanargumentthatthestateisintrinsicallyjustifiedaswell.TheMohistsmostoftenusezhiinanarrowsense,torefertoharmoniousfamilyandsocialrelations.ButsomeMohisttextsmainlythetriaddevotedtothedoctrineofHeaven'sintentionusezhiinabroadersense,inwhichitisidentifiedwithyi(right,moral)andzheng(goodgovernance),whichinturnistakentorequireahierarchicalpoliticalsystemadministeredbythenobleandwise.ThetextsthusimplythattheMohistpoliticalsystemisnotmerelyaninstrumentforproducingutility,butisitselfacomponentofthegoodsthatconstitutemoralrightandthusisintrinsicallyjustified.Ofcourse,evenifweallowtheMohiststoidentifymoralitywithorderandorderwiththeirpreferredformofpoliticalorganizationinthisway,theirlineofargumentjustifiesatmostonlytheexistenceofthestate,notthestate'spromulgationofatotalitarian,allencompassingcodeofconduct.

Mozi1stmilleniumBCMozisaid:Aswelookbacktothetimewhentherewasyetnoruler,itseemsthecustomwas"everybodyintheworldaccordingtohisownstandard."Accordinglyeachmanhadhisownstandard,tenmenhadtendifferentstandards,ahundredmen

hadahundreddifferentstandardsthemorepeoplethemorestandards.Andeverybodyapprovedofhisownviewanddisapprovedthoseofothers,andsoarosemutualdisapproval.Evenfatherandsonandbrothersbecameenemies,sincetheywereunabletoreachanyagreement.Surplusenergywasnotemployedformutualhelpexcellentteachings(Dao)werekeptsecretsurplusgoodswereallowedtorotwithoutsharing.Thedisorderinthe(human)worldcouldbecomparedwiththatamongbirdsandbeasts.Thelackofregulationsgoverningtherelationshipsbetweenrulerandsubject,betweensuperiorandsubordinate,andbetweenelderandyoungerandtheabsenceofrulesgoverningtherelationshipsbetweenfatherandsonandbetweenolderandyoungerbrothers,resultedindisorderintheworld.

IdentificationwiththeSuperior...:

Knowingthecauseoftheconfusiontobeintheabsenceofarulerwhocouldunifythestandardsintheworld,(Heaven)chosethevirtuous,sagacious,andwiseintheworldandcrownedhimemperor,charginghimwiththedutyofunifyingthewillsintheempire.Havingbeencrowned,theemperor,realizingtheimpossibilityofunifyingtheworldjustbyhisownsensesofhearingandsight,chosetheunderstanding,virtuous,sagacious,andwiseoftheworldandinstalledthemasthethreeministers,sharingwiththemthedutyofunifyingthestandardsintheempire.Theemperorandthethreeministersbeinginoffice,theyfeltthevastnessoftheempireandthedifficultyofunifyingallthepeoplesinmountainsandwoodsandthosefardistant.Thereforetheysystematicallydivideduptheempire,andappointednumerousfeudallords,chargingthesewiththedutyofunifyingthestandardsineachstate.Thefeudallordsinturnfeltthedifficultyofunifyingthestandardsintheirstatesjustbytheirown

sensesofhearingandsight.Thereforetheychosethevirtuousofthestatetobetheirministersandsecretariesandallthewaydowntotheheadsofdistrictsandvillages,sharingwiththemthedutyofunifyingthestandardsinthestate.

IdentificationwiththeSuperior...:

Whenthelordsofthecountryandtheheadsofthepeoplehadbeenappointed,theemperorissuedmandates,instructingthepeople:"Discoveringgoodyoumustreportittoyoursuperior,discoveringevilyoumustreportittoyoursuperior.Whatthesuperiorthinkstoberightallshallthinktoberightwhatthesuperiorthinkstobewrongallshallthinktobewrong.Whenthereisvirtueamongthepeoplethereshallbepopularrecommendationwhenthesuperiorisatfaultthereshallbegoodcounsel.Youshallidentifyyourselfwiththesuperiorandnotassociatewithyoursubordinates.Sodoing,onedeservesencouragementfromhissuperiorsandpraisefromthepeople."Ontheotherhand,ifupondiscoveringgoodyoushouldnotreportitandupondiscoveringevilyoushouldnotreportitifyoushouldnotthinktoberightwhatthesuperiorthinkstoberight,andwrongwhatthesuperiorthinkstobewrongifthereshouldbenorecommendationwhenthereisvirtueamongthepeopleandnogoodcounselwhenthesuperiorisatfaultandifyoushouldunitewiththesubordinatesbutdifferfromthesuperioryoudeserveheavypunishmentfromyoursuperiorsandcondemnationfromthepeople."Thereforethesagekingsofoldwereveryjudiciousandfaithfulintheirpunishmentsandrewards.

Migdal:

Thus,tobenefitanindividual,itsnecessarytobenefitthecommmunityMigdal2(stateisseperateentity)

conformingtotraditionalnormsisnotnecessary(justifyintegratedprefiatimpacts),Loy2003

Third,theMohistsseethemorallyrightasconceptuallydistinctfromthecustomaryortraditional.Anargumentthatappealstothedistinctioncanbefoundin"FrugalityinFunerals."TheMohistspointtothevarietybetweenburialcustomsamongthetribalpeoplesontheperipheryoftheChineseworldandnotethat,althoughwhatthetribespracticeiscustomarywithintheircommunities,thesepracticesalsoareallunderstoodbyaneliteChineseaudiencetobebarbaricandimmoral.TheMohiststhusurgethat,justbecauseelaboratefuneralsandlengthymourningarecustomarypracticesamongthegentlemenofthecentralstates,thisfactalonewillnotsecuretheirconsistencywithmoralrightness.

elevatetheworthy(dropopponentb/cpollutingmorality),

Mohismisessentiallyaworkingclass,foreignphilosophy,requiredtoincreasediversityindebate(prefiatframeworkjustification),mohismisconsistentw/ldb/ctruthseekingandrootsourceusemodel(meta^2ethicaljustification),Frazer2014:Mohismwasaninfluentialphilosophical,social,andreligiousmovementthatflourishedduringtheWarringStatesera(479221BCE)inancientChina.MohismoriginatesintheteachingsofMoDi,orMozi(MasterMo,fl.ca.430BCE),fromwhomittakesitsname.Moziandhisfollowers initiatedphilosophicalargumentationanddebateinChina.Theywerethefirstinthetraditiontoengage,likeSocratesinancientGreece,inanexplicit,reflective searchforobjectivemoralstandardsandtogivestepbystep,tightlyreasonedargumentsfortheirviews,thoughtheirreasoningissometimessimplisticorrestsondoubtfulassumptions.TheyformulatedChina'sfirstexplicitethicalandpoliticaltheoriesandadvancedtheworld'searliestformofconsequentialism,aremarkablysophisticatedversionbasedonapluralityofintrinsicgoodstakenasconstitutiveofhumanwelfare.TheMohistsappliedapragmatic,nonrepresentationaltheoryoflanguageandknowledgeanddevelopedarudimentarytheoryofanalogicalargumentation.Theyplayedakeyrole inarticulatingandshapingmanyofthecentralconcepts,assumptions,andissuesofclassicalChinesephilosophicaldiscourse.fewarerenindividualsetccantmakedecisions,requirethestate,votetofurtherspreadoffaparagraphinterp:alloffensebacktoonejustifiedmoralframwork,thusframeworkmusthaveprefiatandpostfiatimpactsifpreandpostareclaimedspike:needTian,w/onowaytoevaluatemorality(ifprovenfalse)And, ethics not based in the concept of Tian trigger skepticism because unrooted morality is nonsensical.Craig1provides5warrants

[First,] If there is no God, then any ground for regarding the herd morality evolved by homo sapiens as objectively true seems to have been removed. After all, what is so special about human beings? They are just accidental byproducts of nature which have evolved relatively recently on an infinitesimal speck of dust lost somewhere in a hostile andmindless universe and which are doomed to perish individually and collectively in a relatively short time. Some action, say , incest, may not be biologically or socially advantageous and so in the course of human evolution has become taboo but there is on the atheistic view nothingreally wrongaboutcommittingincest.If,asKurtzstates,"Themoralprinciplesthatgovernourbehaviorarerootedinhabitandcustom,feelingandfashion,"5 then the nonconformist who chooses to flout the herd morality is doing nothing more serious than acting unfashionably . The objective worthlessness of human beings on a naturalistic world view is underscored by two implications of that world view: materialism and determinism. Naturalists are typically materialists or physicalists, who regard

man as a purely animal organism. But [Second] if man has no immaterial aspect to his being (call it soul or mind or what have you), then he is not qualitatively different from other animal species. For him to regard human morality as objective is to fall into the trap of specieism. On a materialistic

anthropology there is no reason to think that human beings are objectively more valuable than rats. Secondly , [Third] if there is no mind distinct from the brain, then everything we think and do is determined by the input of our five senses and our genetic makeup. There is no personal agent who freely decides to do something. But without freedom, none of our choices is morally significant. They are like the jerks of a puppet's limbs, controlled by the strings of sensory input and physical constitution. And what moral value does a puppet or its movements have? Thus, [Fourth] if naturalism is true, it becomes impossible to condemn war, oppression, or crime as evil. Nor can one praise brotherhood, equality , or love as good. It does not matter what values you choosefor there is no right and wrong good and evil do not exist. That means that an atrocity like the Holocaust was really morally indifferent.Youmay think that it was wrong, but your opinion has no more validity than that of the [oppressor] war criminal who thought it was good. In his book Morality after Auschwitz, Peter Haas asks how an entire society could have willingly participated in a statesponsored program of mass torture and genocide for over a decade without any serious opposition. He argues that far from being contemptuous of ethics, the perpetrators acted in strict conformity with an ethic which held that, however difficult and unpleasant the taskmight have been, mass extermination of the Jews and Gypsies was entirely justified. . . . the Holocaust as a sustained effort was possible only because a new ethic was in place that did not define the arrest and deportation of Jews as wrong and in fact defined it as ethically tolerable and ever

good.6 Moreover, Haas points out, because of its coherence and internal consistency , the Nazi ethic could not be discredited from within. Only from a transcendent vantage point which stands above relativistic, sociocultural mores could such a critique be launched. But in the absence of God, it is precisely such a vantage point that we lack. One Rabbi who was imprisoned at Auschwitz said that it was as though all the Ten Commandments had been reversed: thou shalt kill, thou shalt lie, thou shalt steal. Mankind has never seen such a hell. And yet, in a real sense, if naturalism is true, our world is Auschwitz. There is no good and evil, no right and wrong. Objective moral values do not

exist. Moreover, [Fifth: Without Tian] there is no moral accountability for one's actions. Even if there were objective moral values and duties under naturalism, they are irrelevant because there is no moral accountability. If life ends at the grave, it makes no difference whether one lives as a Stalin or as a saint. As the Russian writer Fyodor Dostoyevsky rightly said: "If thereisnoimmortality ,thenallthingsarepermitted."7

spike:needintegratedprefiatimpactsandculturaldiversityforeducation,presumethusspike:presumeonstatusquopresumptionisharmfultodebateeducationeducationsaveslives:AbuelEaleh2013

Improvededucationisresponsibleforhalfoftheglobalreductioninchilddeathsinthelast40years,havingafargreaterimpactthaneconomicgrowthinreducingpreventativedeaths.[iv]

Educationspreadsprosperityandreducespoverty.Itisestimatedthatifallstudentsinlowincomecountriesleftschoolwithbasicreadingskills,then171millionpeoplecouldbeliftedoutofpoverty.Thisisequivalenttoa12%cutinglobalpoverty.[v]Ontopofthis,eachadditionalyearofaverageschoolingcanincreasetheGDPbyupto1%peryear.Ananalysis

basedondatafromtheInternationalAdultLiteracySurveyshowedthatatthenationallevel,thelongruneffectsofinvestmentinliteracyareaboutthreetimesasimportanttoeconomicgrowthasinvestment.[vi]

_______________________________________________________________

Educationimpactsmoralidentity:AbuelEaleh2013

Educationhasacriticalroletoplayinactivecitizenshipandpoliticalparticipation:itempowersindividuals,broadenscriticalthinkingandenablesthemtoexercisetheircitizenshiprights.ResearchinsubSaharanAfricahasshownthatvoterswithaprimaryeducationwere1.5timesmorelikelytosupportdemocracythanthosewithnoeducationvoterswhohadcompletedsecondaryschoolwerethreetimesmorelikely.[viii]

spike:allimpactsmustgobacktoonestandard:Argumentativelegitimacy:Argumentativelegitimacyistheabilityofthedebaterstoformulateargumentsthathavelegitimatecompetitivevalue.Whenmyopponentextendsandtriestowinoffofargumentsthatdontlinkbacktoacriterion,ashiftinthedebateoccursandwebecomeconcernedwithoneupmanshipofblippyargumentsjustwaitingfortheothertoslipupandmissone.Insteadofcraftinglogicalcoherentargumentsdesignedtorespondcarefullytodemonstrateourdebateabilityaswellasrespondingtoouropponentsasefficientlyaspossible.Argumentativelegitimacyholdstheinternalweighingmechanismbehindeducationasitallowsfordebatesandargumentstobeviewedandgivenweighttoengageintheeducationdebate.Thus,mycriterionismaximizingthestrengthandorderofthestateContentons:1,cosmeticswasteful,refusing/misdecidingtreatmentleadstodiscordandinefficiency,SoleConteniton:medicalautonomyFagan2009:http://journalofethics.amaassn.org/2009/08/msoc10908.html

ThemoralidealsoftheHippocraticOatharenotuniversallysharedandespoused.Forsomepatients,physicalsufferingorevendyingfromamedicallypreventabledeathisnottheworstthingthatcanhappen.Somepatientshaverefusedtoconsenttorudimentarymedicaltreatmentinfullknowledgethattheinevitableconsequenceoftheirrefusalwouldbetheirprematureand,inclinicalterms,unnecessarydeath.ThemostcommonlycitedexampleofthisphenomenonistheJehovahsWitnessrefusaltoreceiveabloodtransfusion.U.S.courtshavetendedtoupholddecisionsmadebycompetentadultpatientsinsuchinstancesandhavedeniedmedicalauthoritiesrequeststoadministertreatmentagainstpatientswishes.

Thus,clinicianshavebeenpreventedfromsavinglivesinthenameofpatientautonomy[1].Theapplicationoflifesavingmedicalexpertiseisrefusedinthenameofpatientscommitmenttothetenetsoftheirreligion,recognisingthewilloftheirGod.Whiletheliteratureinthisareaofmedicalethicsmightsuggestotherwise,JehovahsWitnessesbynomeansexhaustthelistofreligiousandculturalcommunitieswhohave,orarelikelyto,refusemedicaltreatmentonmoralgrounds.TheChurchofChrist,Scientisthaslongprohibitedtheuseofvaccinationsandinoculationsamongstitsmembers.Similarly,astrictadherencetoveganidealsisincompatiblewithreceivingmedicaltreatmentthatinvolvesorhasfundamentallybenefitedfromxenotransplantation

Byallowingpeopletodie,medicalautonomysapsthehumancapitalofthevirtuousstateandweakensitspower.Peopleopttospendbillionsofdollarsonplasticsurgery,wastingtheresourcesofthestateNEWYORK,NY(March11,2015)TheAmericanSocietyforAestheticPlasticSurgery(ASAPS)releaseditscomplete18thannualmultispecialtystatisticaldatatodayshowinganaestheticplasticsurgeryspendconsistentwiththefiguresfor2013,withAmericansspendingmorethan12billiondollarsonsurgicalandnonsurgicalproceduresforthesecondyearinarow.Withmorethan10millioncosmeticproceduresperformedin2014,thosethatshowedthelargestgrowthinvolumeonayearoveryearbasisincludedbuttockaugmentation(up86%),labiaplasty(up49%),andnonsurgicalfatreduction(up42%).Additionally,moremenareturningtoaestheticcosmeticprocedures,withdramaticincreasesseeninbothsurgicalandnonsurgicaloptionsoverthepast5yearsanda43%increaseoverall.Thetopfivesurgicalproceduresforbothmenandwomencombinedin2014were:

Liposuction(342,494procedures)BreastAugmentation(286,694procedures)EyelidSurgery(165,714procedures)TummyTuck(164,021procedures)NoseSurgery(145,909procedures)Thetopfivenonsurgicalproceduresforbothmenandwomencombinedin2014were:

BotulinumToxin(3,588,218procedures)

HyaluronicAcid(1,696,621procedures) HairRemoval(828,480procedures) ChemicalPeel(484,053procedures)Microdermabrasion(417,034procedures)Someofthemorepopularprocedures,includingafewinthetopfivelistsabove,didseedecreasesin2014includingbreastaugmentation(down8.5%),earsurgery(down12.3%),injectables,(down6.5%)andPhotorejuvenation,(down18.9%).Despitethedecreasesinspecificproceduralareashowever,onethingisabundantlyclear:Thenumberofmenflockingtoplasticsurgeonsforbothsurgicalandnonsurgicalprocedurescontinuestoincreasedramaticallyandareup43%thisyearalone,statesMichaelEdwards,MD,PresidentoftheAmericanSocietyforAestheticPlasticSurgery.Overthepast5years,(since2010),therehavebeensignificantincreasesinthefollowing

proceduresformen:

Surgical:

Blepharoplasty(up34%)MaleBreastReduction(up33%)Facelift(up44%)Nonsurgical:

BotulinumToxin(up84%)

HyaluronicAcid(up94%)Nonsurgicalskintightening(up37%)IntensePulsedLight(up44%)SinceASAPSbegancollectingstatisticaldatain1997,therehasbeena273%increaseinthenumberofproceduresperformedonmen.Thisisnotatrendweexpecttoseewaneanytimesoon.Facingachallengingandsometimesageistjobmarket,men,likewomen,arestartingtoconsidertheiroptionstomaintainayouthfulappearancethatexudesexuberanceandenergyandthefullspectrumofcareofferedbyboardcertifiedplasticsurgeonscaterstotheirindividualneeds,explainsJamesGrotting,MD,PresidentElectofASAPS.Toobtainafullcopyofthereport,pleasevisitthemediasectionofTheSocietyswebsite:

www.surgery.org

###

manyoftheseareadolescentsAmericanSocietyofPlasticSurgery

Common[operations]physicalcharacteristicsorconcernsateenmaywishtocorrectincludeamisshapennose,protrudingears,overlylargebreasts,asymmetricalbreasts,orsevereacneandscarring.

Teensfrequentlygainself-esteemandconfidencewhentheirphysicalproblemsarecorrected.Infact,successfulplasticsurgerymayreversethesocialwithdrawalthatsooftenaccompaniesteenswhofeeldifferent.AccordingtoAmericanSocietyofPlasticSurgeons(ASPS)statistics,63,623cosmeticsurgicalprocedureswereperformedonpeopleage13-19in2013,while155,941cosmeticminimally-invasiveprocedureswereperformed.

[Eventhough]noteveryteenagerseekingplasticsurgeryiswellsuitedforanoperation.Teensmustdemonstrateemotionalmaturityandanunderstandingofthelimitationsofplasticsurgery.TheASPScautionsteenagersandparentstokeepinmindthatplasticsurgeryisrealsurgery,withgreatbenefits,butalsocarriessomerisks.Teensshouldhaverealisticexpectationsaboutplasticsurgeryandwhatitcandoforthem.Inaddition,certainmilestonesingrowthandphysicalmaturitymustbeachievedbeforeundergoingplasticsurgery.

Althoughhealthinsurancedoesnotpayforcosmeticplasticsurgery,coverageisoftenprovidedwhenaprocedurealleviatesphysicalsymptomsorimprovesabodyfunction.Suchisusuallythecase,forinstance,whenbreastreductioneliminatesseverebackandneckpain.Itshouldbenoted;however,thathealthinsurancecoveragevariesgreatlybetweenhealthplans.

Atanaveragecostofover5000dollarspersurgery,thiscoststhestatehundredsofmillionsofdollarsinwastefulprocedureseveryyear.Theeconomyisnecessary

BLOCKS

Autonomydefinition:inbioethics,selfdeterminationthatisfreefrombothcontrollinginterferencesbyothersandpersonallimitationspreventingmeaningfulchoice(suchasinadequateunderstandingorfaultyreasoning).Havingthecapacitytoactwithautonomydoesnotguaranteethatapersonwillactuallydosowithfullunderstandingandwithoutexternalcontrollinginfluences.adj.,adjautonomous.FarlexMedicalDictionary

Preferthisdefinitionbecauseitistopicspecific,beingspecificallyinthecontextofbioethicsandsourcedfromareputablemedicinespecificdictionary.TheautonomynecessaryforconceivingofmoralityisplacedinthesocietaldaoMou2001

MozisutilitarianismdiffersfromitsWesterncounterpartsinotherinterestingwaysthatbearonthetranscendenceissue.Hismeasureofutilityisnotmental,private,orsubjective.Thesubjectofthemoralautonomyhisargumentvouehsafesisnottheindividual.Heseemingl_vsharestheConfuciannotionthatadaoisasocialguide.Asamoralrefonner,hequestionswhatsocialduowe(thesociety)oughttouseinguidingourbehavior.Thenheurgeswemakeasocialchoicetofollowapathofmoralreformthatwillnaturallyresultintheindividualsinsocietyfollowingadilferentpathfromtheonetheynowfollow.Thelocusoftheautonomynecessaryforconceivingofmoralrefomiisnotplacedinindividuals,butinthenomiativeorguidingdiscourse(dao)itself.CosmeticsurgeryismedicineAmericanAcademyofCosmeticsurgery(http://www.cosmeticsurgery.org/?page=CosmeticSurgery)A.Cosmeticsurgeryisauniquedisciplineofmedicinefocusedonenhancingappearancethroughsurgicalandmedicaltechniques.Cosmeticsurgerycanbeperformedonallareasofthehead,neckandbody.Becausetreatedareasfunctionproperlybutlackaestheticappeal,cosmeticsurgeryiselective.Mohismbelievesinafterlife:Fulford2008FewpeopleintheWestareawarethat500yearsbeforeChristwasborn,therelivedasageinChinawhoseteachingsareuncannilysimilartothoseofJesus.HisnamewasMozi(originalnameMoDi)orthe"tattooedone."InhistimehewasaseriousrivaltoConfucius.Healsohadamillionmanarmyathisdisposal.Mozipreachedthatallmenarecreatedequal.UnlikeConfucius,whosaidrelativeshadfirstpriority,hepreacheduniversalloveandcaringforthepoorestandweakestinsociety.MozialsosaidtherewasaHeavenandanafterlifeandthatpeoplewhobecamerichthroughunrighteousmeanswouldnotbeabletogothere.JustasJesussaiditwasbettertoteachamantofishandfeedhimforalifetimethanitwasgogivehimafish,sodidMoziemphasizeteachingthepoortheskillstheyneededtocareforthemselves.

ThemostimportantteachingofMozi,however,wastheconceptof"Gi"whichhasbeentranslatedas"righteousness"butwouldbebettertranslatedas"life"or"love."TheideaistodrawalineandfightwheneverGiorlifeisbeingharmed.

EvidencefortianbasedmetaethicsMozi1stmilleniumBCAllstatesintheworld,largeorsmall,arecitiesofHeaven,andallpeople,youngorold,honourableorhumble,areitssubjectsfortheyallgrazeoxenandsheep,feeddogsandpigs,andpreparecleanwineandcakestosacrificetoHeaven.DoesthisnotmeanthatHeavenclaimsallandacceptsofferingsfromall?SinceHeavendoesclaimallandacceptsofferingsfromall,whatthencanmakeussaythatitdoesnotdesirementoloveandbenefitoneanother?HencethosewholoveandbenefitothersHeavenwillbless.ThosewhohateandharmothersHeavenwillcurse,foritissaidthathewhomurderstheinnocentwillbevisitedbymisfortune.Howelsecanweexplainthefactthatmen,murderingeachother,willbecursedbyHeaven?ThuswearecertainthatHeavendesirestohavemenloveandbenefitoneanotherandabominatestohavethemhateandharmoneanother.Theancientsagekings,Yu,Tang,Wen,andWulovedthepeopleoftheworlduniversally,leadingthemtoreverenceHeavenandworshipthespirits.Manyweretheirbenefitstothepeople.And,thereuponHeavenblessedthem,establishingthememperorsandallthefeudallordsoftheempireshowedthemrespect.(Ontheotherhand)thewickedkings,Jie,Zhou,You,andLi,hatedallthepeopleintheworld,seducingthepeopletocurseHeavenandridiculethespirits.Greatweretheirinjuriestothepeople.ThereuponHeavenbroughtthemcalamity,deprivingthemoftheirempireandtheirlivesandposteritycondemnedthemtothisday.Jie,Zhou,You,andLi,then,arethosethatcommittedevilandwerevisitedbycalamities.AndYu,Tang,Wen,andWuarethosethatlovedandbenefitedthepeopleandobtainedblessings.Thuswehavethosewhoobtainedblessingsbecausetheylovedandbenefitedthepeopleaswellasthosewhowerevisitedbycalamitiesbecausetheyhatedandharmedthepeople.Faareobjectiveparadigms: