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Workbook Presentation

Manvi Jain

Ro. No.1011000615

Module 2

Study Center !M"#$%a&iabad

Sub'e(t )r*ani&ationStru(ture + be%avior ,!M"#

1-

"o/i( Motivation

!nstitute o Mana*eent "e(%nolo*y

$%a&iabad

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Motivational a(tors(on(e/ts

Re3ard and reinor(eent

A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after theoccurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with the intent tocause the behavior to occur again. This is done byassociatingpositive meaning to the behavior. Studies

show that if the person receives the reward immediately,the eect would be greater, and decreases as durationlengthens. Repetitive actionreward combination cancause the action to become habit.

Rewards can also be organi!ed as e"trinsic or intrinsic.#"trinsic rewards are e"ternal to the person$ for e"ample,praise or money. %ntrinsic rewards are internal to theperson$ for e"ample, satisfactionor a feeling of

accomplishment.

Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsicmotivation& one based on en'oyment, the other onobligation. %n this conte"t, obligationrefers to motivationbased on what an individual thins ought to be done. orinstance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may leadto helping others beyond what is easily observable,rewarded, or fun.

A reinforceris dierent from reward, in that reinforcementis intended to create a measured increase in the rate of adesirable behavior following the addition of something tothe environment.

!ntrinsi( and e4trinsi( otivation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enjoymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enjoymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement

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!ntrinsi( otivationis when people engage in anactivity, such as a hobby, without obvious e"ternalincentives.

%ntrinsic motivation has been studied by educationalpsychologistssince the *+-s, and numerous studies havefound it to be associated with high educationalachievement and en'oyment by students. There iscurrently no universal theory to e"plain the origin orelements of intrinsic motivation, and most e"planationscombine elements of rit! eider/s attribution theory,0andura/s wor on selfe1cacyand other studies relatingto locus of controland goal orientation. Though it is

thought that students are more liely to be intrinsicallymotivated if they&

Attribute their educational results to internal factorsthat they can control (e.g. the amount of eort theyput in),

0elieve they can be eective agents in reachingdesired goals (i.e. the results are not determined byluc),

Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than 'ustrotelearning to achieve good grades.

2ote that the idea of reward for achievementis absentfrom this model of intrinsic motivation, since rewards arean e"trinsic factor.

%n nowledgesharing communities and organi!ations,people often cite altruistic reasons for their participation,including contributing to a common good, a moral

obligation to the group, mentorship or /giving bac/. %nworenvironments, moneymay provide a more powerfule"trinsic factor than the intrinsic motivation provided byan en'oyable worplace.

The most obvious form of motivation is coercion, wherethe avoidance of painor other negative conse3uences hasan immediate eect. #"treme use of coercion isconsidered slavery. 4hile coercion is considered morally

reprehensible in many philosophies, it is widely practiced
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reward_for_achievement&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reward_for_achievement&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery

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on prisoners, students in mandatory schooling, within thenuclear family unit (on children), and in the form ofconscription. 5ritics of modern capitalismcharge thatwithout social safety networs, wage slaveryis

inevitable6citation needed7

. owever, many capitalists such asAyn Randhave been very vocal against coercion6citation needed7.Successful coercion sometimes can tae priority overother types of motivation. Selfcoercion is rarelysubstantially negative (typically only negative in the sensethat it avoids a positive, such as forgoing an e"pensivedinner or a period of rela"ation), however it is interestingin that it illustrates how lower levels of motivation may besometimes tweaed to satisfy higher ones.

%n terms of 85S# 9#, intrinsic motivation is the motivationthat comes from inside the performer. #.g. they competefor the love of the sport. #"trinsic motivation comes fromoutside of the performer. #.g. The crowd cheer theperformer on, this motivates them to do well, or to beat a90 (9ersonal 0est). Another e"ample is trophies or areward. %t maes the performer want to win and beat theother competitors, thereby motivating the performer.

Sel#(ontrol

The selfcontrol of motivation is increasingly understood asa subset of emotional intelligence$ a person may be highlyintelligent according to a more conservative de:nition (asmeasured by many intelligence tests), yet unmotivated todedicate this intelligence to certain tass.;ale School ofe"pectancytheory> provides an account of when people will decide

whether to e"ert self control to pursue a particular goal.

?rives and desires can be described as a defciency orneed that activates behaviour that is aimed at a goal oran incentive.These are thought to originate within theindividual and may not re3uire e"ternal stimuli toencourage the behaviour. 0asic drives could be spared byde:ciencies such as hunger, which motivates a person tosee food$ whereas more subtle drives might be the desire
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for praise and approval, which motivates a person tobehave in a manner pleasing to others.

0y contrast, the role of e"trinsic rewards and stimuli can

be seen in the e"ample of training animals by giving themtreats when they perform a tric correctly. The treatmotivates the animals to perform the tric consistently,even later when the treat is removed from the process.

Motivational "%eories

rive Redu(tion "%eories

There are a number of drive theories. The riveRedu(tion "%eorygrows out of the concept that we havecertain biological needs, such as hunger. As time passesthe strength of the drive increases as it is not satis:ed.

Then as we satisfy that drive by ful:lling its desire, such aseating, the drive/s strength is reduced. %t is based on thetheories of reudand the idea of feedbac controlsystems, such as a thermostat.

There are several problems, however, that leave the

validity of the ?rive Reduction Theory open for debate.The :rst problem is that it does not e"plain how SecondaryReinforcers reduce drive. or e"ample, money does notsatisfy any biological or psychological need but reducesdrive on a regular basis through a pay chec secondorderconditioning. Secondly, if the drive reduction theory heldtrue we would not be able to e"plain how a hungry humanbeing can prepare a meal without eating the food beforethey :nished cooing it.

owever, when comparing this to a real life situation suchas preparing food, one does get hungrier as the food isbeing made (drive increases), and after the food has beenconsumed the drive decreases. The only reason the fooddoes not get eaten before is the human element ofrestraint and has nothing to do with drive theory. Also, thefood will either be nicer after it is cooed, or it won/t beedible at all before it is cooed.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud

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Co*nitive dissonan(e t%eory

Suggested by @eon estinger, this occurs when anindividual e"periences some degree of discomfort

resulting from an incompatibility between two cognitions.or e"ample, a consumer may see to reassure himselfregarding a purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that anotherdecision may have been preferable.

Another e"ample of cognitive dissonance is when a beliefand a behavior are in conict. A person may wish to behealthy, believes smoing is bad for one/s health, and yetcontinues to smoe.

7e(tive#rousal "%eories

Need (%ieveent "%eory

?avid

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The theory can be summari!ed as thus&

uman beings have wants and desires whichinuence their behavior$ only unsatis:ed needs can

inuence behavior, satis:ed needs cannot. Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of

importance, from the basic to the comple". The person advances to the ne"t level of needs only

after the lower level need is at least minimallysatis:ed.

The further the progress up the hierarchy, the moreindividuality, humanness and psychological health aperson will show.

The needs, listed from basic (lowest, earliest) to mostcomple" (highest, latest) are as follows&

9hysiological Safetyand security Social #steem Self actuali!ation

8er&ber*9s t3o#a(tor t%eory

rederic er!berg/s twofactor theory, aaintrinsicGe"trinsic motivation, concludes that certainfactors in the worplace result in'ob satisfaction, but ifabsent, lead to dissatisfaction.

e distinguished between&

Motivators$ (e.g. challenging wor, recognition,responsibility) which give positive satisfaction, and

8y*iene a(tors$ (e.g. status,'ob security, salaryand fringe bene:ts) that do not motivate if present,but, if absent, result in demotivation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esteemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_actualizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Herzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Two-factor_theory&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene_factorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esteemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_actualizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Herzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Two-factor_theory&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene_factorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salary

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The name ygiene factors is used because, lie hygiene,the presence will not mae you healthier, but absence cancause health deterioration.

The theory is sometimes called the >

lderer9s :R$ t%eory

5layton Alderfer, e"panding on for achievement, but instead re3uires

active encouragement from the environment. The primaryfactors that encourage motivation and development areautonomy, competence feedbac, and relatedness.

;road "%eories

The latest approach in Achievement EnionRing

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anson. %t is based on the premise that performancemotivation results from way broad components ofpersonality are directed towards performance. As a resultit includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to

success at wor but which are not conventionally regardedas being part of performance motivation. #specially itintegrates formerly separated approaches as 2eed forAchievement with e.g. social motives lie ?ominance. TheAchievement , is one such disguise, or defense mechanism, as it
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is called. Another is pro'ecting or attributing one/s ownfaults to others. >% feel % am to blame>, becomes >%t is herfault$ she is sel:sh>. Repression of powerful but sociallyunacceptable motives may result in outward behavior that

is the opposite of the repressed tendencies. An e"ample ofthis would be the employee who hates his boss butoverwors himself on the 'ob to show that he holds him inhigh regard.

Hnconscious motives add to the ha!ards of interpretinghuman behavior and, to the e"tent that they are present,complicate the life of the administrator. En the otherhand, nowledge that unconscious motives e"ist can lead

to a more careful assessment of behavioral problems.Although few contemporary psychologists deny thee"istence of unconscious factors, many do believe thatthese are activated only in times of an"iety and stress,and that in the ordinary course of events, human behaviorL from the sub'ect/s point of view L is rationallypurposeful.

Controllin* otivation

The control of motivation is only understood to a limitede"tent. There are many dierent approaches of motivationtraining, but many of these are consideredpseudoscienti:cby critics. To understand how to controlmotivation it is :rst necessary to understand why manypeople lac motivation.

)r*ani&ation

0esides the very direct approaches to motivation,beginning in early life, there are solutions which are moreabstract but perhaps nevertheless more practical for self

motivation. =irtually every motivation guideboo includes
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at least one chapter about the proper organi!ation of one/stassand goals. %t is usually suggested that it is critical tomaintain a list of tass, with a distinction between thosewhich are completed and those which are not, thereby

moving some of the re3uired motivation for theircompletion from the tass themselves into a >metatas>,namely the processing of the tass in the tas list, whichcan become a routine. The viewing of the list of completedtass may also be considered motivating, as it can createa satisfying sense of accomplishment.

train> the neural networthat isthe human brain to focus on the given tas. Simpler formsof idea notation such as simple bulletpoint style lists mayalso be su1cient, or even more useful to less visuallyoriented persons.

ru*s

Some authors, especially in the transhumanistmovement,have suggested the use of >smart drugs>, also nown asnootropics, as >motivationenhancers>. The eects ofmany of these drugs on the brain are emphatically notwell understood, and their legal status often maes opene"perimentation di1cult.

5onverging neurobiological evidence also supports theidea that addictive drugs such as cocaine, nicotine,
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alcohol, and heroinact on brain systems underlyingmotivation for natural rewards, such as the mesolimbicdopaminesystem. 2ormally, these brain systems serve toguide us toward :tnessenhancing rewards (food, water,

se", etc.), but they can be coopted by repeated use ofdrugs of abuse, causing addicts to e"cessively pursuedrug rewards. Therefore, drugs can hi'ac brain systemsunderlying other motivations, causing the almost singularpursuit of drugs characteristic of addiction.

//li(ations

:du(ation

"%is se(tion needs additional (itationsor veri=(ation.9lease help improve this articleby adding reliable references. Hnsourcedmaterial may be challengedand removed. (November 2007)

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!ntrinsi( otivationoccurs when people areinternally motivated to do something because iteither brings them pleasure, they thin it isimportant, or they feel that what they are learning is

signi:cant. :4trinsi( otivationcomes into play when a

student is compelled to do something or act a certainway because of factors e"ternal to him or her (liemoney or good grades).

2ote also that there is already 3uestioning and e"pansionabout this dichotomy on motivation, e.g., Self?etermination Theory.

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#lton

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negotiation positive aect has bene:cial conse3uences aswell. %t increases satisfaction with achieved outcome andinuences oneBs desire for future interactions. The 9Aaroused by reaching an agreement facilitates the dyadic

relationship, which result in aective commitment thatsets the stage for subse3uent interactions.9A also has its drawbacs& it distorts perception of selfperformance, such that performance is 'udged to berelatively better than it actually is.Thus, studies involvingself reports on achieved outcomes might be biased.

Ne*ative a7e(t in ne*otiation

2egative aect has detrimental eects on various stagesin the negotiation process. Although various negativeemotions aect negotiation outcomes, by far the mostresearched is anger. Angry negotiators plan to use morecompetitive strategies and to cooperate less, even beforethe negotiation starts. These competitive strategies arerelated to reduced 'oint outcomes. ?uring negotiations,anger disrupts the process by reducing the level of trust,clouding parties/ 'udgment, narrowing parties/ focus of

attention and changing their central goal from reachingagreement to retaliating against the other side. Angrynegotiators pay less attention to opponentBs interests andare less accurate in 'udging their interests, thus achievelower 'oint gains.

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claiming more for themselves.

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positive eects 9A has on negotiations (as describedabove) will be seen only when either motivation or abilityare low.

Probles 3it% lab ne*otiation studies

2egotiation is a rather comple" interaction. 5apturing allits comple"ity is a very di1cult tas, let alone isolatingand controlling only certain aspects of it. or this reasonmost negotiation studies are done under laboratoryconditions, and focus only on some aspects. Although labstudies have their advantages, they do have ma'ordrawbacs when studying emotions&

#motions in lab studies are usually manipulated andare therefore relatively QcoldB (not intense). Althoughthose QcoldB emotions might be enough to showeects, they are 3ualitatively dierent from the QhotBemotions often e"perienced during negotiations.

%n real life there is selfselection to which negotiationone gets into, which eects the emotional

commitment, motivation and interests. owever thisis not the case in lab studies.

@ab studies tend to focus on relatively few wellde:ned emotions. Real life scenarios provoe a muchwider scale of emotions.

5oding the emotions has a double catch& if done by a thirdside, some emotions might not be detected as the negotiatorsublimates them for strategic reasons. Self report measuresmight overcome this, but they are usually :lled only before orafter the process, and if :lled during the process mightinterfere with it.

Ne*otiation t%eory

The foundations of ne*otiation t%eoryare decisionanalysis, behavioral decision maing, game theory, andnegotiation analysis. Another classi:cation of theoriesdistinguishes between Structural Analysis, StrategicAnalysis, 9rocess Analysis, %ntegrative Analysis and

behavioral analysisof negotiations.
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%ndividuals should mae separate, interactive decisions$and negotiation analysisconsiders how groups ofreasonably bright individuals should and could mae 'oint,collaborative decisions. These theories are interleaved and

should be approached from the synthetic perspective.

Coon ssu/tions ) Most "%eories

2egotiation is a speciali!ed and formal version of conictresolution most fre3uently employed when importantissues must be agreed upon. 2egotiation is necessarywhen one party re3uires the other party/s agreement toachieve its aim. The aim of negotiating is to build a sharedenvironment leading to longterm trust and often involvesa third, neutral party to e"tract the issues from theemotions and eep the individuals concerned focused. %t isa powerful method for resolving conict and re3uires silland e"perience. artman de:nes negotiation as >aprocess of combining conicting positions into a commonposition under a decision rule of unanimity, a phenomenonin which the outcome is determined by the process.>

owever, most theories of negotiations share the notion ofnegotiations as a process. ;et, they dier in theirdescription of the process. Structural Analysis considersthis process to be a power game. Strategic analysis thins

of it as a repetition of games (8ame Theory). %ntegrative
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Theory

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Analysis prefers the more intuitive notion of process, inwhich negotiations undergo successive stages, e.g. prenegotiation, stalemate, settlement. #specially structural,strategic and procedural analysis build on rational actors,

who are able to prioriti!e clear goals, are able to maetradeos between conicting values, are consistent intheir behavioral pattern, and are able to tae uncertaintyinto account.

2egotiations dier from mere coercion, in that negotiatingparties have the theoretic possibility to withdraw fromnegotiations. %t is easier to study bilateral negotiations, asopposed to multilateral negotiations.

Stru(tural nalysis

Structural Analysis is based on a distribution ofempowering elements among two negotiating parties.Structural theory moves away from traditional Realistnotions of power in that it does not only consider powertobe a possession, manifested for e"ample in economic ormilitary resources, but also thins of power as a relation.

0ased on the distribution of elements, in structuralanalysis we :nd either powersymmetry between e3ually

strong parties or powerasymmetry between a strongerand a weaer party. All elements from which therespective parties can draw power constitute structure.

They may be of material nature, i.e. hard power, (such asweapons) or of social nature, i.e. soft power, (such asnorms, contractsor precedents).

These instrumental elements of power, are either de:nedas partiesB relative position (resources position) or as theirrelative ability to mae their options prevail.
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Structural analysis is easy to criticise, because it predictsthat the strongest will always win. This, however, does notalways hold true.

Strate*i( nalysis

According to structural analysis, negotiations cantherefore be described with matrices, such as the9risoner/s ?ilemma, a concepttaen from 8ame Theory.Another common game is the 5hicen ?ilemma.

Strategic analysis starts with the assumption that bothparties have a veto. Thus, in essence, negotiating partiescan cooperate (5) or defect (?). Structural analysis thenevaluates possible outcomes of negotiations (5, 5$ 5, ?$ ?,?$ ?, 5), by assigning values to each of the possibleoutcomes. Eften, cooperation of both sides yields thebest outcome. The basic problem however is, that theparties can never be sure that the other is going tocooperate, mainly because of two reasons& :rst, decisionsare made at the same time or, second, concessions of oneside might not be returned. Therefore the parties havecontradicting incentives to cooperate or defect. %f oneparty cooperates or maes a concession and the other

does not, the defecting party might relatively gain more.
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Pro(ess nalysis

9rocess analysis is the theory closest to haggling. 9artiesstart from two points and converge through a series of

concessions. As in strategic analysis, both sides have aveto (e.g. sell, not sell$ pay, not pay). 9rocess analysis alsofeatures structural assumptions, because one side may beweaer or stronger (e.g. more eager to sell, not willing topay a certain price). 9rocess Analysis focuses on the studyof the dynamics of processes. #.g. both euthen and 5rosstried to :nd a formula in order to predict the behaviour ofthe other party in :nding a rate of concession, in order topredict the liely outcome.

!nte*rative nalysis

%ntegrative analysis divides the process into successivestages, rather than taling about :"ed points. %t e"tendsanalysis to prenegotiations stages, in which parties mae:rst contacts. The outcome is e"plained as the

performance of the actors at dierent stages. Stages mayinclude prenegotiations, :nding a formula of distribution,crest behaviour, settlement.

>roo9s :4/e(tan(y t%eory

#"pectancy theory is about choice. %t e"plains theprocesses that an individual undergoes to mae choices.

%n organi!ational behaviorstudy, e4/e(tan(y t%eoryis amotivationtheory :rst proposed by =ictor =roomof the

;ale School of

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better 'ob performance will lead to organi!ationalrewards, such as an increase in salary or bene:ts

these predicted organi!ational rewards are valued bythe employee in 3uestion.

=room/s theory assumes that behavior results fromconscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it isto ma"imi!e pleasure and to minimi!e pain. Together with#dward @awler and @yman 9orter, =room suggested thatthe relationship between people/s behavior at wor andtheir goals was not as simple as was :rst imagined byother scientists. =room reali!ed that an employee/sperformance is based on individual factors such as

personality, sills, nowledge, e"perience and abilities.=ictor . =room introduces three variables within thee"pectancy theory which are valence (=), e"pectancy (#)and instrumentality (%). The three elements are importantbehind choosing one element over another because theyare clearly de:ned & eortperformance e"pectancy(#9e"pectancy), performanceoutcome e"pectancy (9Ee"pectancy).

#9 e"pectancy& Eur assessment of the probability oureorts will lead to the re3uired performance level.

9E e"pectancy& Eur assessment of the probability oursuccessful performance will lead to certain outcomes.

=roomBs model is based on three concepts& 6*7

*. =alence Strength of an individualBs preference for aparticular outcome. or the valence to be positive, theperson must prefer attaining the outcome to not attainingit.J. %nstrumentality

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particular action will lead to a particular :rst leveloutcome.

=room says the product of these variables is the

motivation.

%n order to enhance the performanceoutcome tiemanagers should use systems that tie rewards veryclosely to performance. %n order to improve the eortperformance tie, managers should engage in training toimprove their capabilities and improve their belief thatadded eort will in fact lead to better performance.

>i(tor >roo

>i(tor >roois a business school professor at the;aleSchool of % can/t do itU>) to *.- (>% have

no doubt whatsoever that % can do this 'obU>)
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A number of factors can contribute to an employee/se"pectancy perceptions&

the level of con:dence in the sills re3uired for

the tas the amount of support that may be e"pected

from superiors and subordinates the 3uality of the materials and e3uipment the availability of pertinent information

9revious success at the tas has also been shown tostrengthen e"pectancy beliefs.

>alen(e>%s the outcome % get of any value to meV>

The term =alence refers to the emotional orientationspeople hold with respect to outcomes (rewards). Anoutcome is positively valent if an employee would preferhaving it to not having it. An outcome that the employeewould rather avoid ( fatigue, stress, noise, layos) isnegatively valent. Eutcomes towards which the employee

appears indierent are said to have !ero valence. =alencesrefer to the level of satisfaction people e"pect to get fromthe outcome (as opposed to the actual satisfaction theyget once they have attained the reward).

=room suggests that an employee/s beliefs about#"pectancy, %nstrumentality, and =alence interactpsychologically to create a motivational force such thatthe employee acts in ways that bring pleasure and avoid

pain.

9eople elect to pursue levels of 'ob performance that theybelieve will ma"imi!e their overall best interests (theirsub'ective e"pected utility).

There will be no motivational forces acting on anemployee if any of these three conditions hold&

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the person does not believe that heGshe cansuccessfully perform the re3uired tas

the person believes that successful tasperformance will not be associated with

positively valent outcomes the person believes that outcomes associated

with successful tas completion will benegatively valent (have no value for thatperson)

(Source& 4%@ . RAT0HR8 0ritish 5olumbia %nstitute ofTechnology)

=ictor =room:4/e(tan(y "%eory(also nown as the=alence%nstrumentality #"pectancy Theory)(*+FM)=room/s theory assumes that behaviorresults from conscious choices amongalternatives whose purpose it is to ma"imi!epleasure and minimi!e pain. The eyelements to this theory are referred to as#"pectancy (#), %nstrumentality (%), and=alence (=). 5ritical to the understanding ofthe theory is the understanding that each ofthese factors represents a belief.

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=room/s theory suggests that the individual will considerthe outcomes associated with various levels of

performance (from an entire spectrum of performancepossibilities), and elect to pursue the level that generatesthe greatest reward for him or her.

#"pectancy refers to the strength of a person/s beliefabout whether or not a particular 'ob performance isattainable. Assuming all other things are e3ual, anemployee will be motivated to try a tas, if he or shebelieves that it can be done. This e"pectancy ofperformance may be thought of in terms of probabilitiesranging from !ero (a case of >% can/t do itU>) to *.- (>% haveno doubt whatsoever that % can do this 'obU>)

A number of factors can contribute to an employee/s

e"pectancy perceptions&

the level of con:dence in the sills re3uired for thetas

the amount of support that may be e"pected fromsuperiors and subordinates

the 3uality of the materials and e3uipment the availability of pertinent information

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9revious success at the tas has also been shown tostrengthen e"pectancy beliefs.

%nstrumentality& >4hat/s the probability that, if % do a good

'ob, that there will be some ind of outcome in it for meV>

%f an employee believes that a high level of performancewill be instrumental for the ac3uisition of outcomes whichmay be gratifying, then the employee will place a highvalue on performing well. =room de:nes %nstrumentalityas a probability belief lining one outcome (a high level ofperformance, for e"ample) to another outcome (a reward).

%nstrumentality may range from a probability of *.-(meaning that the attainment of the second outcome the reward is certain if the :rst outcome e"cellent 'obperformance is attained) through !ero (meaning there isno liely relationship between the :rst outcome and thesecond). An e"ample of !ero instrumentality would bee"am grades that were distributed randomly (as opposedto be awarded on the basis of e"cellent e"amperformance). 5ommission pay schemes are designed tomae employees perceive that performance is positivelyinstrumental for the ac3uisition of money.

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or management to ensure high levels of performance, itmust tie desired outcomes (positive valence) to highperformance, and ensure that the connection is

communicated to employees.The =%# theory holds that people have preferences amongvarious outcomes. These preferences tend to reect aperson/s underlying need state.

=alence& >%s the outcome % get of any value to meV>

The term =alence refers to the emotional orientationspeople hold with respect to outcomes (rewards). Anoutcome is positively valent if an employee would preferhaving it to not having it. An outcome that the employeewould rather avoid ( fatigue, stress, noise, layos) isnegatively valent. Eutcomes towards which the employeeappears indierent are said to have !ero valence.=alences refer to the level of satisfaction people e"pect toget from the outcome (as opposed to the actualsatisfaction they get once they have attained the reward).

=room suggests that an employee/s beliefs about#"pectancy, %nstrumentality, and =alence interactpsychologically to create a motivational force such thatthe employee acts in ways that bring pleasure and avoidpain.

9eople elect to pursue levels of 'ob performance that theybelieve will ma"imi!e their overall best interests (theirsub'ective e"pected utility).

There will be no motivational forces acting on anemployee if any of these three conditions hold&

*. the person does not believe that heGshe cansuccessfully perform the re3uired tas

J. the person believes that successful tas performancewill not be associated with positively valent outcomes

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K. the person believes that outcomes associated withsuccessful tas completion will be negatively valent(have no value for that person)

(Source& 4%@ . RAT0HR8 0ritish 5olumbia %nstitute ofTechnology

?eaders%i/

The word leaders%i/can refer to&

*. Those entities that perform one or more acts ofleading.

J. The ability to aect human behavior so as toaccomplish a mission.

K. %nuencing a group of people to move towards its

goal setting or goal achievement. (Stogdill *+D-& K)

A leader is simply someone who has followers.

Cate*ories and ty/es o leaders%i/

@eadership has a formal aspect (as in most political orbusiness leadership) or an informal one (as in mostfriendships). Speaing of >leadership> (the abstract term)rather than of >leading> (the action) usually it implies that

the entities doing the leading have some >leadershipsills> or competencies.

"y/es o leaders%i/ styles

The bureau(rati( leader(4eber, *+-D) is verystructured and follows the procedures as they have beenestablished. This type of leadership has no space toe"plore new ways to solve problems and is usually slow

paced to ensure adherence to the ladders stated by the
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company. @eaders ensure that all the steps have beenfollowed prior to sending it to the ne"t level of authority.Hniversities, hospitals, bans and government usuallyre3uire this type of leader in their organi!ations to ensure

3uality, increase security and decrease corruption.@eaders that try to speed up the process will e"periencefrustration and an"iety.

The (%arisati( leader(4eber, *+-D) leads by infusingenergy and eagerness into their team members. This typeof leader has to be committed to the organi!ation for thelong run. %f the success of the division or pro'ect isattributed to the leader and not the team, charismatic

leaders may become a ris for the company by deciding toresign for advanced opportunities. %t taes the companytime and hard wor to gain the employees/ con:dencebac with other type of leadership after they havecommitted themselves to the magnetism of a charismaticleader.

The auto(rati( leader(@ewin, @ippitt, I 4hite, *+K+) isgiven the power to mae decisions alone, having totalauthority. This leadership style is good for employees thatneed close supervision to perform certain tass. 5reativeemployees and team players resent this type ofleadership, since they are unable to enhance processes ordecision maing, resulting in 'ob dissatisfaction.

The deo(rati( leader(@ewin, @ippitt, I 4hite, *+K+)

listens to the team/s ideas and studies them, but will maethe :nal decision. Team players contribute to the :naldecision thus increasing employee satisfaction and

ownership, feeling their input was considered when the:nal decision was taen. 4hen changes arises, this type ofleadership helps the team assimilate the changes betterand more rapidly than other styles, nowing they wereconsulted and contributed to the decision maing process,minimi!ing resistance and intolerance. A shortcoming ofthis leadership style is that it has di1culty when decisionsare needed in a short period of time or at the moment.
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The laisseaire(>let do>) leader(@ewin, @ippitt, I4hite, *+K+) gives no continuous feedbac or supervisionbecause the employees are highly e"perienced and needlittle supervision to obtain the e"pected outcome. En the

other hand, this type of style is also associated withleaders that donBt lead at all, failing in supervising teammembers, resulting in lac of control and higher costs, badservice or failure to meet deadlines.

The /eo/le#oriented leader(iedler, *+F) is the onethat, in order to comply with eectiveness and e1ciency,supports, trains and develops his personnel, increasing 'obsatisfaction and genuine interest to do a good 'ob.

The task#oriented leader(iedler, *+F) focuses on the'ob, and concentrates on the speci:c tass assigned toeach employee to reach goal accomplishment. Thisleadership style suers the same motivation issues asautocratic leadership, showing no involvement in theteams needs. %t re3uires close supervision and control toachieve e"pected results. Another name for this is dealaker(Rowley I Roevens, *+++)6M7and is lined to a :rstphase in managing 5hange, enhance, according to theErgani!e with 5haos approach.

The servant leader(8reenleaf, *+) facilitates goalaccomplishment by giving its team members what theyneed in order to be productive. This leader is aninstrument employees use to reach the goal rather thanan commanding voice that moves to change. Thisleadership style, in a manner similar to democraticleadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower time

frame than other styles, although employee engagementis higher.

The transa(tion leader(0urns, *+C) is given power toperform certain tass and reward or punish for the teamBsperformance. %t gives the opportunity to the manager tolead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead toaccomplish a predetermined goal in e"change forsomething else. 9ower is given to the leader to evaluate,

correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up
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to the desired level and reward eectiveness whene"pected outcome is reached.

The transoration leader(0urns, *+C) motivates its

team to be eective and e1cient. 5ommunication is thebase for goal achievement focusing the group in the :naldesired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highlyvisible and uses chain of command to get the 'ob done.

Transformational leaders focus on the big picture, needingto be surrounded by people who tae care of the details.

The leader is always looing for ideas that move theorgani!ation to reach the companyBs vision.

The environent leader( 5arma!!i, J--D)67is the onewho nurtures group or organisational environment toaect the emotional and psychological perception of anindividualBs place in that group or organisation. Anunderstanding and application of group psychology anddynamics is essential for this style to be eective. Theleader uses organisational culture to inspire individualsand develop leaders at all levels. This leadership stylerelies on creating an education matri" where groupsinteractively learn the fundamental psychology of groupdynamics and culture from each other. The leader usesthis psychology, and complementary language, toinuence direction through the members of the inspiredgroup to do what is re3uired for the bene:t of all.

S(o/e o leaders%i/

Ene can govern oneself, or one can govern the wholeearth. %n between, we may :nd leaders who operate

primarily within&

youth families bands tribes organi!ations statesand nations empires
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%ntertwined with such categories, and overlapping them,we :nd for e"ample religious leaders potentially with theirown internal hierarchies,worplace leadersWcorporateo1cerXe"ecutives,senior managementseniorGupper

managers$ middle managementXmiddle managers, stamanagers, linemanagers,team leader, supervisors andleaders of voluntary associations.

Some anthropological ideas envisage a widespread but byno means universal pattern of progression in theorgani!ation of society in everlarger groups,with theneeds and practices of leadership changing accordingly.

Thus simple dispute resolution may become legalistic

dispensation of 'ustice before developing into proactivelegislatureGlegislative activity.

?eaders%i/ in or*ani&ations

?eaders%i/ in oral or*ani&ations

An organi!ation that is established as an instrumentormeans for achieving de:ned ob'ectiveshas been referredto as a oral or*ani&ation. %ts design speci:es howgoals are subdivided and reected in subdivisions of theorgani!ation. ?ivisions, departments, sections, positions,

'obs, and tassmae up this wor structure. Thus, theformal organi!ation is e"pected to behave impersonally inregard to relationships with clients or with its members.According to 4eber/s de:nition, entry and subse3uentadvancement is by merit or seniority. #ach employeereceives a salary and en'oys a degree of tenure thatsafeguards him from the arbitrary inuence of superiors or

of powerful clients. The higher his position in thehierarchy, the greater his presumed e"pertise inad'udicating problems that may arise in the course of thewor carried out at lower levels of the organi!ation. %t isthis bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for theappointment of heads or chiefs of administrativesubdivisions in the organi!ation and endows them with theauthority attached to their position. 6+7

?eaders%i/ in inoral or*ani&ations
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%n contrast to the appointed head or chief of anadministrative unit, a leader emerges within the conte"t ofthe inoral or*ani&ationthat underlies the formalstructure. The informal organi!ation e"presses the

personal ob'ectivesand goalsof the individualmembership. Their ob'ectives and goals may or may notcoincide with those of the formal organi!ation. Theinformal organi!ation represents an e"tension of the socialstructures that generally characteri!e human life L thespontaneous emergence of groups and organi!ations asends in themselves.

%n prehistoric times, man was preoccupied with his

personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival.2ow man spends a ma'or portion of his waing hoursworing for organi!ations. is need to identify with acommunity that provides security, protection,maintenance, and a feeling of belonging continuesunchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by theinformal organi!ation and its emergent, or uno1cial,leaders.6*-7

@eaders emerge from within the structure of the informalorgani!ation. Their personal 3ualities, the demands of thesituation, or a combination of these and other factorsattract followers who accept their leadership within one orseveral overlay structures. %nstead of the authority ofposition held by an appointed head or chief, the emergentleader wields inuence or power. %nuence is the ability ofa person to gain cooperation from others by means ofpersuasion or control over rewards. 9ower is a strongerform of inuence because it reects a person/s ability to

enforce action through the control of a means ofpunishment.

?eader in or*ani&ations

A leader is anyone who inuences a group towardobtaining a particular result. %t is not dependant on title orformal authority. (elevos, paraphrased from @eaders,0ennis, and @eadership 9resence, alpern I @ubar). An

individual who is appointed to a managerial position has
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the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue ofthe authority of his position. owever, he must possessade3uate personal attributes to match his authority,because authority is only potentially available to him. %n

the absence of su1cient personal competence, a managermay be confronted by an emergent leader who canchallenge his role in the organi!ation and reduce it to thatof a :gurehead. owever, only authority of position hasthe bacing of formal sanctions. %t follows that whoeverwields personal inuence and power can legitimi!e thisonly by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, withcommensurate authority. @eadership can be de:ned asone/s ability to get others to willingly follow. #very

organi!ation needs leaders at every level.

)rt%o*onality and leaders%i/

Those who praise leadership may encounter problems inimplementing consistent leadership structures. ore"ample, a pyramidal structure in which authorityconsistently emanates from the summit can stie initiativeand leave no path for grooming future leaders in the ransof subordinate levels. Similarly, a belief in universal directdemocracy may become unwieldy, and a systemconsisting of nothing but representative leaders may wellbecome stymied in committees.

Thus many leadership systems promote dierent rules fordierent levels of leadership. ereditary autocrats meet inthe Hnited 2ations on e3ual representative terms with

elected governments in a collegial leadership. Erindividual local democracies may assign some of theirpowers to temporary dictatorsin emergencies, as inancient Rome. ierarchies intermingle with e3uality ofopportunity at dierent levels.

Su//ort#stru(tures or leaders%i/

5harismaand personalityalone can wor miracles, yet

most leaders operate within a structure of supporters and
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e"ecutive agents who carry out and monitor the e"pressedor :ltereddown willof the leader. This undercutting of theimportance of leadership may serve as a reminder of thee"istence of the follower& compare followership. A more or

less formal bureaucracy(in the 4eberiansense) can throwup a colorless nonentity as an entirely eective leader&this phenomenon may occur (for e"ample) in a politburoenvironment. 0ureaucratic organi!ations can also raiseincompetent people to levels of leadership (see 9eter9rinciple).

%n modern dynamic environments formal bureaucraticorgani!ations have started to become less common

because of their inability to deal with fastchangingcircumstances. leadership sills> and reward identi:ed potentialleaders with promotions.

%n a potential downside to this sort of development, a bigpicture grandvision leader may foster another sort ofhierarchy& a fetish of leadership amongst subordinate subleaders, encouraged to sei!e resources for their own subempires and to apply to the supreme leader only forultimate arbitration.

Some leaders build coalitions and alliances& politicalparties abound with this type of leader. Still others dependon rapport with the masses& they labor on the shopooror stand in the frontline of battle, leading by e"ample.

The approach of listing leadership 3ualities, often termed

?avid

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pro:le of a leader e"ists. The situational leadership modelof ersey and 0lanchard, for e"ample, suggest fourleadershipstyles and four levels of followerdevelopment.or eectiveness, the model posits that the leadership

style must match the appropriate level of followershipdevelopment. %n this model, leadership behavior becomesa function not only of the characteristics of the leader, butof the characteristics of followers as well. Ether situationalleadership models introduce a variety of situationalvariables. These determinants include&

the nature of the tas (structured or routine) organi!ational policies, climate, and culture

the preferences of the leader/s superiors the e"pectations of peers the reciprocal responses of followers

The contingency model of =room and ;etton uses othersituational variables, including&

the nature of the problem the re3uirements for accuracy the acceptance of an initiative timeconstraints cost constraints

owever one determines leadership behavior, one cancategori!e it into various leadershi styles.

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style and situational favorableness (later called>situational control>).

?eaders%i/ @styles@ ,/er 8ouse andPodsako7

%n *++M ouse and 9odsao attempted to summari!e thebehaviors and approaches of >outstanding leaders> thatthey obtained from some more modern theories andresearch :ndings. These leadership behaviors andapproaches do not constitute s/e(i=(styles, butcumulatively they probably6citation needed7characteri!e themost eective style of today/s leadersGmanagers. Thelisted leadership >styles> cover&

*. =ision. Eutstanding leaders articulate an ideologicalvision congruent with the deeplyheld values of

followers, a vision that describes a better future towhich the followers have an alleged moral right.

J. 9assion and selfsacri:ce. @eaders display a passionfor, and have a strong conviction of, what they regardas the moral correctness of their vision. They engagein outstanding or e"traordinary behavior and maee"traordinary selfsacri:ces in the interest of theirvision and mission.

K. 5on:dence, determination, and persistence.

Eutstanding leaders display a high degree of faithinthemselves and in the attainment of the vision theyarticulate. Theoretically, such leaders need to have avery high degree of selfcon:dence and moralconviction because their mission usually challengesthe status !uoand, therefore, may oend those whohave a stae in preserving the established order.

M. %magebuilding. ouse and 9odsao regardoutstanding leaders as selfconscious about their own

image. They recogni!e the desirability of followers
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perceiving them as competent, credible, andtrustworthy.

D. Rolemodeling. @eaderimagebuilding sets the stagefor eective rolemodeling because followers identify

with the values of role models whom they perceivedin positive terms.F. #"ternal representation. Eutstanding leaders act as

spoespersonsfor their respective organi!ations andsymbolically represent those organi!ations toe"ternal constituencies.

. #"pectations of and con:dence in followers.Eutstanding leaders communicate e"pectations ofhigh performancefrom their followers and strong

con:dence in their followersB ability to meet suche"pectations.C. Selective motivearousal. Eutstanding leaders

selectively arouse those motives of followers that theoutstanding leaders see as of special relevance tothe successful accomplishment of the vision andmission.

+. rame alignment. To persuade followers to acceptand implement change, outstanding leaders engage

in >frame alignment>. This refers to the linage ofindividual and leader interpretive orientations suchthat some set of followersB interests, values, andbeliefs, as well as the leaderBs activities, goals, andideology, becomes congruentand complementary.

*-. %nspirationalcommunication. Eutstandingleaders often, but not always, communicate theirmessage in an inspirational manner using vividstories, slogans, symbols, and ceremonies.

#ven though these ten leadership behaviors andapproaches do not really e3uate to speci:c styles,evidence has started to accumulate6citation needed7that aleaderBs style can mae a dierence. Style becomes theey to the formulation and implementation ofstrategy6citation needed7and plays an important role in worgroupmembersB activity and in teamciti!enship. @ittledoubt e"ists that the "ay(style) in which leaders inuenceworgroup members can mae a dierence in their own

and their peopleBs performance6citation needed7.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spokespersonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congruencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspirationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceremonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workgrouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workgrouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spokespersonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congruencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspirationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceremonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workgrouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workgrouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed

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(Adopted from& Robert ouse and 9hilip @eadership #ectiveness& 9ast 9erspectives and uture?irections for Research> in 8reenberg, Yerald ed.),pp. MDCJ #rgani$ational %ehavior: &he 'tate o the 'cience,

illsdale, 2Y, #ngland& #rlbaum Associates, %nc, *++M. ",K*J pp. .)

?eaders%i/ and vision

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of dependency and conformity in which followers tae noproactive incentives and do not thin independently.

Oanungo/s charismatic leadership model describes the role

of the vision in three stages that are continuously ongoing,overlapping one another. Assessing the status 3uo,formulation and articulation of the vision, andimplementation of the vision.

?eaders%i/As relation 3it% ana*eent

Some commentators lin leadership closely with the ideaof management. Some regard the two as synonymous,

and others consider management a subset of leadership. %fone accepts this premise, one can view leadership as&

centrali!ed or decentrali!ed broad or focused decisionoriented or moralecentred intrinsic or derived from some authority

Any of the bipolar labels traditionally ascribed tomanagement style could also apply to leadership style.

ersey and 0lanchard use this approach& they claim thatmanagement merely consists of leadership applied tobusiness situations$ or in other words& management formsa subset of the broader process of leadership. They put itthis way& >@eadership occurs any time one attempts toinuence the behavior of an individual or group,regardless of the reason.

owever, a clear distinction between management andleadership may nevertheless prove useful. This wouldallow for a reciprocal relationship between leadership andmanagement, implying that an eective manager shouldpossess leadership sills, and an eective leader shoulddemonstrate management sills. Ene clear distinctioncould provide the following de:nition&

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@eadership involves power by inuence.

Abraham ale!ni (*+),for e"ample, delineateddierences between leadership and management. e saw

leaders as inspiring visionaries, concerned aboutsubstance$ while managers he views as planners whohave concerns with process.4arren 0ennis (*+C+) furthere"plicated a dichotomy between managers and leaders.e drew twelve distinctions between the two groups&

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This goodwill and support originates in the leader seeingpeople as people, not as another resource for deploymentin support of >the tas>. The manager often has the role oforgani!ing resources to get something done. 9eople form

one of these resources, and many of the worst managerstreat people as 'ust another interchangeable item. Aleader has the role of causing others to follow a pathheGshe has laid out or a vision heGshe has articulated inorder to achieve a tas. Eften, people see the tas assubordinate to the vision. or instance, an organi!ationmight have the overall tas of generating pro:t, but agood leader may see pro:t as a byproduct that ows fromwhatever aspect of their vision dierentiates their

company from the competition.

@eadership does not only manifest itself as purely abusiness phenomenon.

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well as when not needed. 8roup decisionmaingsometimes earns the derisive label >committeeitis>because of the longer times re3uired to mae decisions,but group leadership can bring more e"pertise,

e"perience, and perspectives through a democraticprocess.

9atricia 9itcher (*++M) has challenged the bifurcation intoleaders and managers. She used a factor analysis (inmareting)factor analysis techni3ue on data collected overC years, and concluded that three types of leaders e"ist,each with very dierent psychological pro:les&/Artists/imaginative, inspiring, visionary, entrepreneurial, intuitive,

daring, and emotional 5raftsmen& wellbalanced, steady,reasonable, sensible, predictable, and trustworthyTechnocrats& cerebral, detailoriented, fastidious,uncompromising, and hardheaded She speculates that noone pro:le oers a preferred leadership style. She claimsthat if we want to build, we should :nd an >artist leader> ifwe want to solidify our position, we should :nd a>craftsman leader> and if we have an ugly 'ob that needsto get done lie downsi!ing.we should :nd a >technocraticleader>.9itcher also observed that a balanced leadere"hibiting all three sets of traits occurs e"tremely rarely&she found none in her study.

0ruce @ynn postulates a dierentiation between/@eadership/ and QA @eader optimises upside opportunity$ a e argues thatsuccessful e"ecutives need to apply both disciplines in abalance appropriate to the enterprise and its conte"t.

@eadership without

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whole. Some organi!ations have taen this approach inhopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, ordownsi!ing. Ethers may see the traditional leadership of abossas costing too much in team performance. %n some

situations, the maintenance of the boss becomes tooe"pensive either by draining the resources of the groupas a whole, or by impeding the creativity within the team,even unintentionally.

A common e"ample of group leadership involves crossfunctional teams. A team of people with diverse sills andfrom all parts of an organi!ation assembles to lead apro'ect. A team structure can involve sharing power

e3ually on all issues, but more commonly uses rotatingleadershi. The team member(s) best able to handle anygiven phase of the pro'ect become(s) the temporaryleader(s). According to Egbonnia (J--), >eectiveleadership is the ability to successfully integrate andma"imi!e available resources within the internal ande"ternal environment for the attainment of organi!ationalor societal goals>. Egbonnia de:nes an eective leader>as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeedin a given condition and be recogni!ed as meeting thee"pectations of an organi!ation or society.>

8istori(al vie3s on leaders%i/

Sansritliterature identi:es ten types of leaders. ?e:ningcharacteristics of the ten types of leaders are e"plainedwith e"amples from history and mythology.6*K7

Aristocraticthiners have postulated that leadership

depends on one/s blue blood or genes& monarchytaes ane"treme view of the same idea, and may prop up itsassertions against the claims of mere aristocrats byinvoing divine sanction& see the divine right of ings.5ontrariwise, more democraticallyinclined theorists havepointed to e"amples of meritocraticleaders, such as the2apoleonicmarshals pro:ting from careersopen to talent.

%n the autocraticGpaternalisticstrain of thought,

traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-functional_teamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-functional_teamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership#cite_note-tentypes-12%23cite_note-tentypes-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_Right_of_Kingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meritocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonapartehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Careerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paternalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-functional_teamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-functional_teamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership#cite_note-tentypes-12%23cite_note-tentypes-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_Right_of_Kingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meritocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonapartehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Careerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paternalism

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ater amilias. eministthining, on the other hand, maydamn such models as patriarchaland posit against thememotionallyattuned, responsive, and consensualempatheticguidance and matriarchies.

5omparable to the Roman tradition, the views of5onfucianismon >right living> relate very much to theideal of the (male) scholarleader and his benevolent rule,buttressed by a tradition of :lial piety.

%n #n Heroes Hero*orshi and the Heroic in History,Thomas 5arlyledemonstrated the concept of leadershipassociated with a position of authority. %n praising Eliver5romwell/suse of powerto bring Oing 5harles %to trial andeventual beheading, he wrote the following& >@et usremar, meanwhile, how indispensable everywhere a Oingis, in all movements of men. %t is striingly shown, in thisvery 4ar, what becomes of men when they cannot :nd a5hief 6C7

4ithin the conte"t of %slam, views on the nature, scopeand inheritance of leadership have played a ma'or role inshaping sects and their history. See caliphate.

%n the *+th century, the elaboration of anarchistthoughtcalled the whole concept of leadership into 3uestion. (2otethat the #+ord ,nglish -ictionarytraces the word>leadership> in #nglish only as far bac as the *+thcentury.) Ene response to this denial of Zlitismcame with@eninism, which demanded an Zlite group of disciplinedcadresto act as the vanguardof a socialist revolution,bringing into e"istence the dictatorship of the proletariat.

Ether historical views of leadership have addressed theseeming contrasts between secular and religiousleadership. The doctrines of 5aesaropapismhaverecurred and had their detractors over several centuries.5hristian thining on leadership has often emphasi!edstewardshipof divinelyprovided resources human andmaterial and their deployment in accordance with a?ivine plan. 5ompare servant leadership.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pater_familiashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matriarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Carlylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(sociology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_I_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership#cite_note-heros-7%23cite_note-heros-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89litismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leninismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_revolutionarieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanguard_partyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesaro-papismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewardshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servant_leadershiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pater_familiashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matriarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Carlylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(sociology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_I_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership#cite_note-heros-7%23cite_note-heros-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89litismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leninismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_revolutionarieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanguard_partyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesaro-papismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewardshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servant_leadership

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The great traits that a leader must have, have beendebated over time, and most people agree that these arethe :ve ey traits. ;ou must have a vision. 4e/ve all heardthe saying >;ou must stand for something, or you/ll fall for

everything.> 0ut what does that really meanV Standing:rm when it comes to your company/s policies andprocedures is all well and good, but it doesn/t spea tohaving a vision. As a leader, you have to learn tocommunicate your vision or the vision of your company tothe people you want to follow you. ;ou must have passion,you have to show your team that you want to accomplishthe goal as badly as they do, your passion will drive them.

;ou must learn to be a great decision maer. Sometimes,

leaders must face times of pressure where they are forcedto mae 3uic decisions, a great leader must have thissill. ;ou must be a team builder. To become a greatleader, you must :rst mae your team great, you musthave the power to give your team responsibilities, andtrust them too, you must slowly mae them greater andgreater. ;ou must have character. 4ithout character, allthe other >eys> are for naught. That/s because yourinnate character strengths and limitations play a critical

role in your leadership style. The real 3uestion is, are youaware of 'ust what role they playV All great leaders havetaen steps to learn about their individual personality andwhat part it plays in their leadership style.

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