IX BEOGRADSKA GIMNAZIJA„Mihailo Petrović - Alas“

M A T U R S K I R A DIZ ENGLESKOG JEZIKA

Tema/Topic:IMENICE/NOUNS

Mentor:Slobodan Jovanović

Učenik/Student: Jelena Radivojević,

IV 7

Maturski rad: Nouns

Beograd, jun 2005.

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Maturski rad: Nouns

CONTENTS

Introduction...........................................................................3

Origin of Nouns in English Language...................................4

Forming of Nouns (suffixes and prefixes).............................6

The Kinds of Nouns...............................................................8

The Usage of Capital Letters.................................................9

Gender of Nouns.................................................................10

Number of Nouns................................................................12

Count and Non-count Nouns...............................................15

Cases of Nouns in English – Genitive..................................18

Compound Nouns................................................................21

The use of nouns.................................................................23

Bibliography........................................................................24

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Maturski rad: Nouns

Introduction

English is widespread and it is most likely that it is going to be

considered a world language in the sense of being universal. It is

estimated that there are 300 million native speakers and 300 million

who use English as a second language and a further 100 million who

use it as a foreign language. There is only one language ahead of

English in the number of people who use it.

It is becoming very clear that without an extensive vocabulary,

communication in English just cannot occur in a meaningful way. The

vocabulary itself, with its most important part the class of nouns, is

very complex and diverse and consists of several hundred thousand

words. This is due to many influences of other languages and to

constant increase in number of words, including slang or words

derived from proper names. Respectively the number of nouns

increases as well.

In English, but also in any other language nouns are very

important. It is important to maintain as many nouns in the language

as possible because nouns mostly refer to people, places and things,

and are therefore real, tangible and necessary. Besides naming

something tangible they can also stand for something abstract.

Nouns are used according to some grammatical categories, like

those of gender, number, case… They can also be made of more than

one word. A noun can be used in numerous ways within a sentence.

This emphasizes their importance even more.

The rules and ways of using this tremendously important word-

class are discussed in this work.

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Maturski rad: Nouns

Origin of Nouns in English Language

Ever since it came into use, English language was under

influence of other languages. In fact that is how English developed in

time from Old to Middle and finally to modern English. This process

took more than 1400 years and it is not over.

The origin of most words (nouns, too) in English comes from

French and Latin. Latin actually came to influence through French

since it was used in France for a long time before French became an

official language. Also there are words originating from Old and

Middle English, Old Norse and Dutch and these take up a big part of

English language today. Words of Greek origin are also common.

Other languages like Italian, Spanish, and many others played a small

role in the development of English, thus there is a small percentage of

words that were taken from them and have their origin. The

percentage ratio between them is given in the table below:

French, including Old French and early Anglo-French: 28

%

Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28

%

Old and Middle English, Old Norse, and Dutch: 24%

Greek: 17%

All other languages contributed less than 3%

Nouns of French and Latin Origin

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The French influence was so great that it affected around 60

percent of the English vocabulary. This included words which are

Latin-derived (mostly from Norman French but some borrowed

directly from Latin). Therefore the origins of many of these words can

be traced further back, most frequently to Latin; however it was from

the French that English gained these words. Some of these words are:

activity

age

ambition

café

catalogue

hotel

marriage

mask

money

peace

people

table

Words that come directly from Latin (from modern scientific and

technical Latin):

abdomen

equation

eternity

fate

Germany

Greece

minimum

maximum

military

placebo

republic

religion

Nouns of Old and Middle English, Old Norse and Dutch Origin

These make up an important part of English. Among them are:

bridge

cottage

island

lake

brother

friend

answer

apple

arrow

cookie 

snack

home 

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Nouns of Greek Origin

These came to English firstly through their Latin derivates and

later on through scientific studies. They include the following:

IX Beogradska Gimnazija

atom 

dogma 

diploma

echo

galaxy 

gymnastics

hemisphere 

narcotic 

oxygen 

paradox

planet

stigma .

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Forming of Nouns (suffixes and prefixes)

Nouns can be formed by adding a prefix or a suffix.

I. Some Anglo-Saxon Prefixes and Suffixes

Prefixes:

mis- misfortune, mistake, misplace.

un- untruth, uncertainty, unrest.

Suffixes:

-er, -or, -ar to dance ---- a dancer, to act ---- an actor, a lie

---- a liar.

(added to a noun or a verb to name the one that is the

doer of the action)

-ie, -let, -ling a star ---- a starlet, a duck ---- a duckling, a

dog ---- a doggie.

(added to a noun to form diminutive)

-hood a brother ---- brotherhood, a child ---- childhood,

false ---- falsehood.

(added to a noun or adjective to form abstract nouns)

-ship a relation ---- relationship, a leader ---- leadership.

-dom a king ---- kingdom, free ---- freedom, wise ----

wisdom.

(added to a noun or adjective also to form abstract

nouns)

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-ness kind ----kindness, dark ---- darkness, conscience ----

consciousness.

(added to an adjective again to form abstract nouns)

-th long ---- length, wide ---- width, to grow ---- growth.

(added to an adjective or a verb)

-ful mouth ---- mouthful, hand ---- handful.

(added to nouns to show quantity)

II. Some Prefixes and Suffixes That Originate From Other

Languages.

Prefixes:

com- compassion

con- confederation

dis- distrust

in- inaction

hemi- hemisphere

re- remake

auto-automobile

sub- submarine

Suffixes:

-ian pedestrian

-ance endurance

-ence preference

-cy frequency

-ism criticism

-ice malice

-ment punishment

-ry bakery

-tion demonstration

-sion expansion

When a suffix is added to a noun it can also form verbal nouns

(also known as gerunds). This is achieved by adding –ing. The verbal

nouns are used with an article, demonstrative and possessive

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adjective, descriptive adjective and other. Verbal nouns are

frequently used to form compound nouns.

Examples of verbal nouns: smoking, acting, playing.

Smoking is bad for your health!

Compound nouns are created from two or more nouns and

sometimes from other parts of speech. Compound nouns can be one

word, two (or even three) word or they can be hyphenated (-).

Examples of compound nouns: shipbuilding, tea leaves,

six-pack.

Compound nouns will be thoroughly discussed later on.

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The Kinds of Nouns

There are five kinds of nouns: common, proper, material, collective

and abstract nouns.

The basic division of nouns

Common nouns are names which we give to people, animals

and things that belong to the same species.

Some common nouns are: boy, horse, street

Proper nouns are in reality names by which we distinguish

specific people, places or institutions. They can be single-word

nouns or they can be lengthily phrases usually accompanied by a

definite article. Proper nouns also include days, seasons and

holidays.

Some proper nouns are: George W. Bush (specific

people)

London, Serbia, Malta (places)

The Royal Academy (institutions)

Yugoslavia (single-word)

The New York Times (phrases)

Friday, spring, Easter (days, seasons

and holidays)

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Common

Proper

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There are also material, collective and abstract nouns.

Material nouns are the names of different kind of materials. (milk,

air, dust, ice, wine.) They do not form plurals.

Collective nouns are the names of any collection of beings or

objects. (class, team, flock)

Abstract nouns are the names that represent nonmaterial things.

(thought, fear, grace)

The Use of Capital Letters

We use capital letters for:

I. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from them:

Norah Jones, Alexander the Great...

II. Names of holidays, months of the year and days of the week:

Christmas, February, Monday...

III. Names of cities, countries, continents, rivers, seas, mountains,

planets, etc.

Washington, Germany, Asia, Mississippi River, Venus...

IV. Names of buildings, monuments, parks, street, hotels, ships,

trains, etc.:

Buckingham Palace, the White House, the Eiffel Tower,

Central Park,

Fifth Avenue, the Ritz, Queen Mary, the Orient Express...

V. Names of countries, nations, languages and nationalities:

North Carolina, the United States, the French nation,

Spanish, Serbian

(north is not capitalized but exceptions are made if it is a

part of a name)

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VI. Names of religions, gods and religious books:

Buddhism, Christianity, God, Allah, the Bible...

VII. Title that stands with a name and the titles of important

officials:

Dr. Jones, Senator Taylor, the Prime Minister...

VIII. Names of companies and organizations:

Coca-Cola, Motorola, the United Nations...

IX. Historical events and eras:

World War II, the Middle Ages...

X. Titles of books, movies, articles (for more important words)...

War and Peace, The Old Man and the Sea...

XI. Family title as a part of a name:

Aunt Grace, Uncle Joe...

XII. Family title instead of a name:

Mother, Father (Father was very upset.)

Gender of Nouns

In English nouns can be of masculine, feminine, neuter or

common gender.

I. Nouns that are masculine are those that represent male

beings:

William, boy, father, step-brother...

II. Nouns that are feminine are those that represent female

beings:

Jane, wife, sister, mother...

III. Nouns that are of neuter gender are almost all things:

shoe, apple, pencil, house...

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IV. Nouns that are of common gender are those that serve as

both female and male:

friend, child, cousin, baby...

Making of The Gender

Nouns of feminine gender are made out of the masculine in

several ways.

I. By adding -ess to the masculine:

prince ---- princess, lion ---- lioness, actor ---- actress...

NOTE:

If the noun that is of masculine gender ends with -er or -or,

then before adding the -ess the consonants e or o are omitted.

waiter ---- waitress, emperor ---- empress....

II. Some nouns form the feminine gender irregularly:

master ---- mistress, duke ---- duchess, hero ----

heroine...

III. Sometimes the difference between the masculine and the

feminine is made by putting a word that represents the

gender:

boyfriend ---- girlfriend, he-goat ---- she-goat, tom-cat

---- she-cat...

IV. There are many nouns that have different words for male and

feminine:

man ---- woman

father ---- mother

brother ---- sister

uncle ---- aunt

son ---- daughter

husband ---- wife

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sir ---- madam

king ---- queen

(bride) groom ----

bride

bull ---- cow

horse ---- mare

cock ---- hen

NOTE:

*Animals are usually considered to be of neuter gender with

the exception of farm animals and pets

V. Some nouns do not have a common feminine equivalent:

author, poet, supervisor...

NOTE:

*When sex is unknown it was common to express the noun in

the masculine gender, however today this is avoided because it

is considered sexist. Instead of the masculine (he) today we

use they or he or she.

If the employee is not satisfied he or she (they) can take

legal actions.

For the same reasons we switched from using terms like

chairman to chairperson,

spokesman to spokesperson, fireman to fire-fighter...

VI. Inanimate things are all of the neuter gender with the

exception of nouns like ship, car, plane and others which are

feminine especially when talked about by its users.

My ship hit a rock! She is

sinking! My car is great! She runs like

the wind!

VII. In poetic style some nouns of neuter gender become of

feminine or masculine, like love, ocean, sun, wind, time... Also

when personified the nouns that imply strength and power are

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masculine and those that imply beauty and gentleness are

feminine. Among these are moon, nature, soul, city, charity...

We can’t stop time. He always passes. The moon hid

her beautiful face.

Number of Nouns

The Formation of Plural

Most nouns in the English language form plural forms by

adding ‘s’. The ‘s’ is read as /s/ or /z/ depending on what letter

stands before it:

cat --- cats pea --- peas brother --- brothers

girl --- girls dog --- dogs shop --- shops

Nouns that end with –ce, -ge, -dge, -se, -ze also add an ‘s’ but

because of the ‘e’ they are read /-iz/:

face --- faces language --- languages

horse --- horses

edge --- edges breeze --- breezes age

--- ages

Nouns that end with –ch, -s, -ss, -sh, -x form plural with ‘es’

and which is also read as /-iz/:

church --- churches crash --- crashes box---

boxes

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bus --- busses glass --- glasses

buzz --- buzzes

Nouns that end with -th /θ/, when plural (ths) are read like /ðz/:

bath --- baths path --- paths truth ---

truths

When these nouns have a short vowel or a consonant or ‘r’,

(ths) is read like -th /θ/

cloth --- cloths myth --- myths month ---

months

When a noun ends with –y, with a consonant before it, plural is

formed by changing –y into –i and adding ‘es’:

baby --- babies body --- bodies army ---

armies

If a noun ending with –y, is preceded by a vowel, the plural is

formed just by adding ‘s’:

boy --- boys delay --- delays donkey ---

donkies

Nouns ending with –o form plurals by adding ‘es’:

echo --- echoes hero --- heroes motto ---

mottoes

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potato --- potatoes tomato --- tomatoes negro ---

negroes

Nouns ending in vowel + -o form plurals by adding ‘s’:

Eskimo --- Eskimos photo --- photos piano --- pianos

logo --- logos kilo --- kilos studio ---

studios

Nouns originally taken from Greek or Latin kept their original

form:

appendix --- appendices datum --- data nucleus ---

nuclei

formula --- formulae (NOTE: forms like formulas are often used

in speech)

Irregular Plurals

Noun plurals –ves:

calf --- calves elf --- elves half --- halves

knife --- knifes

leaf --- leaves life --- lives loaf --- loafs self ---

selves shelf --- shelves thief --- thieves wife --- wives

wolf --- wolves

(other nouns ending in –f are regular and ‘s’ is just added: chiefs,

roofs, dwarfs, cliffs...)

Other irregular plurals:

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ox --- oxen foot --- feet louse --- lice man --- men

mouse --- mice child --- children goose --- geese woman

--- women tooth --- teeth

Nouns That Have The Same Form of Singular and Plural

species, series, means, fish, sheep, deer, crossroads,

headquarters, barracks...

NOTE:

Nouns like fish have plurals (fishes) when we refer to different

kinds of fish

There are all kinds of fishes in our seas but All fish taste

the same to me.

Nouns for quantity and measures if used in front of nouns as

adjectives or if they are used alongside a number.

A dozen eggs --- Three dozen eggs One pound note --- A

five pound note A three foot wall --- He is five foot seven A

hundred people --- Three hundred people

Nouns That Only Have a Plural Form

Scissors, trousers, breeches, scales, glasses (spectacles)...

NOTE: Material nouns do not form plurals (except when we refer to

different kinds of material --- There are cheeses of all kinds --- similar

to the fish example in the prior NOTE)

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The plurals of compound nouns will be discussed in the

‘Compound nouns’ section.

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Count and Non-count Nouns

All nouns can be divided in two groups:

The countable nouns are those that form plurals. They

include separate objects, people, ideas and other things that can be

counted. We use articles a/an, numbers or other modifiers like many.

Some examples of countable nouns are: a car, a boy, many

children...

The uncountable nouns are those that only have the singular

form. They are also known as ‘mass’ nouns. These nouns are the

names of materials, liquids, abstract and all other things which we

do not see as separate objects. We use modifiers like much and

others

Some uncountable nouns are: music, wool, much

money...

Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses. These

are mixed uses. Nouns that stand for materials are uncountable but

we can use them as countable when we talk about something made

out of the material or depending on the sense in which we use it

Can I borrow some coffee? Could I have two coffees

please?

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Countable

Uncountabl

Maturski rad: Nouns

Life is very short. A cat has nine lives.

Using Articles and Adjectives With Countable and

Uncountable

A countable noun, when singular always goes with the

indefinite (a,an) or the

definite article (the). When plural it will be used with a definite

article if it refers to

something specific or without an article when stating something

general.

She is the guest of honor.

Once a guest, now she’s like a part of the family.

The guests were snobbish and talked only of money and

power.

Guests are welcome at anytime.

Uncountable nouns are never used with the indefinite article.

They are used with the definite only when we refer to something

specific.

Sugar is turning out to be very expensive.

Could you please pass me the sugar?

The quantity adjectives that go with both countable and

uncountable nouns are some, any, enough, plenty of...

Do you mind if I put some music on? I need some clean

napkins.

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Do you have enough money? You should bring

enough t-shirts.

Many is used only with countable nouns, while much is its

equivalent that is used only with uncountable nouns. Their informal

substitutes are a lot of (for countable nouns) and lots of (for

uncountable nouns)

He wrote many books. How much money did you

take?

Other modifiers used with countable nouns are few and quite a

few. Some other that are used with uncountable nouns are little,

quite a little, a little bit of, quite a bit of.

Few politicians are honest nowadays.

I put quite a little sugar in your tea.

Partitive Constructions

Both countable and uncountable nouns can enter constructions

to state a part of a whole. Partitive constructions can refer to

quantity or quality. In case of quantity as in the case of quality we

have singular and plural. By this we can give a number to

uncountable nouns. The partition is expressed by a countable noun

of partitive meaning (such as piece) followed by an of- phrase.

I. Quantity partition:

Of uncountable nouns (piece of, bit of, item of...):

A piece of bread Three pieces of bread

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An item of clothing Several items of clothing

Some specific partitives of plural countable nouns:

A flock of pigeons Two flocks of pigeons

A series of concerts Two series of concerts

Of singular countable nouns:

A peace of a cookie A page of a book

II. Quality partition (kind, sort and also variety, blend, type)

Countable nouns (kind and sort):

A new kind of software Several kinds of cookies

A sort of drink Two sorts of drinks

Uncountable nouns (kind and sort):

A tasty kind of bread Some tasty kinds of bread

A strong sort of liqueur Strong sorts of liqueur

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Cases of Nouns – Genitive

English nouns have only two cases, the unmarked COMMON

and the marked GENITIVE. The genitive is also known as possessive.

The formation of genitive

I. Almost all nouns in singular and the one’s that when plural do

not end with –s, form genitive by adding ‘s. They are then read

according to the rules of reading plurals.

The cat’s paw /kæts/ The boy’s mother /boiz/ My

boss’s dog /bosiz/

II. When used with foreign names that end with –s, we only add

the apostrophe

Socrates’ philosophy Euripides’ tragedies

III. Nouns that when plural end with –s, when used as possessive

only an apostrophe is added

The students’ workbook The Jones’ yacht.

The genitive of compound nouns will be discussed in the

‘Compound nouns’ section.

The usage of the ’s genitive.

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The ’s genitive is formed with nouns that denote living beings

and are then used as attributes.

John’s sister Mr. Brown’s car

This genitive can be used with other nouns such as:

I. With nouns that state time, distance and measure:

A mile’s distance. An hour’s exercise A

dollar’s worth

NOTE: These can also be used: Six-mile walk, A two-hour

debate...

II. With nouns that state the names of countries and cities:

Serbia’s national team Europe’s strict rules.

III. With seasons, months, days, and nouns like: sun, moon, earth

The moon’s surface is not smooth. We have a

month’s supply of coal.

IV. With nouns like: ship, boat, plane, train:

The ship’s crew consisted of a few young sailors.

NOTE:If the genitive is used as an attribute with a noun that is

commonly used, like: shop, park, house, church, hospital:

I’ll be at my sister’s. (house)

I got the medicine at the

chemist’s. (shop)

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The kinds of genitive

Most commonly genitive is supposed to represent possession

(possessive genitive).

The woman’s baby. The master’s chair. The

girl’s locket.

Other kinds of genitive include:

I. Subjective genitive: My brother’s marriage.

(The noun in genitive shows the doer of

an action)

II. Objective genitive: Caesar’s murder

(The noun in genitive is an object)

III. Genitive of origin: Bacon’s essays

(This genitive shows the origin of a

work)

NOTE: The following genitive can have 3 meanings:

My brother’s picture was hung in the

living room.

(It can mean that my brother painted the picture - origin, it can

mean that it is a picture my brother owns – possessive, or it can

mean that somebody made my brother’s portrait)

III. Genitive of measure: It’s a mile’s walk from here.

IV. Descriptive genitive: A child’s play A doctor’s

degree

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NOTE: Sometimes the noun does not change but it is still in genitive

case:

Our student days. The Cyprus problem.

The of genitive

Nouns that do not denote living beings form genitive with the

preposition of.

The parts of speech The color of the sky The

drawers of the desk.

When genitive is used with nouns that name animals both ’s

and of can be used.

The horse’s tail --------- The tail of the horse

With proper nouns both ’s and of can be used.

Robert and Kelly’s father --------- The father of Robert

and Kelly

With collective nouns: The opinion of the public

With objective genitive: The murder of Caesar

...

NOTE: Instead of using two genitives we use one with the addition of

the preposition of:

Instead of: My sister’s husband’s house

We say: The house of my sister’s husband

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Compound Nouns

When we want to specify something we combine a noun in

these forms: noun+noun, ing+noun, noun+ing, noun+’s+noun

(possessive genitive) or noun+preposition+ noun. When a

particular combination is regularly used to make a new noun it is

called a compound noun.

Noun+noun

With the noun+noun combination, some compound nouns are

written as one word, some as two separate words and some are

written with a hyphen (-).

Some examples are: a tablecloth, a language teacher,

a window-cleaner

Some compound nouns can be written in more than one of

these ways (a golf course or a golf-course). Some compound nouns

are made out of more than two nouns (a milk chocolate bar).

When a noun has a plural meaning, it is usually in singular

form (a bottle bank, an address book), but there are several

exceptions. When nouns are those that are either used only as

plurals, or have different meaning when singular/plural or

countable/uncountable:

a glasses case a savings account a

communications network

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To make a compound noun plural we usually make the second

noun plural:

Coal mine --- coal mines, Tea leaf --- tea leaves, Office-

worker --- office-workers

But if the two nouns are joined by of or in we make plural

form by making the first noun plural

Brothers-in-law, Commanders-in-chief, Birds of

pray

NOTE: We say: ten-minute speech a five year old

girl

But can say: two-third(s) five-time(s)

winner

Ing+noun

The –ing form (sometimes called gerund) usually states what

function the noun has.

Some examples are: a living room, drinking

water, a turning-point

Noun+ing

Some examples are: film-making, sunbathing,

life-saving

Noun+’s+noun and noun+preposition+ noun

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Sometimes a noun+noun combination is not the most

suitable. That is when we use noun+’s+noun or

noun+preposition+ noun. This is in cases when:

I. The first noun is the user of the item (second noun):

Child’s bedroom students’ lounge

women’s clinic

II. The item (second noun) is produced by the first (commonly

animals):

Cow’s milk hen’s eggs goat’s

cheese

III. When we talk about parts of body of people or animal. But

when we talk about parts of things we use the noun+noun

combination:

A man’s hand a giraffe’s neck a

woman’s lips

but: a window frame a pen top

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The use of nouns

In a sentence a noun can be used in several ways. It can be

used:

I. As a subject: Hitchhikers live dangerously.

II. As an object: He broke three glasses last night.

Everyone heard his speech on the news.

She gave Maria your note.

III. As object complement: They made him captain.

They appointed him director.

IV. As a predicative: She is a wonderful child.

He is a doctor.

V. As an attribute: We were all wearing summer dresses.

Remembering my student days

VI. Along with a preposition as noun complement, adjective

complement or verb complement:

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He’s a boy of great talent . (object

complement)

She’s good at housekeeping. (adjective

complement)

She broke the mirror to pieces. (verb

complement)

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Bibliography

Books:

Mihailović, Ljiljana. (1958) Gramatika engleskog jezika. Beograd. Kolarčev narodni univerzitet

Brihta, J; Grgić, B. (1969) Engleska gramatika za svakoga. Zagreb. Školska knjiga

Ćirić, Goran. (1998) Gramatika engleskog jezika. Kruševac. Teatar ZA

Greenbaum, S; Quirk, R. (1990) A Students Grammar of The English Language. Edinburgh Gate. AW Longman

Eckersley, C.E; Macaulay, M; Swan, D.K. (1986) Brighter Grammar 1. Edinburgh Gate. Longman Group

Swan, Michael. (1995) Practical English Usage. Oxford. Oxford University Press

Hewings, Martin. (1999) Advanced Grammar in Use. Cambridge University Press

Dictionaries:

Hornby, A.S. 1995. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Oxford. Oxford University Press

Web pages:

http://www.krysstal.com/borrow.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_English_words_of_international_origin

http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0907017.html

http://www.southampton.liunet.edu/academic/pau/course/webesl.htm

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Maturski rad: Nouns

http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/compounds.htm

http://www.english-zone.com/spelling/cap-names.html

http://www.allianceeducation.com/eng/f_noun.php

http://userpages.burgoyne.com/bdespain/grammar/r_k_toc1.htm

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