• The starting point for the research design is, in fact, the research questions and hypotheses that have been so carefully developed.

• The next step after stating the management problem, research purpose, and research hypotheses and questions, is to formulate a research design.

Chapter 3

Research Design

Research Design

Research Design?• The research design is a plan of action

indicating the specific steps that are necessary to provide answers to those questions, test the hypotheses, and thereby achieve the research purpose that helps choose among the decision alternatives to solve the management problem or capitalize on the market opportunity.

Research Design?• The research

design answers the question: How are we going to get answers to these research questions and test these hypotheses?

Research Design?• The research design has been

considered a "blueprint" for research, dealing with at least four problems: what questions to study, what data are relevant, what data to collect, and how to analyze the results.

Research Design?• According to David J. Luck and Ronald S. Rubin,

• "A research design is the determination and statement of the general research approach or strategy adopted/or the particular project. It is the heart of planning. If the design adheres to the research objective, it will ensure that the client's needs will be served." 

• According to Kerlinger• "Research design in the plan, structure and strategy

of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance." 

• According to Green and Tull • "A research design is the specification of methods

and  procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project that stipulates what information is to be collected from which source by what procedures."

Research Design?• Research design can be divided into fixed and

flexible research designs (Robson, 1993).

• Others have referred to this distinction with “quantitative research designs” and “qualitative research designs”.

Fixed (Quantitative) Designs

• In quantitative research your aim is to determine the relationship between one thing (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) in a population. • Quantitative research designs are either descriptive (subjects usually measured once) or experimental (subjects measured before and after a treatment).

Descriptive Research• Descriptive research design is a scientific

method which involves observing and describing the behavior of a subject without influencing it in any way. The main goal of this type of research is to describe the data and characteristics about what is being studied. • The idea behind this

type of research is to study frequencies, averages, and other statistical calculations. Although this research is highly accurate, it does not gather the causes behind a situation.

Experimental Research• Experimental

research is defined essentially as research in which the causal (independent) variable(s) can be manipulated in order to change an effect.

• Because of this element of manipulation, researchers in using experimental methods are expected to maintain a good degree of control throughout the period of the study to establish with confidence that cause and effect occurred. 

Flexible (Qualitative) Designs

• Qualitative research seeks out the ‘why’, not the ‘how’ of its topic through the analysis of unstructured information – things like interview transcripts, open ended survey responses, emails, notes, feedback forms, photos and videos. It doesn’t just rely on statistics or numbers, which are the domain of quantitative researchers.

Case Study• This method of study is especially useful for

trying to test theoretical models by using them in real world situations.• Basically, a case study is an in-

depth study of a particular situation rather than a sweeping statistical survey. It is a method used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one easily researchable topic.

• One way to do this is to participate as a member of the group. When this is done, it is called "Participant-observation." As a "Participant-observer," the researcher studies the group from the inside as a member. “Naturalistic Observation” yields rich information about how a society lives.

Naturalistic Observation

• Also known as "Ethnography," is a qualitative research method involving the study of a group of people in their natural setting. The researcher tries to study the people without affecting their behavior.

Focus Groups• When people are available to provide information,

a focus group may be used. A focus group is a group of people gathered together to discuss a certain issue, and it is anotherway of conducting

qualitative research. •A focus group involves a small number of people, who are usually hired, meeting and discussing the benefits and shortcomings of a particular product, issue or event. The people chosen for the focus group share qualities relevant to the topic of research.

Surveys

• Another dimension of study is the use of surveys. This qualitative research method can be conducted in person or via mail, e-mail, or the telephone.

• Surveys provide a way for researchers to obtain a lot of information from a large number of people. And, they allow respondents to communicate their opinions, feelings, and personal information anonymously. • Many surveys include a Likert scale, which

includes rating statements on a scale of how much one agrees or disagrees. While others have open-ended questions for respondents to include their opinions and comments. Information obtained from surveys can provide data needed to begin a quantitative, empirical research experiment.

Chapter 3

Research Design

Respondents of the Study

Respondents of the Study

Chapter 3

Research Design

Respondents of the Study

Sampling technique

Sampling• In statistics and survey methodology,

sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a population to estimate characteristics of the whole population

• The selection of a suitable sample for study.

Sampling Techniques

Random Sampling• The first statistical sampling method

is simple random sampling. In this method, each item in the population has the same probability of being selected as part of the sample as any other item.

Random Sampling• For example, a tester could randomly

select 5 inputs to a test case from the population of all possible valid inputs within a range of 1-100 to use during test execution, To do this the tester could use a random number generator or simply put each number from 1-100 on a slip of paper in a hat, mixing them up and drawing out 5 numbers.

Systematic Sampling• Systematic sampling is another

statistical sampling method. In this method, every nth element from the list is selected as the sample, starting with a sample element n randomly selected from the first k elements.

Systematic Sampling• The population has

1000 elements and a sample size of 100 is needed.

• Then k would be 1000/100 = 10.

• If number 7 is randomly selected from the first ten elements on the list, the sample would continue down the list selecting the 7th element from each group of ten elements.

Stratified Sampling• The statistical sampling method called stratified

sampling is used when representatives from each subgroup within the population need to be represented in the sample.

• Random or systematic samples are then taken from each subgroup. The sampling fraction for each subgroup may be taken in the same proportion as the subgroup has in the population.

• The first step in stratified sampling is to divide the population into subgroups (strata) based on mutually exclusive criteria.

Stratified Sampling• For example, if the person conducting a customer

satisfaction survey selected random customers from each customer type in proportion to the number of customers of that type in the population.

– For example, if 40 samples are to be selected, and 10% of the customers are managers, 60% are users, 25% are operators and 5% are database administrators then 4 managers, 24 uses, 10 operators and 2 administrators would be randomly selected. Stratified sampling can also sample an equal number of items from each subgroup. For example, a development lead randomly selected three modules out of each programming language used to examine against the coding standard

Cluster Sampling

• In cluster sampling, the population that is being sampled is divided into groups called clusters. Instead of these subgroups being homogeneous based on a selected criteria as in stratified sampling, a cluster is as heterogeneous as possible to matching the population.

• A random sample is then taken from within one or more selected clusters.

Haphazard Sampling• There are also other types of

sampling that, while non-statistical (information about the entire population cannot be extrapolated from the sample), may still provide useful information. • In haphazard sampling, samples are

selected based on convenience but preferably should still be chosen as randomly as possible.

Haphazard Sampling• For example, the auditor may ask to see a

list of all of the source code modules, and then closes his eyes and points at the list to select a module to audit. • The auditor could also grab one of the listing binders off the shelf, flip through it and “randomly” stop on a module to audit. • The haphazard sampling is usually typically, quicker, and uses smaller sample sizes than other sampling techniques. The main disadvantage of haphazard sampling is that since it is not statistically based, generalizations about the total population should be made with extreme caution.

Judgmental Sampling• In judgmental

(another non-statistical) sampling, the person doing the sample uses his/her knowledge or experience to select the items to be sampled.

Chapter 3

Research Design

Respondents of the Study

Sampling technique

Instruments used in the study

Aggregate Data Analysis

Case Studies

Content Analysis

Ethnography

Evaluation Research

Experimental Research

Interviewing

Observation:  Field / Naturalistic or Structured

Organizational Analysis

Policy Analysis

Social Impact Analysis

Surveys

Aggregate Data Analysis

The aggregate data study design defines a

group as the unit of analysis. It is used when

individual data is not available. Aggregate data

are easily and relatively cheaply available as

compared to individual data

Case Study

The Case Study (CS) is a type of Field Research

which examines a site using a combination of

personal interviews, analyses of written

documents, & observations

Content Analysis

The review of narrative data  (from open ended

surveys, interviews, books, press, media, etc.)

that looks for regularity 

Content Analysis

The Content Analysis Process has SIX Steps

The Researcher  

1.  Reviews a sample of responses to an open-

ended question from a Record 

Content Analysis

2.  Decides how many different kinds

( categories ) of responses exist 

3.  Defines each category & illustrates w/ a

concrete example 

Content Analysis

4.  Attaches a numerical code to it 

5.  Reviews the full set of verbal responses to

determine if all categories are represented 

Content Analysis

6.  Establishes Internal Reliability: 

     a.  Since a lot of judgment is involved in this

translation,  accepted practice dictates  that at

least 2 people independently code the entire set

of responses 

Content Analysis

     b. Then their judgments are compared 

c. Differences are resolved & consistency is

achieved

Ethnography

A qualitative research method aimed to learn

and understand cultural phenomena which

reflect the knowledge and system of meanings

guiding the life of a cultural group.

Evaluation Research

Evaluation is a methodological area that is

closely related to, but distinguishable from more

traditional social research.

Evaluation Research

Evaluation utilizes many of the same

methodologies used in traditional social

research, but because evaluation takes place

within a political and organizational context, it

requires group skills, management ability,

political dexterity, sensitivity to multiple

stakeholders and other skills that social

research in general does not rely on as much.

Experimental Research

A systematic and scientific approach to research

in which the researcher manipulates one or

more variables, and controls and measures any

change in other variables.

Interviewing

The qualitative research interview seeks to

describe and the meanings of central themes in

the life world of the subjects. The main task in

interviewing is to understand the meaning of

what the interviewees say.

Observation:  Field / Naturalistic or Structured

Naturalistic observation is a research method

commonly used by psychologists and other

social scientists. This technique involves

observing subjects in their natural environment.

This type of research is often utilized in

situations where conducting lab research is

unrealistic, cost prohibitive or would unduly

affect the subject's behavior.

Observation:  Field / Naturalistic or Structured

Naturalistic observation differs from structured

observation in that it involves looking at a

behavior as it occurs in its natural setting with

no attempts at intervention on the part of the

researcher.

Organizational Analysis

The study of the processes that characterize all

kinds of organizations, including business firms,

government agencies, labour unions, and

voluntary associations such as sports clubs,

charities, and political parties. 

Organizational Analysis

Any organization is a social unit with three

properties:

(1)it is a corporate (or group) actor,

Organizational Analysis

(2) it claims a special and limited purpose (such

as making profits or providing medical care),

and

(3) its creators intend it to last beyond the

accomplishment of a single action, if not

indefinitely.

Policy Analysis

Is determining which of various alternative

policies will most achieve a given set of goals in

light of the relations between the policies and

the goals.

Social Impact Analysis

Can be defined as the process of assessing

or estimating, in advance, the social

consequences that are likely to follow from

specific policy actions or project development,

particularly in the context of appropriate

national, state, or provincial environmental

policy legislation.

Social Impact Analysis

Is the process of assessing and managing the

impacts of a project, plan, program or policy on

people.

Survey

Survey methodology is the field that studies

the sampling of individuals from a population

with a view towards making statistical

inferences about the population using the

sample. Polls about public opinion, such as political

beliefs, are reported in the news media in

democracies.