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7/25/2019 merchandising y ventas
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6
WL@_GQZ@EFE EG CWLWJH
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EGE@JFUHQ@F
F E`hs, phr ar`lefrkg su fkhr `ljhle`j`hlfd
y phr mu`fr k` jfk`lh.
Eg `mufd ohrkf, f k`s ^fergs, f qu`glgs
dg egah
thef k` v`ef, dgs fmrfegzjh phr theh su jfr`h
y jhkprgls`l, f ustgegs qu`glgs cfl sfa`eh
ohrkfrkg jhl auglhs sglt`k`glths, ca`ths y
vfdhrgs, dh jufd kg cf fyuefeh f sfd`r
fegdfltg ausjfleh s`gkprg gd kgbhrjfk`lh
F E`hs, phr jhdkfr k` v`ef eg agle`j`l yfkhr.
F k` kferg, qu`gl egseg qug lfj muf k`spfshs.
F k` pferg, phr sus sfa`hs jhlsgbhs.
F k`s cgrkflf, phr fphyfrkg s`gkprg glgd qug cfjgr eg k` v`ef e`fr`f.
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FMQFEGJ@K@GLUH
Fltgs qug lfef, efr mrfj`fs f thefs dfs pgrshlfs qug kg fphyfrhl egfdmulf kflgrf gl gd egsfrrhddh eg df prgsgltg tgs`s, f dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egdKgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh qug jhl pfj`glj`f kg ar`lefrhl dfs ofj`d`efegspfrf phegr rgjfafr df `lohrkfj`l f k`s kfgstrhs qug kg fsgshrfrhl gl gdprgsgltg egsfrrhddh eg df prgsgltg tgs`s y f dfs glsgflzfs qug kgar`lefrhl gl gd egsfrrhddh `ltgmrh eg k` jfrrgrf prhogs`hlfd.
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Jhltgl`eh^fm`lfs prgd`k`lfrgsEge`jfthr`f ``Fmrfegj`k`glth ```@le`jg `v@ltrheujj`hl vQgsukgl v`Fastrfji `x
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6.6 EG ZJ Q @^ J @ L E G D ^QHADGKF 6>
6.1 OHQKWDFJ@L EGD ^QHADGKF 61
6.: HABGU@_H MGLGQFD 61
6.5 HABGU@_HZ GZ^GJO@JHZ 61
6.7 BWZU@O@JFJ@HL EG DF @L_GZU@MFJ@L 61
6.? D@K@UFJ@HLGZ EG DF @L_GZU@MFJ@L 6:
6,= _@FA@D@EFE EG DF @L_GZU@MFJ@L 65
JF^UWDH @@ 67
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1.6 FLUGJGEGLUGZ EGD ^QHADGKF 67
1.1 AFZGZ UGQ@JFZ 6=
1.: EGO@L@J@HLGZ JHLJG^UWFDGZ 5>
1.5 Z@ZUGKF EG C@^HUGZ@Z 5:
1.7 Z@ZUGKF EG _FQ@FADGZ 55
1.? H^GQFJ@HLFD@RFJ@L EG DFZ _FQ@FADGZ 57
JF^UWDH @@@ 5?
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KGUHEHDHMF EG DF @L_GZU@MFJ@L 5?
:.6 U @^H EG @L_GZU@MFJ@L 5?
^ H A D F J @ H L P K W G Z U Q F 5 =
:.: UJL@JFZ G @LZUQWKGLUHZ EG EG QGJHDGJJ@L EG EFUHZ 5=
:.5 UGJL@JFZ ^FQF GD ^QHJGE@K @GLUH P GD FLD@Z@ Z
E G D F @ L O H Q K F J @ L 5 3JF^UWDH @ _ 50
QGZWDUFEHZ 50
5.6 ^QHJGZFK@GLUH EG EFUHZ 50
5.1 JHLUQFZUFJ@HL EG C@^HUGZ@Z ^QWGAF EG C@^HUGZ@Z =5
JF^UWDH _ =3
E@ZJWZ@L EG QGZWDUFEHZ =3
JHLJDWJ@HLGZ 3>
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QGOGQGLJ@FZ A@AD@HMQFO@JFZ 31
FLGSHZ 3:
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@LUQHEWJJ@L
Gd prgsgltg trfafbh eg `lvgst`mfj`l sg pdfltgf jhl gd prhps`th eg egtgrk`lfr
df rgdfj`l qug gx`stg gltrg gd kgrjcfle`s`lm y dfs vgltfs eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd
Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh.
Ddgvfleh gd egsfrrhddh eg df pgqugf gkprgsf, gd jufd s`mug gl `ljrgkglth, fs jhkh
df lgjgs`efe eg `ljhrphrfr tjl`jfs kgbhrfefs fd s`stgkf eg jhkgrj`fd`zfj`l eg dhs
prheujths y sgrv`j`hs. Df jhlj`glj`f eg lugstrhs jhkgrj`fltgs eg `kpdgkgltfr pdflgs
gstrftm`jhs pfrf kgbhrfr su jhkpgt`t`v`efe gl ul kgrjfeh, cfjg lgjgsfr`h flfd`zfr f
egtfddg dfs e`st`ltfs tjl`jfs jhkgrj`fdgs pfrf `ljrgkgltfr sus vgltfs.
^hr tfd kht`vh, chy gl ef, gd kgrjcfle`s`lm sg cf jhlvgrt`eh gl ulf
cgrrfk`gltf jhkpgt`t`vf qug pgrk`tg kgbhrfr kujchs fspgjths `kphrtfltgs jhkh
pugegl sgr2 gxc`a`j`l, fka`gltg, `duk`lfj`l, `lorfgstrujturf y df jhkul`jfj`l
jhl dhs jd`gltgs jhl df o`lfd`efe eg pgrsufe`rdhs pfrf qug pugefl fequ`r`r gd
prheujth y eg gstf kflgrf phegr `ljrgkgltfr gd l`vgd eg vgltfs eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs.
Gd kgrjcfle`s`lm eg kflgrf mglgrfd, fyuef f dhs jhkgrj`fltgs f prgsgltfr
v`sufdkgltg sus prheujths, sgrv`j`hs y gd lgmhj`h gl s. Gd prgsgltg trfafbh eg
`lvgst`mfj`l ausjf ego`l`r jhl jdfr`efe dhs t`phs eg kgrjcfle`s`lm y dfs gtfpfs eg
df vgltf rgdfj`hllehdhs jhl df s`tufj`l fjtufd egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh.
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QGZWKGL
Orgltg fd kuleh mdhafd`zfeh qug v`vg chy gl ef df cukfl`efe, jfef vgz shl
dfs gkprgsfs jhkpgt`t`vfs qug jhlvgrmgl f qug dfs pgqugfs hrmfl`zfj`hlgs qug
lh gstl prgpfrfefs pfrf `llhvfj`hlgs y lugvhs rgths sgfl fashra`efs h tglmfl ul
egjd`vg rrgkge`fadg.
Gl df fjtufd`efe dhs supgrkgrjfehs phr sus s`stgkf eg futhsgrv`j`h cfl
gvhduj`hlfeh eg tfd ohrkf qug su habgt`vh pr`khre`fd gs qug sus jd`gltgs tglmfl ulf
gxpgr`glj`f fmrfefadg glohjfleh thehs sus gsougrzhs gl df hrmfl`zfj`l eg thef gd
rgf egd gstfadgj`k`glth, ua`jfj`l eg dhs prheujths y thehs dhs fspgjths qug
glmdhafl sg glthrlh tflth `ltgr`hr jhkh gxtgr`hr.
Jhl gstg o`l sg egsfrrhddf ulf prhpugstf fkpd`f gl oulj`l f ulf cgrrfk`gltf
oulefkgltfd qug gs gd Kgrjcfle`s`lm efleh shduj`l f ulf sgr`g eg ofdglj`fs y f
su vgz ausjfleh rgltfa`d`zfr gl gd `ljrgkglth eg dfs vgltfs eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd
Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh.
Gd prgsgltg trfafbh eg `lvgst`mfj`l gst e`v`e`eh gl j`ljh jfptudhs, jhl ul
fld`s`s y egsfrrhddh qug pgrk`tg ohrkudfr gstrftgm`fs fprhp`fefs pfrf phegr
kgbhrfr dfs vgltfs eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh, gl gstg
sglt`eh sg cf `ltrheuj`eh gd Kgrjcfle`s`lm jhkh ulf shduj`l fd prhadgkf.
JF^UWDH @2 gst rgdfj`hlfeh jhl gd prhadgkf eg `lvgst`mfj`l gd jufd trftf sharg gd
kgrjcfle`s`lm y dfs vgltfs, gl gstg jfptudh sg ego`lg gd pdfltgfk`glth egd
prhadgkf, ohrkudfj`l egd prhadgkf, habgt`vhs eg df hpgrfj`hlfd`zfj`l eg
dfs vfr`fadgs, bust`o`jfj`l eg df `lvgst`mfj`l, v`fa`d`efe y d`k`tfj`hlgs.
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prhadgkf, dfs afsgs tgr`jfs, df rgsgf c`str`jf egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh y
o`lfdkgltg dfs ego`l`j`hlgs jhljgptufdgs.
JF^UWDH @@@2 Gl gstg jfptudh sg flfd`zf gd kfrjh kgthehdm`jh gl gd qug sg
egtfddfl gd l`vgd eg df `lvgst`mfj`l, dhs t`phs eg df `lvgst`mfj`l, e`sgh y gsqugkf
eg df `lvgst`mfj`l, dhs kthehs eg df `lvgst`mfj`l, df phadfj`l y kugstrf, dfs
tjl`jfs g `lstrukglths eg rgjhdgjj`l eg efths, y o`lfdkgltg dfs tjl`jfs eg rgjhbh,
prhjgsfk`glth y prgsgltfj`l eg efths.
JF^UWDH @_2 Zg pdfltgfl dhs rgsudtfehs eg dhs efths hatgl`ehs mrfj`fs fd
jugst`hlfr`h, muf eg hasgrvfj`l y muf eg gltrgv`stf dhs jufdgs cfl s`eh prhjgsfehs
phr kge`h eg df gstfest`jf egsjr`pt`vf, dhs qug sg rgprgsgltfl gl juferhs y mro`jhs
jhl sus rgspgjt`vhs fld`s`s g `ltgrprgtfj`hlgs.
JF^UWDH _2 Gl gstg jfptudh sg pdfltgf df e`sjus`l eg rgsudtfehs gl dhs jufdgs sg
trftfl eg jhltrfstfr dhs fld`s`s g `ltgrprgtfj`hlgs eg dhs rgsudtfehs hatgl`ehs gl
gd jfptudh @_ jhl dhs fltgjgegltgs, dfs afsgs tgr`jfs y df c`ptgs`s mglgrfd9 gl
gstg pulth sg vgr`o`jf s` df c`ptgs`s pdfltgfef gs fjgptfef h rgjcfzfef.
O`lfdkgltg sg egtfddfl dfs jhljdus`hlgs y rgjhkglefj`hlgs gl oulj`l fd
kgrjcfle`s`lm y dfs vgltfs gl gd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh 1>6?9 fs k`skh
sg gspgj`o`jfl df a`ad`hmrfof y dhs flgxhs egd prgsgltg trfafbh eg `lvgst`mfj`l
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FAZUQFJU
Ofj`lm tcg mdhafd`zge whrde d`v`lm cukfl`ty thefy `ljrgfs`lmdy jhkpgt`t`vg o`rks frgjhlvgrm`lm th skfdd hrmfl`zft`hls tcft frg lht rgfey ohr `llhvft`hls fle lgw jcfddglmgs frg
fashrage hr cfvg fl `rrgkge`fadg egjd`lg.
Uhefy supgrkfrigts ohr tcg`r sgdo-sgrv`jg systgk cfs gvhdvge sh tcft `ts pr`kfry habgjt`vg `stcft yhur justhkgrs cfvg f pdgfsflt gxpgr`gljg ohjus`lm fdd tcg`r goohrts `l hrmfl`z`lm tcgglt`rg frgf ho tcg gstfad`sckglt, dhjft`hl ho prheujts fle fdd fspgjts Ucgy gljhkpfss ahtc`ltgr`hr fle gxtgr`hr glv`rhlkglt.
Uh tc`s gle f jhkprgcgls`vg prhphsfd `s egvgdhpge afsge hl f oulefkgltfd thhd tcft `sKgrjcfle`s`lm prhv`e`lm shdut`hls th f lukagr ho schrtjhk`lms fle turl prho`tfadg `l sggi`lm`ljrgfsge sfdgs trfegrs Cuflujh Kfrigt Khegd.
Uc`s rgsgfrjc whri `s e`v`ege `lth o`vg jcfptgrs, w`tc fl flfdys`s fle egvgdhpkglt tcft fddhwsohrkudft`lm fpprhpr`ftg th `kprhvg sfdgs trfegrs Khegd Cuflujh Kfrigt `l tc`s rgmfre cfs
aggl `ltrheujge Kgrjcfle`s`lm fs f shdut`hl th tcg prhadgk strftgm`gs.
JCF^UGQ @2 `s rgdftge th tcg rgsgfrjc qugst`hl wc`jc `s fahut tcg kgrjcfle`s lm fle sfdgs, `ltc`s jcfptgr tcg prhadgk stftgkglt, ohrkudft`hl ho tcg prhadgk, tcg habgjt`vgs ego`lgehpgrft`hlfd`zft`hl ho tcg vfr`fadgs, bust`o`jft`hl ho rgsgfrjc, ogfs`a`d`ty fle d`k`tft`hls.
JCF^UGQ @@2 @t egfds w`tc tcg tcghrgt`jfd orfkgwhri `l wc`jc tcg c`sthry ho tcg prhadgk, tcgtcghrgt`jfd afs`s, tcg c`sthr`jfd rgv`gw ho tcg Kfrigt Khegd Cuflujh fle o`lfddy jhljgptufdego`l`t`hls frg kglt`hlge.
JCF^UGQ @@@2 @l tc`s jcfptgr tcg kgtchehdhm`jfd orfkgwhri `l wc`jc tcg dgvgd ho rgsgfrjcegtf`d`lm tcg typgs ho rgsgfrjc, egs`ml fle dfyhut ho rgsgfrjc, rgsgfrjc kgtches, phpudft`hlfle sfkpdg, tgjcl`qugs fle `lstrukglts flfdyzge eftf jhddgjt`hl, fle o`lfddy p`ji tgjcl`qugs,eftf prhjgss`lm fle prgsgltft`hl.
JCF^UGQ @_2 Ucg rgsudts ho tcg eftf hatf`lge tcrhumc tcg qugst`hllf`rg, mu`eg hasgrvft`hlfle `ltgrv`gw mu`eg wc`jc cfvg aggl prhjgssge ay kgfls ho egsjr`pt`vg stft`st`js fr`sg, wc`jcfrg schwl `l tfadgs fle mrfpcs w`tc tcg`r rgspgjt`vg flfdyzgs fle `ltgrprgtft`hls.
JCF^UGQ _2 @l tc`s jcfptgr tcg e`sjuss`hl ho rgsudts wc`jc try th jhltrfst tcg flfdys`s fle`ltgrprgtft`hl ho tcg rgsudts hatf`lge `l Jcfptgr @_ w`tc tcg afjimrhule, tcg tcghrgt`jfd afs`sfle tcg mglgrfd cyphtcgs`s fr`sgs9 ft tc`s ph`lt `t `s jcgjige wcgtcgr tcg cyphtcgs`s `s fjjgptgehr rgbgjtge.
O`lfddy, jhljdus`hls fle rgjhkkgleft`hls frg egtf`dge fjjhre`lm th kgrjcfle`s`lm fle sfdgs`l tcg Kgrjfeh Khegdh Cuflujh - 1>6?9 D`igw`sg tcg d`tgrfturg fle tcg Fllgxgs th tc`s whrieg`lvgst`mfj`l
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JF^UWDH @
^QHADGKF EG @L_GZU@MFJ@L
6.6 EGZJQ@^J@HL EGD ^QHADGKF
Gl df fjtufd`efe gd jhljgpth eg kgrjcfle`s`lm gst prgsgltg gl dhs
jgltrhs jhkgrj`fdgs eg thehs dhs pfsgs egd kuleh y cf mglgrfeh ulf lugvf ohrkf
eg gltglegr df jhkprf-vgltf.
Z` k`rfkhs cfj`f gd outurh dfs tgleglj`fs egd kgrjcfle`s`lm m`rfl gl thrlh
f df jhhpgrfj`l gltrg ofar`jfltgs y e`str`au`ehrgs. Dhs khegdhs qug sg
v`sdukarfl shl gd GJQ (Goo`j`glt Jhlsukgr Qgsphlsg, rgspugstf go`j`gltg fd
jhlsuk`ehr), gd trfeg kfrigt`lm (Kgrjcfle`s`lm jhkpfrt`eh) y gd mgh kfrigt`lm
(kgrjcfle`s`lm gspgjo`jh pfrf egtgrk`lfefs zhlfs). Zgml Afsths Ahuagtf
(1>>?).
Gd ^gr cf s`eh p`hlgrh gl gd supgrkgrjfe`skh gl Fkr`jf Dft`lf jhl df
fpfr`j`l eg dhs supgrkgrjfehs f o`lgs eg dhs fhs j`ljugltf egd s`mdh pfsfeh.
Fjtufdkgltg t`glg fprhx`kfefkgltg ul
7>% eg mrfeh eg pglgtrfj`l gl gd pfs. Ufka`l, df fpfr`j`l eg supgrkgrjfehsgl ulf j`uefe gs ul skahdh eg khegrl`efe. D`kf Kgtrhphd`tflf, qug jhljgltrf
ks eg df tgrjgrf pfrtg eg df prheujj`l lfj`hlfd, cf tgl`eh ulf gvhduj`l kuy
`kphrtfltg gl gstg jflfd jhkgrj`fd.
Fs, gl gd fh 1>>>, gl df j`uefe gx`stfl shdh 17 supgrkgrjfehs, lkgrh
qug jrgj` f 5? gl 1>>7 y qug mrfj`fs fd `kphrtfltg fvfljg gl gd pfs, sg gdgv f
6:5 gl gd 1>61.
Gstf e`lk`jf sg cf `eh trfsdfefleh f dfs rgm`hlgs egd `ltgr`hr. Gl 1>>7 sg`lfumur gd pr`kgr supgrkgrjfeh ougrf eg df jfp`tfd, gl Jc`jdfyh.
Fd fh 1>61, gl gd `ltgr`hr egd pfs, yf sg jhltfaf jhl 56
supgrkgrjfehs, jhl `ltgrgsfltgs pgrspgjt`vfs eg jrgj`k`glth, efeh qug gd phegr
fequ`s`t`vh gl fdmulfs j`uefegs cf sua`eh ks qug gl D`kf. (Qgv`stf gd
Jhkgrj`h).
Gl gd jfsh eg dhs kgrjfehs trfe`j`hlfdgs, fl ut`d`zfl df tjl`jf egd
kgrjcfle`s`lm gl ohrkf gkpr`jf s`l d`lgfk`glths qug hr`gltgl dfs fjj`hlgs egegsfrrhddh eg dfs k`skfs, yf sgf phr df ofdtf eg jhlhj`k`glths tjl`jhs y
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prhogs`hlfdgs eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs eg dhs kgrjfehs, qu`glgs jhlhjgl df
prhadgkt`jf pgrh lh t`glgl dhs jhlhj`k`glths sharg dfs tjl`jfs fegjufefs egd
kgrjcfle`s`lm v`sufd, eg mgst`l y eg sgeujj`l, dh qug trfg jhkh jhlsgjuglj`f
qug gd l`vgd eg vgltf eg df kfyhrf eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs eg dhs kgrjfehs
trfe`j`hlfdgs gl gd ^gr e`sk`luyf orgltg f dhs supgrkgrjfehs, qu`glgs shl
dhs pr`lj`pfdgs jhkpgt`ehrgs.
Ega`eh f gstf prhadgkt`jf, fjtufdkgltg dhs kgrjfehs trfe`j`hlfdgs t`glgl
mrfl `ltgrs phr gkpdgfr gd kgrjcfle`s`lm y gvfdufr gd l`vgd eg vgltfs, tgl`gleh gl
jugltf gd mrfeh eg sft`sofjj`l eg dhs jhlsuk`ehrgs.
Zg egag gvfdufr dfs vgltfs ega`eh f su mrfl `kphrtflj`f gl gd kuleh
fjtufd, jhl df o`lfd`efe eg prhp`j`fr kgbhr rgltfa`d`efe gl lugstrhs lgmhj`hs y eg
gstf kflgrf jukpd`r jhl dhs habgt`vhs y kgtfs eg df hrmfl`zfj`l, jhltr`auygleh
fd dhmrh gogjt`vh eg ul sgrv`j`h eg jfd`efe fd jhlsuk`ehr.
Z`l gkafrmh df `kpdfltfj`l egd kgrjcfle`s`lm y df kgbhrf egd l`vgd eg
vgltfs, gs ul prhjgsh qug rgqu`grg df pfrt`j`pfj`l eg thehs dhs jhkgrj`fltgs eg
dhs e`vgrshs kgrjfehs trfe`j`hlfdgs, gl df kfyhrf eg dhs jfshs df `kpdfltfj`l
eg gsths prhjgshs jhleujg f jfka`hs gl dhs ca`ths eg trfafbh eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs
g `ljdush egd k`skh gstfadgj`k`glth jhkgrj`fd. ^hr dh tflth df fpd`jfj`l egd
kgrjcfle`s`lm y df kgbhrf eg dfs vgltfs jhleujgl f ul prhjgsh jhlt`luh eg
egsfrrhddh.
Gl Culujh, gd Kgrjfeh Khegdh prgsgltf ul khegrfeh l`vgd eg vgltfs.
Gstf s`tufj`l gs rgodgbh eg df `ljhrrgjtf `kpdfltfj`l eg dhs pfshs h gtfpfs pfrf
phegr jhljrgtfr ulf vgltf sgmurf, dfs jufdgs shl2 df prgpfrfj`l, vgr`o`jfj`l,
fjgrjfk`glth, prgsgltfj`l, frmukgltfj`l, j`grrg y fld`s`s eg dfs vgltfs. ^hr
jhls`mu`gltg, df vgltf lh gs fdmh e`oj`d eg rgfd`zfr, pfrf phegr rgfd`zfr dfs
jhsfs jhrrgjtfkgltg, dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egagl sgmu`r ulf sgr`g eg pfshs h prhjgshsdm`jhs pfrf phegr trftfr eg dhmrfr gd habgt`vh o`lfd eg fkafs pfrtgs, tflth eg
jhkprfehr jhkh egd vglegehr. ^hr htrf pfrtg, dhs jhkgrj`fltgs lh pugegl
`ljrgkgltfr gd l`vgd eg sus vgltfs phr qug gx`stg ulf kfdf hpt`k`zfj`l eg dhs
gspfj`hs y rhtfj`l eg dhs prheujths pfrf df prgstfj`l eg ul prheujth eg jfd`efe y
eg df fpd`jfj`l `lfegjufef egd `ltgrlgt pfrf `lohrkfr sharg dhs prheujths y
aglgo`j`hs qug horgjgl. Ufd s`tufj`l hagegjg f ofjthrgs jhkh df `lfegjufef
`kpdfltfj`l egd kgrjcfle`s`lm, df ego`j`gltg gxc`a`j`l y/h prgsgltfj`l eg dhsprheujths, df `lfprhp`fef `lorfgstrujturf h fka`gltg os`jh y df egsprghjupfj`l eg
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dhs jhkgrj`fltgs pfrf df jrgfj`l eg ulf pm`lf wga.
Dfs j`rjulstflj`fs fltgr`hrgs pugegl ddgvfr f dhs jhlsuk`ehrgs f tglgr ulf
kfdf pgrjgpj`l egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh dh qug `kpge`r egsfrrhddfrsg y phr dh
tflth dfs vgltfs eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd kgrjfeh tglegrl f e`sk`lu`r, egd
k`skh kheh lh pherl kgbhrfr su `lorfgstrujturf y phr dh tflth lh sgrl
jhkpgt`t`vhs orgltg f supgrkgrjfehs jhkh ^dfzf _gf y htrhs.
Gstf s`tufj`l cfjg lgjgsfr`f df `kpdfltfj`l egd kgrjcfle`s`lm gl gd
Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh, jhl ulf fegjufef pfrt`j`pfj`l eg thehs dhs
k`gkarhs, pfrf kgbhrfr gd l`vgd eg vgltfs y eg gstf kflgrf phegr ar`lefr ul
sgrv`j`h eg jfd`efe f dhs jhlsuk`ehrgs y ddgmfr f sgr jhkpgt`t`vhs orgltg f
htrhs supgrkgrjfehs.
6.1 OHQKWDFJ@L EGD QHADGKF
Gl gstg pulth sg kugstrf gd prhadgkf mglgrfd y dhs prhadgkfs gspgjo`jhs,
dhs jufdgs sg kglj`hlfl f jhlt`lufj`l.
6.1.6 ^rhadgkf Mglgrfd
Eg qu kflgrf sg rgdfj`hlf gd kgrjcfle`s`lm y dfs vgltfs eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd
Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh8
6.1.1 ^rhadgkfs Gspgjo`jhs
Eg qu kflgrf sg rgdfj`hlf gd kgrjcfle`s`lm v`sufd y dfs vgltfs eg dhs
jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh8
Eg qu kflgrf sg rgdfj`hlf gd kgrjcfle`s`lm eg mgst`l y dfs vgltfs eg
dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh8
Eg qu kflgrf sg rgdfj`hlf gd kgrjcfle`s`lm eg sgeujj`l y dfs vgltfs eg
dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh8
6.: Habgt`vh Mglgrfd
Egtgrk`lfr df rgdfj`l gx`stgltg gltrg gd kgrjcfle`s`lm y dfs vgltfs eg dhs
jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh.
6.5 Habgt`vhs Gspgjo`jh
Flfd`zfr df rgdfj`l gltrg gd kgrjcfle`s`lm v`sufd y dfs vgltfs eg dhs
jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh.
@eglt`o`jfr df rgdfj`l gltrg gd kgrjcfle`s`lm eg mgst`l y dfsvgltfs eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh.
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Gstfadgjgr df rgdfj`l gltrg gd kgrjcfle`s`lm eg sgeujj`l y dfs
vgltfs eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh.
6.7 BWZU@O@JFJ@L EG DF @L_GZU@MFJ@L
Dhs d`lgfk`glths qug pgrk`t`grhl bust`o`jfr y sustgltfr df
rgdgvflj`f egd prgsgltg `lohrkg eg `lvgst`mfj`l shl dhs s`mu`gltgs2
6.7.6 Bust`o`jfj`l ^rjt`jf
F kflgrf eg hpt`k`zfr gd kgrjcfle`s`lm gl dhs jgltrhs
jhkgrj`fdgs gs lgjgsfr`h `eglt`o`jfr dhs ofjthrgs qug `lj`e`grhl gl gd
k`skh, pfrf phegr egtgjtfr dfs ohrtfdgzfs, hphrtul`efegs, ega`d`efegs y
fkglfzfs.
Gs phr gsth, qug df `lvgst`mfj`l tuvh jhkh o`l rgfd`zfr ul
gstue`h gl gd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh qug pgrk`t` rgjhdgjtfr efths y f
su vgz horgjgr fd ^rgs`egltg eg df k`skf, ulf `lohrkfj`l jdfrf y jhlj`sf
rgogrgltg fd kgrjcfle`s`lm qug gl gddf sg egsfrrhddf, y gd l`vgd eg vgltfs eg
dhs jhkgrj`fltgs, pfrf qug afsfehs gl e`jchs rgsudtfehs sg pugef tglgr df
phs`a`d`efe eg fehptfr kge`efs, shduj`hlgs y kgbhrfs qug dhmrgl fukgltfr sus
l`vgdgs eg jhkpgt`t`v`efe, fs jhkh tfka`l df jfpfj`efe eg hrmfl`zfr y
pgrogjj`hlfr gd kgrjcfle`s`lm.
6.7.1 Bust`o`jfj`l Zhj`fd
Gd egsfrrhddh egd trfafbh eg `lvgst`mfj`l oug aglgo`j`hsh pfrf dhs
jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh, yf qug prhphrj`hl`lohrkfj`l sharg dhs aglgo`j`hs qug jhlddgvfl ulf fegjufef
`kpdgkgltfj`l eg dfs tjl`jfs egd kgrjcfle`s`lm, ar`lefleh eg gstf kflgrf
ul sgrv`j`h eg jfd`efe y kgbhrfleh s`ml`o`jft`vfkgltg dfs vgltfs eg dhs
jhkgrj`fltgs.
6.? D@K@UFJ@HLGZ
Gd fspgjth qug d`k`t gd prgsgltg `lohrkg eg `lvgst`mfj`l, gs df pfrtgtgjlhdm`jf yf qug lh sg jhlt jhl suo`j`gltg jhlhj`k`glth eg shotwfrg pfrf gd
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prhjgsfk`glth eg efths.
6.= _@FA@D@EFE
Dhs fspgjths qug jhltr`auygrhl fd egsfrrhddh egd prgsgltg trfafbh eg
`lvgst`mfj`l shl dhs s`mu`gltgs2
6.=.6 Fspgjth A`ad`hmro`jh
^frf gd egsfrrhddh egd `lohrkg eg `lvgst`mfj`l sg jhlt jhl
d`arhs, tgxths v`rtufdgs y pm`lfs wga sharg kgrjcfle`s`lm y vgltfs qug s`rv`grhl
jhkh ougltgs eg jhlsudtf, egd k`skh kheh, df a`ad`htgjf eg df Wl`vgrs`efe
Lfj`hlfd Cgrk`d`h _fde`zl prgsgltf fdmulhs d`arhs sharg df vfr`fadg
`legpgle`gltg (kgrjcfle`s`lm) y vfr`fadg legpgle`gltg (vgltfs).
6.=.1 Fspgjth Gjhlk`jh
Gl gstg pulth sg tuvh gl jugltf dhs rgjurshs gjhlk`jhs prhvgl`gltgs egd
fphrtg eg dhs tgs`stfs pfrf df gdfahrfj`l y egsfrrhddh egd prgsgltg ^rhygjth eg
@lvgst`mfj`l.
6.=.: Fspgjth Ugkphrfd
^frf gd egsfrrhddh egd prgsgltg trfafbh eg `lvgst`mfj`l sg jhlt jhl
e`gz kgsgs eg t`gkph, dhs pr`kgrhs j`ljh kgsgs egst`lfehs f df gdfahrfj`l eg
prhygjth eg tgs`s y dhs dt`khs j`ljh fd @lohrkg o`lfd eg lvgst`mfj`l.
6.=.5 Fspgjth eg fsgshrfk`glth
Gl gstg fspgjth dhs tgs`stfs jhltfrhl jhl gd fphyh egd @lm. L`igr Bchl
Zfd`lfs Fdgbflerh, qu`gl ar`le hr`gltfj`l y fsgshrfk`glth pfrf gd
egsfrrhddh egd prgsgltg `lohrkg eg @lvgst`mfj`l.
6.=.7 Fspgjth eg Fjjgs`a`d`efe
Gl gstg pulth sg tuvh df futhr`zfj`l egd fek`l`strfehr egd Kgrjfeh
Khegdh eg Culujh, gd Zr. B`kk Lhdfsjh Jhtr`lf, pfrf fpd`jfr dhs `lstrukglths eg
`lvgst`mfj`l qug sg rgqu`r` pfrf df rgjhdgjj`l eg efths y htrfs `lohrkfj`hlgs
lgjgsfr`fs sharg df hrmfl`zfj`l.
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JF^UWDH @@
KFQJHUGQ@JH
1.6 FLUGJGEGLUGZ EGD ^QHADGKF
Dugmh eg cfagr v`s`tfeh df a`ad`htgjf jgltrfd eg df Wl`vgrs`efe Lfj`hlfd
Cgrk`d`h _fde`zl, df Gsjugdf eg ^hst Mrfeh y dhs s`t`hs wga jhl gd habgt`vh
eg hatglgr `lohrkfj`l sharg gstue`hs rgfd`zfehs jhl fltgr`hr`efe sg dhmr
rgjhp`dfr `lohrkfj`l sharg dfahrgs `lvgst`mft`vfs h trfafbhs eg `lvgst`mfj`l
s`k`dfrgs, gljhltrlehsg fs dhs s`mu`gltgs fltgjgegltgs eg gstue`h2
1.6.6 F l`vgd dhjfd
U@UWDH2 Wsh eg dfs tgjl`jfs eg kgrjcfle`s`lm phr dhs k`lhr`stfs egd
e`str`th eg cuflujh.
FWUHQ 2 D`lfrgs Agrfl, ]`dd`fk M`hvfll`.
_FQ@FADG2 @legpgle`gltg.
FLH 2 1>>1
JHLJDWZ@HLGZ2
Uuvh jhkh habgt`vh pr`lj`pfd, egtgrk`lfr s` gx`stgl jhlhj`k`glths eg
Kgrjcfle`s`lm phr pfrtg eg dhs ahegmugrhs y gkprgsfs e`str`au`ehrfs eg mhdhs`lfs,
eg gstf j`uefe. Dhs kthehs fpd`jfehs gl gstf `lvgst`mfj`l ougrhl, gd ktheh
egsjr`pt`vh qug pgrk`t` egsj`orfr df `loduglj`f qug t`glg df ut`d`zfj`l eg tjl`jfs
fegjufefs egd Kgrjcfle`s`lm9 ktheh gxpd`jft`vh, pgrk`t` hasgrvfr df kfyhr
jhljurrglj`f eg jhlsuk`ehrgs f fqugddfs ahegmfs qug ausjfl fpd`jfr gd
kgrjcfle`s`lm y gd ktheh flfdt`jh qug jhls`st` gl flfd`zfr fd ahegmugrh eg df
j`uefe f trfvs eg gltrgv`stfs. O`lfdkgltg, sg ddgm f df jhljdus`l eg qug lhgx`stg ul trfafbh jhhre`lfeh gltrg gd ahegmugrh y gd e`str`au`ehr eg mhdhs`lfs, eg
tfd kflgrf, qug gx`stg gd egsgh, gl dhs jhkgrj`fltgs eg jhlhjgr dfs tjl`jfs eg
kgrjcfle`s`lm.
1.6.1 F l`vgd lfj`hlfd
U@UWDH2 ^rhpugstfs eg kgrjcfle`s`lm jhkh cgrrfk`gltf eg kfrigt`lm gl df
egj`s`hl eg jhkprf, pfrf `ljrgkgltfr dfs vgltfs eg dhs prheujthst`glef Zfl Flergs.
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FWUHQ 2 jftfd`lf Zfljcgs, ftr`j`f
_FQ@FADG2 @legpgle`gltg.
FLH 2 1>66
JHLJDWZ@HLGZ2
Gd kgrjcfle`s`lm gs ulf tjl`jf qug cfjg ulhs fhs sg `ltrheubh fd kgrjfeh
pgruflh, phr dh tflth gstf cgrrfk`gltf lh cf s`eh kuy fpd`jfef gl dhs e`vgrshs
lgmhj`hs gspgj`fdkgltg gl dhs pgqughs y kge`flhs.
Gd e`fmlst`jh rgfd`zfeh jhlvgrmg qug gs lgjgsfr`h `llhvfr y kflgbfr
lugvfs gstrftgm`fs eg kfrigt`lm qug pgrk`tfl ftrfgr lugvhs jd`gltgs, gl oulj`l f df
tjl`jf eg kgrjcfle`s`lm rgltfa`d`zfleh jfef gspfj`h egd pulth eg vgltf.
1.6.: F l`vgd `ltgrlfj`hlfd
U@UWDH 2 Wsh egd kgrjcfle`s`lm k`x jhkh frkf jhkpgt`t`vf gl df vgltf
eg rgorgsjhs jfrahlftfehs
FWUHQ 2 Flergu Grekglmgr, Kfrf @sfagd.
_FQ@FADG2 @legpgle`gltg.
FLH 2 600:
JHLJDWZ@HLGZ2
Uuvh jhkh prhps`th egkhstrfr qug gd ush eg dfs tjl`jfs egd
Kgrjcfle`s`lm gs oulefkgltfd gl df egj`s`l eg jhkprf eg dhs jhlsuk`ehrgs pfrf
df vgltf eg dhs rgorgsjhs jfrahlftfehs gl Muftgkfdf. Jhljduyg egkhstrfleh qug
gd kgrjcfle`s`lm k`x gs ul frkf jhkpgt`t`vf ougrtg qug fyuef f fukgltfr gd
vhdukgl eg vgltfs eg dfs gkahtgddfehrfs, egsjuar`r dfs e`ogrgltgs tjl`jfs egd
kgrjcfle`s`lm k`x, rgodgbfr df `kphrtflj`f eg df ut`d`zfj`l eg dfs tjl`jfs
egsjua`grtfs y jhkpfrfr df go`j`glj`f egd kgrjcfle`s`lm k`x ut`d`zfehs phr Jhjf
Jhdf vgrsus ^gps` Jhdf.
U@UWDH 2 Df gogjt`v`efe egd kgrjcfle`s`lm gl df vgltf eg prheujths eg
jhkprf phr `kpudsh, gl df t`glef eg futhsgrv`j`hs.
FWUHQ 2 Khrg`rf Mhlzfdgs, Ucgdkf Jfrhd`lf
_FQ@FADG2 @legpgle`gltg.
FLH 2 600=
JHLJDWZ@HLGZ2
Uuvh jhkh o`l pr`khre`fd qug dfs pgrshlfs qug sg gljugltrfl
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rgdfj`hlfefs egltrh egd rgf eg kgrjfegh egtgrk`lgl df ohrkf ks jhrrgjtf y
go`jfz eg ut`d`zfr dfs cgrrfk`gltfs qug lhs horgjg gd kgrjcfle`s`lm,
gspgjo`jfkgltg gl df jftgmhrf eg prheujths eg jhkprf phr `kpudsh, f trfvs egd
jflfd eg egtfdd`stfs jhlohrkfeh phr dfs t`glefs eg futhsgrv`j`h. Dhs rgsudtfehs
hatgl`ehs eg gstf `lvgst`mfj`l oug qug gd 7>% eg dfs gkprgsfs jugltf jhl
pgrshlfd gljfrmfeh eg df dfahr eg kgrjcfle`s`lm y gd k`skh gs jhltrftfeh
e`rgjtfkgltg phr dfs gkprgsfs9 gd kfyhr hastjudh pfrf rgfd`zfr gstfs gxc`a`j`hlgs,
dh jhlst`tuygl, pr`khre`fdkgltg dfs hrmfl`zfj`hlgs gstfadgj`efs phr dhs gljfrmfehs
eg kgrjfegh eg dhs gstfadgj`k`glths egtfdd`stfs, sgmu`efs phr df ofdtf eg
jfpfj`tfj`l gl gd pgrshlfd qug rgfd`zf df dfahr eg kgrjcfle`s`lm, yf qug sg
jfrgjg eg gsjugdfs gspgj`fd`zfefs ehleg gstg pgrshlfd pugeg sgr
jfpfj`tfeh y pugef fprglegr f jrgfr gxc`a`j`hlgs ks `llhvfehrfs9 o`lfdkgltg, df
e`sphs`j`l gl mlehdfs ut`d`zfef pfrf sus prheujths gst rgm`ef phr dfs lhrkfs
gstfadgj`efs phr gd pgrshlfd eg kgrjfegh eg jfef ulf eg dfs jfeglfs eg
supgrkgrjfehs, phr dh qug gs ul ofjthr qug sg gljugltrf ougrf eg su jhltrhd. Z`l
gkafrmh, gddhs prgo`grgl df e`sphs`j`l chr`zhltfd, yf qug dgs pgrk`tg tglgr ulf
kfyhr prgsglj`f eg kfrjf ega`eh f df d`k`tfj`l eg prheujths jhl qug jugltfl.
1.1 AFZGZ UGQ@JFZ
Egspus eg cfagr rgv`sfeh e`vgrsfs ougltgs eg `lohrkfj`l jhkh
d`arhs, rgv`stfs, pm`lfs wga sharg df vfr`fadg `legpgle`gltg
(kgrjcfle`s`lm) y df vfr`fadg egpgle`gltg (vgltfs), f jhlt`lufj`l sg egtfddfl dhs
jhljgpths y e`kgls`hlgs sharg jfef ulf eg gstfs.
1.1.6 AFZG UGQ@JF
GD KGQJCFLE@Z@LM
F. EGO@L@J@HLGZ.
]gddchoo, Fdf`l9 Kfsshl, Bgfl k`dg (1>>62:?) fo`rkf qug gd
kgrjcfle`s`lm gs gd jhlbulth eg kthehs y tjl`jfs jhleujgltgs f efr fd
prheujth ul fjt`vh pfpgd eg vgltf, phr kge`h eg su prgsgltfj`l y glthrlh,
pfrf hpt`k`zfr su rgltfa`d`efe.
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Df Fjfegk`f Orfljgsf eg J`glj`fs Jhkgrj`fdgs prgj`sf qug gd
kgrjcfle`s`lm gs df pfrtg egd kfrigt`lm qug glmdhaf dfs tjl`jfs
jhkgrj`fdgs qug pgrk`tg prgsgltfr fltg gd phs`adg jhkprfehr o`lfd gd prheujth h
sgrv`j`h gl dfs kgbhrgs jhle`j`hlgs kftgr`fdgs y ps`jhdm`jfs. Gd kgrjcfle`s`lm
t`gleg f sust`tu`r df prgsgltfj`l pfs`vf egd prheujth h sgrv`j`h phr ulf
rgprgsgltfj`l fjt`vf, fpgdfleh
f theh dh qug pugeg cfjgrdh ks ftrfjt`vh2 jhdhjfj`l, orfjj`hlfk`glth, glvfsg y
prgsgltfj`l, gxc`a`j`l, `lstfdfj`l, gtj. (Ahrt Kuhz, K`mugd lmgd, 1>>5260.)
Gd kgrjcfle`s`lm pugeg sgr pgrj`a`ef egseg ehs pulths eg v`stf
e`ogrgltg, df pr`kgrf sg rgo`grg f dhs ofar`jfltgs, pfrf gddhs gd kgrjcfle`s`lm
jhls`stg gl efr f jhlhjgr dhs prheujths eg kflgrf
go`jfz phr kge`h eg dfs tjl`jfs egd pfjifm`lm y df puad`j`efe, jhl df o`lfd`efe
eg ftrfgr df ftglj`l egd jd`gltg cfj`f gd prheujth9 y phr htrh dfeh, pfrf dhs
e`str`au`ehrgs, gd kgrjcfle`s`lm gs gd jhlbulth eg tjl`jfs pfrf ulf prgsgltfj`l
gstrftm`jf eg dhs prheujths, jhl gd habgt`vh eg `ljrgkgltfr gd l`vgd eg vgltf.
(^fdhkfrgs Ahrbf, 1>66).
Zgml Igplgr, 600:, j`tfeh gl gd d`arh eg ^fdhkfrgs Ahrbf (1>>7), gd
kgrjcfle`s`lm `kpd`jf qug gd ofar`jfltg y/h e`str`au`ehr jugltg jhl gd prheujth
fegjufeh, gl df jflt`efe fegjufef, fd prgj`h fegjufeh, gl gd khkglth fegjufeh y
gl gd dumfr fegjufeh.
A. OWLJ@HLGZ EGD KGQJCFLE@Z@LM
Gd kgrjcfle`s`lm pugeg jukpd`r eg kflgrf pfrfdgdf h phr sgpfrfeh
e`vgrsfs oulj`hlgs, yf sgf phr kge`h eg fjj`hlgs jhljrgtfs h phr habgt`vhs qugsg prgtglegl jhlsgmu`r, phr dh tflth f jhlt`lufj`l sg egtfddfl dfs pr`lj`pfdgs
oulj`hlgs eg df k`skf9 sgml ^fdhkfrgs Ahrbf (1>66).
^r`lj`pfdgs Oulj`hlgs egd kgrjcfle`s`lm rgfd`zfefs phr gd ofar`jfltg. Dfs
pr`lj`pfdgs oulj`hlgs egd kgrjcfle`s`lm rgfd`zfefs phr gd ofar`jfltg shl dfs
s`mu`gltgs2
E`sgh eg ul pfjifm`lm ftrfjt`vh y pgrsufs`vh.- Dhs pr`lj`pfdgs
ftr`auths os`jhs egd glvfsg eg ul prheujth, shl gd e`sgh, gd mrfo`skh y gdjhdhr9 gsths shl dhs qug egtgrk`lfl gd x`th h orfjfsh eg dhs k`skhs,
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pr`lj`pfdkgltg jufleh gd prheujth t`glg qug vglegrsg f s k`skh.
E`sgh eg df ^uad`j`efe gl gd dumfr eg vgltf (^D_). Df puad`j`efe
qug gd ofar`jfltg e`oulef gl gd pulth eg vgltf, pgrk`t`r fukgltfr df
gogjt`v`efe y gd l`vgd eg dfs vgltfs, egd k`skh kheh, ohrtfdgjgr df `kfmgl
jhrphrft`vf, df puad`j`efe y df prhkhj`l eg dhs a`glgs h sgrv`j`hs qug
jhkgrj`fd`zf.
Zupgrv`sfr dhs prheujths gl gd pulth eg vgltf.- Gd egtfdd`stf sg hjupf eg df
mgst`l egd gspfj`h, pgrh gd ofar`jfltg tfka`l t`glg qug supgrv`sfr df jhrrgjtf
prgsgltfj`l eg dhs prheujths gl gd d`lgfd, fs jhkh su prgsgltfj`l, gl gd jufd
sg t`glg qug vgr`o`jfr dfs rhturfs eg sthjis, df orgsjurf y gd gstfeh eg dhs
prheujths, df jhrrgjtf o`bfj`l eg prgj`hs, gtj., kge`fltg df rgfd`zfj`l eg
fjj`hlgs eg kgrjcfle`s`lm, tgl`gleh gl jugltf df phdt`jf eg kfrigt`lm jhl df
o`lfd`efe eg2
@lodu`r gl df prgsgltfj`l egd prheujth.
E`ogrglj`frsg eg sus jhkpgt`ehrgs.
^rhkhvgr su prheujth.
Cfjgr ks ftrfjt`vh y vglegehr su prheujth.
Urfeg Kfrigt`lm. Kfltglgr auglfs rgdfj`hlgs gltrg gd
ofar`jfltge`str`au`ehr y e`str`au`ehrofar`jfltg.-Gd ofar`jfltg egag eg
trftfr eg gstfadgjgr jhdfahrfj`hlgs eurfegrfs y frkhl`hsfs jhl gd e`str`au`ehr
y v`jgvgrsf, phr kge`h eg e`ogrgltgs fjt`v`efegs jhkh2 e`sgh eg lugvhs
prheujths y
glvfsgs, prhkhj`hlgs, puad`j`efe, rgohrzfr sthjis, egtgrk`lfj`l eg ul
surt`eh fegjufeh, gtj. Df pfrt`j`pfj`l gltrg fkahs sg prheujg egfjugreh f df phdt`jf gstrftm`jf eg dfs gkprgsfs f trfvs egd trfeg kfrigt`lm.
^frf ulf kfyhr jhkprgls`l, vfsg dfs `dustrfj`hlgs L 5 y L 7.
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@dustrfj`l 5. Oulj`hlgs egd Kgrjcfle`s lm egd Ofar`jfltg
OWGLUG2 ^fdhkfrgs Ahrbf, 1>66.
@dustrfj`l 7. Kgrjcfle`s`lm egd Ofar`jfltg
OWGLUG2 ^fdhkfrgs Ahrbf, 1>66
^r`lj`pfdgs Oulj`hlgs egd kgrjcfle`s`lm rgfd`zfefs phr gd egtfdd`stf.- Dfspr`lj`pfdgs oulj`hlgs egd kgrjcfle`s`lm rgfd`zfefs phr gd egtfdd`stf shl dhs
s`mu`gltgs2
Fmrupfj`l Gstrftm`jf eg dhs ^rheujths.- Gl gstg pulth sg pugeg
ego`l`r fd surt`eh jhkh ul jhlbulth eg rgogrglj`fs qug horgjg ul
gstfadgj`k`glth jhkgrj`fd f su jd`gltg jdfvg , pfrf phegr sft`sofjgr pfrtg
eg sus lgjgs`efegs, eg tfd kflgrf qug sg pugef phs`j`hlfr gstrftm`jfkgltg gl
gd kgrjfeh y fs dhmrfr fd ofar`jfltg y jhkgrj`fltg hatglmfl aglgo`j`hs qugmglgrgl rgltfa`d`efe. Gd surt`eh egag eg fmrupfrsg phr jftgmhrfs eg
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prheujths.
E`sgh eg df frqu`tgjturf gxtgr`hr g `ltgr`hr egd
gstfadgj`k`glth.- Gd kgrjcfle`s`lm t`glg jhkh o`l prhvhjfr, `lohrkfr g
`lv`tfr f dhs jd`gltgs h pad`jh gl mglgrfd f `lmrgsfr fd gstfadgj`k`glth
jhkgrj`fd f trfvs eg dhs gdgkglths qug ohrkfl df frqu`tgjturf gxtgr`hr egd
gstfadgj`k`glth jhkh df ofjcfef, rtudhs, aflegrhdfs, gsjfpfrftgs, gtj.
Egltrh eg df t`glef, f trfvs, eg dhs gdgkglths eg df frqu`tgjturf `ltgr`hr
jhkh shl2 df zhlf jfd`gltg, orf y lfturfd, df e`sphs`j`l egd kha`d`fr`h y
gd e`sgh eg dhs pfs`ddhs, sg dhmrfr ul odubh eg j`rjudfj`l eg jd`gltgs eg
kflgrf hreglfef y jkhef.
Dhjfd`zfj`l gstrftm`jf eg dhs prheujths sharg df supgro`j`g eg
vgltfs.- Gd egtfdd`stf t`glg qug fpd`jfr tjl`jfs eg
kgrjcfle`s`lm gl gd pulth eg vgltf jhl gd o`l eg dhjfd`zfr
gstrftm`jfkgltg dhs prheujths gl oulj`l f jr`tgr`hs qug pgrk`tfl df fegjufef
mgst`l eg df supgro`j`g eg vgltfs, gl oulj`l f df rhtfj`l, j`rjudfj`l, t`phs
eg jhkprf, tr`pdg gogjth egd FEL.
^rgsgltfj`l gstrftm`jf eg dhs prheujths sharg gd d`lgfd.- Gs `kphrtfltg df
tjl`jf y gstt`jf eg dhs prheujths sharg gd d`lgfd eg egsfrrhddh jhl df o`lfd`efe
eg hrmfl`zfr gxphs`j`l eg dhs frtjudhs gl oulj`l eg dhs l`vgdgs y zhlfs eg
prgsgltfj`l, t`phs y ohrkfs eg `kpdfltfj`l y jr`tgr`hs eg gxc`a`j`l eg dhs
frtjudhs.
Mgst`l gstrftm`jf egd gspfj`h.- Jhls`stg gl jfdjudfr df dhlm`tue qug
egag phsggr gd d`lgfd pfrf gd gstfadgj`k`glth eg jfef rgogrglj`f h frtjudh qug
jhkphlg gd surt`eh eg ul egtgrk`lfeh gstfadgj`k`glth jhkgrj`fd. Jfef
rgogrglj`f egag tglgr gl gd d`lgfd ul gspfj`h gl oulj`l f sus rgsudtfehs, ul
prheujth jhl ul l`vgd eg gdgvfeh l`vgd eg vgltfs h jhl ul fdth aglgo`j`h arutht`glg qug e`sphlgr eg ul `kphrtfltg d`lgfd gl oulj`l f sus rgsudtfehs y/ h
rgltfa`d`efe, pgrh tfka`l gs `kphrtfltg tglgr gl jugltf qug theh prheujth
lgjgs`tf eg ul gspfj`h jhkh kl`kh pfrf fdjflzfr gd x`th.
^frf gd kgbhr gltgle`k`glth egd tgkf, f jhlt`lufj`l sg prgsgltfl dfs `dustrfj`hlgs
L ? y =.
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@dustrfj`l ?. Oulj`hlgs egd Kgrjcfle`s`lm egd E`str`au`ehr (Egtfdd`
OWGLUG2 ^fdhkfrgs Ahrbf, 1>66
@dustrfj`l =. Kgrjcfle`s`lm egd E`str`au`ehr
OWGLUG2 ^fdhkfrgs Ahrbf, 1>66
J. OFZGZ EG F^D@JFJ@L EGD KGQJCFLE@Z@LM
Zgml Afsths Ahuagtf, 1>>?, pfrf ulf fpd`jfj`l go`j`gltg egd
kgrjcfle`s`lm, sg rgqu`grg eg df pugstf gl prjt`jf eg ulf pdfl`o`jfj`l eg
fjj`hlgs, hr`gltfehs fd dhmrh eg habgt`vhs, gstg prhjgsh eg fpd`jfj`l sg egsfrrhddf
gl dfs s`mu`gltgs ofsgs2
Gtfpf eg df ^rgpfrfj`l.- Zg egsfrrhddf gl gd rgf eg kfrigt`lm y gd x`th
egpgleg eg df e`sjrgj`l egd pgrshlfd, pfrf qug lh gx`stf o`dtrfj`hlgs f dhs
t`e D t` `e e d ` ` t
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Df ^dfl`o`jfj`l.- Gl gstg pulth sg t`glg qug egtgrk`lfr dfs ogjcfs eg dfs
fjj`hlgs eg kgrjcfle`s`lm.
Gd trftfk`glth eg df `lohrkfj`l.- Gd bgog eg rgf egag `lohrkfrsg
sharg fsulths qug fogjtfl f df fjj`l jhkh prgj`hs, eurfj`l, gtj., jhl gd
o`l eg ddgmfr f ul fjugreh jhl dhs prhvggehrgs.
Gd fprhv`s`hlfk`glth.- Jhls`stgl gl prgvgr eg jflt`efegs lgjgsfr`fs
(l` `lorfgst`kfj`l, tfkphjh sharggst`kfj`l). Fqu tfka`l sg pugeg
kglj`hlfr qug gs lgjgsfr`h gv`tfr dfs rhturfs eg sthji.
Df vfdhr`zfj`l.- Jhls`stg gl prgv dhs phs`adgs prhadgkfs eg
hrmfl`zfj`l eg df fjj`l jhkgrj`fd y jhlo`rkfr dfs jhdhjfj`hlgs y
jhkprhk`shs (gltrgmf hphrtulf eg dhs prheujths).
Gtfpf eg Qgfd`zfj`l.- Gl gstf gtfpf sg t`glg qug tglgr gl jugltf dfs
s`mu`gltgs tfrgfs2
Df ^rgsgltfj`l.- Gs df gtfpf eg rgfd`zfj`l egd kftgr`fd h frtjudh.
Df puad`j`efe.- Gs df e`sphs`j`l eg gdgkglths puad`j`tfr`hs jhkh
jfrtgdgs, pstgrgs, sphts puad`j`tfr`hs, gtj., fyuef f prhkhj`hlfd gd frtjudh
h a`gl.
Df fka`gltfj`l.- Jhls`stg gl fmrgmfr gdgkglths qug `ljrgkgltgl
gd pulth eg vgltf h frtjudh gl pfrt`judfr.
Gtfpf egd sgmu`k`glth.- Gs df ofsg o`lfd. Dfs gtfpfs qug sg t`glgl gl
jugltf shl dhs s`mu`gltgs2
Jhltrhd eg dfs fjj`hlgs.- Fqu sg rgfd`zf jhltrhd sharg dhs rgjurshs
ut`d`zfehs, tfka`l `ljduyg df v`m`dflj`f egd t`gkphs, `kfmgl, gtj.
Fld`s`s eg rgsudtfehs.- Gl gstf gtfpf sg rgfd`zf df `ltgrprgtfj`l
eg dhs rgsudtfehs eg vgltfs. Df `lohrkfj`l pugeg sgr t`d tflths pfrf gd
ofar`jfltg jhl pfrf dhs e`str`au`ehrgs.
Fld`s`s egd sharfltg.- Gstue`fr df kgrjfljf qug lh sg cf vgle`eh y qug
prhafadgkgltg pugeg fogjtfr df prgsgltfj`l phstgr`hr egd d`lgfd.
E. U@^HZ EG KGQJCFLE@Z@LM
Fd rgogr`rsg sharg dhs t`phs eg Kgrjcfle`s`lm, Ahrt Kuhz,
1>>59 Afsths Ahuagtf, 1>>?, ^fdhkfrgs Ahrbf, 1>669 kfl`o`gstfl dh s`mu`gltg2
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Kgrjcfle`s`lm v`sufd h eg prgsgltfj`l.- Fphyf sus egj`s`hlgs
gl sg`s gdgkglths hpgrft`vhs, jhkh gd e`sgh egd glvfsg egd prheujth h
pfjifm`lm, df frqu`tgjturf gxtgr`hr g `ltgr`hr egd gstfadgj`k`glth jhkgrj`fd, gd
gsjfpfrft`skh, dhs gdgkglths eg df ftksogrf jhkgrj`fd, dfs tjl`jfs eg
prgsgltfj`l egd prheujth y df puad`j`efe gl gd dumfr eg vgltf.
Jhls`stg gl gxc`a`r jhrrgjtfkgltg dhs prheujths egtgrk`lfleh su dumfr
eg ua`jfj`l gl gd d`lgfd, jhl df o`lfd`efe eg hpt`k`zfr df j`rjudfj`l eg dhs
jd`gltgs egltrh egd gstfadgj`k`glth jhkgrj`fd y eg gstf ohrkf, cfjgr qug df
jhkprf rgsudtg dh ks jkhef y ftrfjt`vf pfrf gd jd`gltg y dh ks rgltfadg
phs`adg pfrf gd egtfdd`stf. Gd habgt`vh egd kgrjcfle`s`lm v`sufd gs prgsgltfr dhs
prheujths gl dfs kgbhrgs jhle`j`hlgs v`sufdgs y eg fjjgs`a`d`efe pfrf
kftgr`fd`zfr df vgltf y/h prhvhjfr dfs vgltfs phr `kpudsh.
Gdgkglths2 F jhlt`lufj`l sg egtfddfl dhs gdgkglths hpgrft`vhs2
^fjifm`lm h glvfsg egd prheujth.- Gs gd jhlbulth eg
gdgkglths v`sufdgs qug pgrk`tg prgsgltfr gd prheujth fd phs`adg jhkprfehr
dh ks ftrfjt`vh phs`adg trflsk`t`gleh df kfrjf y phs`j`hlfk`glth.
Ufka`l sg rgo`grg f dhs ftr`auths `ltrlsgjhs jhkh gd jhdhr, ohrkf y
tgxturf, fs jhkh gdgkglths gxtrlsgjhs
jhkh df kfrjf. Gd pfjifm`lm egd prheujth egag gstfr e`sgfeh pfrf qug
jhls`mf vglegrsg f s k`skh. Gd glvfsg gs df l`jf ohrkf eg jhltfjth gltrg
gd prheujth y gd jhlsuk`ehr. Gd glvfsg pgrk`tg2
- Ddgvfr gd prheujth gl pgrogjtfs jhle`j`hlgs fd jhlsuk`ehr
(jhlsgrvfj`l, prhtgjj`l y sgmur`efe).
- Ofj`d`tf su `eglt`o`jfj`l f trfvs egd e`sgh, jhdhr h ohrkf.
- ^hs`a`d`tf df kfl`pudfj`l, fdkfjglfbg y trflsphrtg eg dhs prheujths.
* U`phs eg glvfsg.- Dhs t`phs eg glvfsg shl dhs s`mu`gltgs2
^fjifm`lm h glvfsg pr`kfr`h.- Gs fqugd qug gst e`rgjtfkgltg gl
jhltfjth h glvugdvg fd prheujth.
Glvfsg sgjulefr`h - Gs gd qug jhlt`glg ulh h vfr`hs glvfsgs
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pr`kfr`hs, phr gbgkpdh, pfrf fmrupfr ul jhlbulth eg ul`efegs eg
vgltf h e`str`auj`l.
Gkafdfbg h glvfsg tgrj`fr`h.- Gs gd fmrupfk`glth eg glvfsgs
pr`kfr`hs h sgjulefr`hs gl ul jhltglgehr qug dhs ul`o`jf y prhtgmg
f dh dfrmh egd prhjgsh eg e`str`auj`l jhkgrj`fd.
* Oulj`hlgs.- Dfs oulj`hlgs egd pfjifm`lm shl dfs s`mu`gltgs2
@eglt`o`jfr eg ohrkf `lkge`ftf ul prheujth.
E`ogrglj`frdh rgspgjth f dhs prheujths eg df jhkpgtglj`f.
@lohrkfr fd jhlsuk`ehr sharg dhs aglgo`j`hs y vgltfbfs egd prheujth
qug jhlt`glg.
@ljrgkgltfr df vgltf egd prheujth.
O`egd`zfr fd jhlsuk`ehr.
* Gdgkglths.- Dhs gdgkglths egd pfjifm`lm shl2
Gd jhdhr.- Gs gd gdgkglth v`sufd ks jhkpdgbh. Df kfyhrf
eg dhs jhlsuk`ehrgs rgjugrefl ul pfjifm`lm ks phr su jhdhr qug
phr su lhkarg. Gd jhdhr pgrs`mug2 jrgfr ul gstkudh eg vgltf
prhvhjfleh df ftrfjj`l egd jhkprfehr, kgbhrfr df prgsgltfj`l egd
prheujth cfj`lehdhs ks ftrfjt`vhs, e`ogrglj`frdh eg df
jhkpgtglj`f y phs`j`hlfr gd prheujth.
Df Ohrkf.- Df ohrkf v`sufd as`jf gs df dlgf. Dhs t`phs eg dlgf
shl2
Df dlgf rgjtf qug mglgrf trflqu`d`efe, sgrgl`efe, gs kfsjud`lf.
Df dlgf jurvf prhphrj`hlf `lgstfa`d`efe, eudzurf y fdgmrf,
gs ogkgl`lf.
Df dlgf o`lf sum`grg egd`jfegzf.
Df dlgf mrugsf gk`tg glgrmf y rgshduj`l.
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Df dlgf dfrmf gvhjf v`vfj`efe.
Df dlgf vgrt`jfd ftrfg df k`rfef cfj`f df fdturf.
Df dlgf chr`zhltfd sum`grg rgphsh.
Frqu`tgjturf.- Zg e`v`eg gl gdgkglths gxtgr`hrgs y gdgkglths
`ltgr`hrgs, dhs pr`kgrhs tg pgrk`tg trflsk`t`r df vgrefegrf `eglt`efe
eg ul gstfadgj`k`glth jhkgrj`fd y dhs gdgkglths `ltgr`hrgs tg pgrk`tg
jrgfr ul gspfj`h jkheh, ftrfjt`vh y hreglfeh phr df supgro`j`g jhkgrj`fd.
Df frqu`tgjturf gxtgr`hr g `ltgr`hr egd gstfadgj`k`glth jhkgrj`fd y df
egjhrfj`l eg dhs gspfj`hs, ul`ef f dhs gdgkglths fka`gltfdgs eg
tgkpgrfturf, `duk`lfj`l, frhkfs, jhdhrgs y ks`jf sg jhlbumfl pfrf jrgfr
ul fka`gltg prhp`j`h.
* Gdgkglths eg df frqu`tgjturf gxtgr`hr.- Dhs gdgkglths eg df
frqu`tgjturf gxtgr`hr shl dhs s`mu`gltgs2
Df `eglt`efe.- Zg rgo`grg fd lhkarg, skahdh, e`sgh h df
jhka`lfj`l eg gsths ohrkfleh gd sgddh jhkgrj`fd y t`glg jhkh
habgt`vh `eglt`o`jfr dhs a`glgs h sgrv`j`hs eg ulh h ks vglegehrgs.
Df gltrfef.- Df gltrfef sg egag fefptfr f df `kfmgl y fd jhljgpth
egd gstfadgj`k`glth eg fjugreh f df fjt`v`efe jhkgrj`fd f df qug
pgrtglgjg.
* Gdgkglths eg df frqu`tgjturf `ltgr`hr.- Dhs gdgkglths eg df
frqu`tgjturf ltgr`hr sg kglj`hlfl f jhlt`lufj`l2
Gd pulth eg fjjgsh.- ^grk`tg gd fjjgsh eg dhs jd`gltgs fd p`sh eg
vgltf. Gs gd pulth eg pfrt`ef ehleg sg s`tf fd jhlsuk`ehr gl df jufd
vf f jhkglzfr df rgfd`zfj`l eg df jhkprf.
Df zhlf jfd`gltg.- Gs ulf gxtgls`l `kfm`lfr`f qug sg dhjfd`zf
fdrgegehr egd pulth eg fjjgsh, gs df zhlf
tgr`jfkgltg ks jhljurr`ef y trfls`tfef egd p`sh eg vgltf.
Df zhlf orf.- Gs ulf gxtgls`l `kfm`lfr`f qug tgr`jfkgltg gs
df zhlf kglhs trflsjurr`ef
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Dhs pulths jfd`gltgs.- Zhl gspfj`hs jfrfjtgr`zfehs phr ddfkfr df
ftglj`l eg dhs jd`gltgs, jhkh dumfrgs v`s`adgs y fjjgs`adgs qug
mglgrfl df jhljgltrfj`l eg dhs jd`gltgs.
Dhs pulths orhs.- Zhl gspfj`hs phjh fjjgs`adgs y phr dh tflth dhs
kglhs trfls`tfehs egd gstfadgj`k`glth.
Df zhlf jfd`gltg lfturfd.- gs ulf gxtgls`l qug sg ef f pfrt`r egd
pulth eg fjjgsh sharg gd pfs`ddh y cfstf df zhlf
orf. Gs ut`d`zfeh pfrf e`v`e`r gd gstfadgj`k`glth jhkgrj`fd.
Df e`sphs`j`l eg df supgro`j`g.- Zg egsfrrhddf gl oulj`l f
dfs jfrfjtgrst`jfs egd gstfadgj`k`glth y f df lfturfdgzf eg dhs
prheujths qug sg jhkgrj`fd`zfl.
E`sgh eg dhs pfs`ddhs.- Zhl dumfrgs phr ehleg j`rjudfl dhs jd`gltgs
egltrh eg ul gstfadgj`k`glth jhkgrj`fd.
Gsjfpfrft`skh.- Gs gd pr`lj`pfd vljudh eg jhkul`jfj`l gltrg gd
jhkgrj`h y su jd`gltgdf. Gs ul gdgkglth qug suphlg df gxprgs`l eg dh qug gs
y dh qug vgleg gd gstfadgj`k`glth jhkgrj`fd.
* U`phs eg gsjfpfrftg.- Gx`stgl = t`phs eg gsjfpfrftg qug Zhl dhs
s`mu`gltgs2
Gsjfpfrftg eg prgst`m`h.- Zhl fqugddhs gl dfs qug df agddgzf eg
sus frtjudhs gxpugsths mglgrfl ul `kpfjth v`sufd fd jd`gltg.
Gsjfpfrftg eg tgkphrfef.- Zhl fqugddhs qug sg gxphlgl fd
jhk`glzh eg ulf tgkphrfef, `lohrkfleh eg lugvhs prheujths y
tgleglj`fs egd kgrjfeh.
Gsjfpfrftg gstfj`hlfdgs.- Zhl dhs qug jhlt`glgl j`grths prheujths
eg fjugreh f dfs gstfj`hlgs egd fh.
Gsjfpfrftgs prhkhj`hlfdgs h eg hogrtfs.- Zhl fqugddhs qug
gxphlgl prheujths qug gstl gl hogrtf.
Gsjfpfrftg eg prgj`h.- Zhl fqugddhs qug sg ut`d`zfl pfrf df
prhkhj`l eg ul prheujth f prgj`hs afbhs.
Gsjfpfrftg jhkgrj`fdgs.- Zhl fqugddhs qug prgsgltf dhs prheujths
qug jhkphlgl gd surt`eh egd gstfadgj`k`glth jhl ul jdfrh kglsfbg
eg vgltf.
Ftkhsogrf.- Fka`gltg e`sgfeh pfrf jrgfr ul jd`kf gkhj`hlfd egst`lfeh
f gst`kudfr df kgltg egd jhkprfehr fukgltfleh df prhafa`d`efe eg jhkprf.
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Zg trftf eg jrgfr ul fka`gltg qug prhphrj`hlg ulf ftksogrf pt`kf.
^rgsgltfj`l.- ^rgsgltfr dhs prheujths qug ohrkfl dh hogrtf jhkgrj`fd.
Dhs t`phs y ohrkfs eg prgsgltfj`l tfka`l t`glgl `loduglj`f gl gd fjth eg
jhkprf.
^D_ (puad`j`efe gl gd dumfr eg vgltf).- Gs df jhkul`jfj`l
egsfrrhddfef gl gd pulth eg vgltf phr ofar`jfltgs y egtfdd`stfs. ^frf gd
ofar`jfltg gs phs`j`hlfr gd prheujth gl egtgrk`lfehs gstfadgj`k`glth eg
fjugreh f df `kfmgl y phs`j`hlfk`glth, gd ofar`jfltg pugeg egsfrrhddfr su
prhp`f puad`j`efe y/h jfkpffs prhkhj`hlfdgs gl gd pulth eg vgltf. Gl
gd jfsh eg dhs egtfdd`stfs tfka`l pugegl egsfrrhddfr su prhp`f puad`j`efe y
prhkhj`l eg vgltfs, fulqug gl fdmulhs jfshs jhl gd jhlsglt`k`glth egd
ofar`jfltg y eg su prgst`m`h.
^frf ks egtfddg, vfsg df `dustrfj`l L 3
@dustrfj`l 3. Gdgkglths egd Kgrjcfle`s`lm _`suf
OWGLUG2 ^fdhkfrgs Ahrbf, 1>66
Kgrjcfle`s`lm eg mgst`l.- Gstg t`ph eg kgrjcfle`s`lm jugltf jhl sg`s
rgfs hpgrft`vfs qug shl2 gd fld`s`s egd kgrjfeh, fld`s`s egd surt`eh y eg df
rgltfa`d`efe, mgst`l gstrftm`jf eg df supgro`j`g eg vgltfs y eg d`lgfd yo`lfdkgltg df phdt`jf eg jhkul`jfj`l, jhl gd habgt`vh eg sgr jhkpgt`t`vhs,
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sft`sofjgr dfs lgjgs`efegs eg dhs jd`gltgs y dhmrfr rgltfa`d`efe.
Gdgkglths.- F jhlt`lufj`l sg egtfddfl dhs gdgkglths hpgrft`vhs
egd kgrjcfle`s`lm eg sgeujj`l2
Fld`s`s h gstue`h eg kgrjfeh.- ^rgtglegr sgmkgltfr eg dhs mruphs eg
jd`gltgs gx`stgltgs gl gd kgrjfeh, qug df gkprgsf vf f gsjhmgr pfrf
sft`sofjgrdhs yf qug gs kuy jhkpd`jfeh ftglegr f thehs dhs jd`gltgs jhl df
k`skf phdt`jf eg sgrv`j`hs.
Zurt`eh.- Gs gd jhlbulth eg rgogrglj`fs qug horgjg ul
gstfadgj`k`glth jhkgrj`fd f su jd`gltgdf pfrf sft`sofjgr egtgrk`lfefs
lgjgs`efegs jhl gd o`l eg egsfrrhddfr ulf hogrtf jhkgrj`fd gl afsg f ulf
mgst`l gstrftm`jf eg jftgmhrfs eg prheujths, gs egj`r, gs df jhdgjj`l u
hogrtf eg prheujths qug sg horgjg f df jd`gltgdf eg ul gstfadgj`k`glth.
* Jfrfjtgrst`jfs egd surt`eh.- Dfs jfrfjtgrst`jfs egd surt`eh shl dhs
s`mu`gltgs2
Fkpd`tue.- Gs gd lkgrh eg dfs ofk`d`fs eg prheujths qug juargl
lgjgs`efegs e`ogrgltgs, s` sg gxfk`lf gl ul`vgrsh mdhafd egd
prheujth, jufltfs ks sgjj`hlgs e`ogrgltgs jhltgkhs, ks fkpd`h
sgr gd surt`eh.
^rhoule`efe.- Gs gd lkgrh eg rgogrglj`fs eg prheujths qug
jhkphlgl gd surt`eh, egltrh eg ulf ofk`d`f chkhmlgf. Juflth
kfyhr sgf gd lkgrh eg kfrjfs, ks prhouleh sgr gl surt`eh.
Jhcgrglj`f.- Gs df prhphrj`l lfturfd gltrg ulf sgjj`l y htrf.
Qgltfa`d`efe.- Gs gd aglgo`j`h qug rgphrtf df `lvgrs`l rgfd`zfef,
eg k`skh kheh, df rgltfa`d`efe gs df jfpfj`efe eg prheuj`r h mglgrfr ul
aglgo`j`h fe`j`hlfd sharg df `lvgrs`l h
gsougrzh rgfd`zfeh. Gd jhljgpth eg rgltfa`d`efe pugeg cfjgr rgogrglj`f f2
* Qgltfa`d`efe gjhlk`jf, aglgo`j`h jhkpfrfeh jhl gd thtfd eg rgjurshs
gkpdgfehs pfrf hatglgr gshs aglgo`j`hs.
* Qgltfa`d`efe o`lflj`grf, aglgo`j`h jhkpfrfeh jhl dhs rgjurshs
prhp`hs `lvgrt`ehs pfrf hatglgr gshs aglgo`j`hs.
* Qgltfa`d`efe shj`fd (habgt`vh eg dfs gkprgsfs pad`jfs, fulqug
tfka`l pgrsgmu`ef phr gkprgsfs pr`vfefs).
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rentabilidad_econ%C3%B3micahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rentabilidad_financierahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rentabilidad_socialhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empresa_p%C3%BAblicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empresa_p%C3%BAblicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rentabilidad_socialhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rentabilidad_financierahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rentabilidad_econ%C3%B3mica7/25/2019 merchandising y ventas
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Zupgro`j`g.- Fpd`jfj`l eg jr`tgr`hs (rhtfj`l, j`rjudfj`l,
t`gkphs eg prgsgltfj`l, t`phs eg jhkprf y tr`pdg gogjth FEL)
qug rgsphlefl f df dhjfd`zfj`l gstrftm`jf egd surt`eh.
D`lgfd.- Fpd`jfj`l eg jr`tgr`hs (zhlfs, l`vgdgs eg
prgsgltfj`l, t`phs y ohrkfs eg `kpdfltfj`l y gxc`a`j`l eg frtjudhs) qug
rgsphlefl f ulf prgsgltfj`l gstrftm`jf eg dhs prheujths.
Jhkul`jfj`l.- Z`rvg pfrf pdfl`o`jfr dfs jfkpffs
puad`j`tfr`fs h prhkhj`hlfdgs jhl gd o`l eg efr f jhlhjgr sus
prheujths h sgrv`j`hs.
^frf ks egtfddg, vfsg df `dustrfj`l L 0
@dustrfj`l 0. Gdgkglths egd Kgrjcfle`s`lm eg Mgst`l
OWGLUG2 ^fdhkfrgs Ahrbf, 1>66
Kgrjcfle`s`lm Eg Zgeujj`l2 Zg jrgf pfrf gd jhlsuk`ehr eg df
lugvf mglgrfj`l qug tfka`l fequ`grg prheujths f trfvs eg
`ltgrlgt. Jhls`stg gl df eglhk`lfef t`glef gspgjtjudh,y pfsf phr df
jhljgpj`l egd kha`d`fr`h gspgjo`jh, df egjhrfj`l, df `lohrkfj`l,
gtj., jhl gd habgt`vh eg efr ul fspgjth sgeujthr fd d`lgfd y f df
t`glef pfrf prhkhvgr df `kfmgl egd e`str`au`ehr Ugl`gleh gl
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jugltf qug gd jhlsuk`ehr ddgmf f jhlhjgr dhs prheujths f trfvs
eg thehs dhs sglt`ehs (ul 77% f trfvs eg dhs hbhs, ul 63% f trfvs eg
heh, ul 61% f trfvs egd hdofth, ul 6>% egd tfjth y ul 7% egd musth),
sg pugeg ut`d`zfr gstf `lohrkfj`l pfrf fl`kfr gd pulth eg vgltf. Gs
lgjgsfr`h jrgfr ul fka`gltg fmrfefadg gl gd gstfadgj`k`glth, yf qug
fyuef f df vgltf v`sufd prgsgltfleh ulf t`glef a`gl egjhrfef y a`gl
`duk`lfef.
Zg egag gstue`fr gd l`vgd eg jdfr`efe jhlvgl`gltg gl oulj`l eg dhs
prheujths, eg su prgsgltfj`l y eg df egjhrfj`l gl mglgrfd. Gs ulf
rgfd`efe qug dhs jhlsuk`ehrgs fjgegl gl kfyhr jflt`efe f dfs zhlfs
ks `duk`lfefs, yf qug df jdfr`efe gdgvfef fukgltf df rfp`egz eg df
pgrjgpj`l v`sufd, pgrk`t`gleh f dhs jhkprfehrgs f rgfjj`hlfr eg
kflgrf ks rp`ef y j`rjudfr jhl kfyhr jhkhe`efe.
1.1.1 AFZG UGQ@JF L >1. DFZ _GLUFZ
F. EGO@L@J@L EG _GLUFZ
Zgml Dfurf O`sjcgr y Bhrmg Gspgbh, jhls`egrfl qug df vgltf gs ulf
oulj`l qug ohrkf pfrtg egd prhjgsh s`stgkt`jh eg df kgrjfehtgjl`f y df ego`lgl
jhkh thef fjt`v`efe qug mglgrf gl dhs jd`gltgs gd dt`kh `kpudsh cfj`f gd
`ltgrjfka`h.
Q`jfreh Qhkgrh, fo`rkf, qug df vgltf gs df jgs`l eg ulf kgrjfljf
kge`fltg ul prgj`h jhlvgl`eh. Df vgltf pugeg sgr fd jhltfeh, jufleh sg pfmf df
kgrjfljf gl gd khkglth eg thkfrdf9 f
jre`th, jufleh gd prgj`h sg pfmf jhl phstgr`hr`efe f df fequ`s`j`l y o`lfdkgltg, f
pdfzhs, jufleh gd pfmh sg orfjj`hlf gl vfr`fs gltrgmfs sujgs`vfs.
Eg fjugreh fd E`jj`hlfr`h eg Kfrigt`lm Judturfd Z.F., ego`lg f df vgltf
jhkh ul jhltrfth gl gd qug gd vglegehr sg had`mf f trflsk`t`r ulf jhsf h ul
egrgjch fd jhkprfehr, f jfka`h eg ulf egtgrk`lfef jflt`efe eg e`lgrh".
A. GUF^FZ EG DFZ _GLUFZ
Zgml Mfrjf Ahafe`ddf, Du`s Kfrf, 1>66, ego`lg f df vgltf s`kpdg gls`gtg gtfpfs, dfs jufdgs sg kglj`hlfl f jhlt`lufj`l2
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Df ^rgpfrfj`l.- Gstf fjt`v`efe jhls`stg gl hatglgr `lohrkfj`l gsglj`fd
pfrf phegr fsgmurfr df gltrgv`stf eg vgltf, egd k`skh kheh o`bfr dhs habgt`vhs
eg df k`skf. Gd trfafbh qug sg t`glgl qug rgfd`zfr gl gstg pulth shl dfs
s`mu`gltgs2
@eglt`o`jfr f dhs jd`gltgs phtglj`fdgs.- Jhls`stg gl fvgr`mufr judgs shl
fqugddfs pgrshlfs qug sg fegjufl fd pgro`d eg lugstrf gkprgsf.
Uheh vglegehr egag jhlhjgr f ohleh su gkprgsf.- Gs `kphrtfltg
qug dhs vglegehrgs jhlhzjfl dfs `lstfdfj`hlgs prheujt`vfs, dhs kgrjfehs
gl dhs qug jhkp`tg, y htrhs fspgjths.
Jhlhj`k`glth egd prheujth.- Gd vglegehr egag eg jhlhjgr dfs
jfrfjtgrst`jfs, dfs oulj`hlgs, vgltfbfs y aglgo`j`hs qug rgphrtf
gd prheujth fd jd`gltg, jhkh tfka`l egag jhlhjgr df prheujj`l, gd
glvfsg, gkafdfbg, gtj.
Jhlhj`k`glth egd kgrjfeh.- Gs oulefkgltfd jhlhjgr sharg df jhkpgtglj`f,
prheujths sust`tuths, tgleglj`fs, gtj.
Jhlhj`k`glth egd jd`gltg.- Z` dh qug sg ausjf gs vglegr dhs prheujths f
lugstrhs jd`gltgs, gs kphrtfltg jhlhjgrdhs.
^rgpfrfj`l egd kftgr`fd lgjgsfr`h pfrf df v`s`tf.- Gd vglegehr egag gstfr
prgpfrfeh, gs egj`r jhl thefs dfs cgrrfk`gltfs
lgjgsfr`fs pfrf phegr `l`j`fr gd prhjgsh eg vgltf. Gsths pugegl sgr2
kugstrfs egd prheujth, kftgr`fd eg egkhstrfj`l, jfdjudfehrf, ahdgtf, gtj.
egjufeh vgstufr`h y prgsglj`f pgrshlfd.- @kpd`jf qug gd vglegehr sg
gljugltrg fegjufefkgltg vgst`eh, jhl gdgmfltg sglj`ddgz qug prhvhqug y
fsgmurg fjgptfj`l gl df kfyhrf eg lugstrhs jd`gltgs.
Df _gr`o`jfj`l.- Jhls`stg gl jhkprhafr qug fdmulfs eg dfs fjt`v`efegs
rgfd`zfefs gl df gtfpf fltgr`hr shl jhrrgjtfs h `ljhrrgjtfs. Gl gstf gtfpf sg
prheujg df gltrgv`stf jhl gd jd`gltg.
Gd fjgrjfk`glth.- Fqu sg prheujg gd pr`kgr sfdueh gltrg gd jhkprfehr
y gd jd`gltg. Dh `kphrtfltg gs sfduefrdh jhre`fdkgltg y jfusfr ulf pr`kgrf
`kprgs`l eg ohrkf phs`t`vf. Gs `kphrtfltg
qug gd vglegehr kfltglmf ul gstfeh eg l`kh phs`t`vh gl theh gstg prhjgsh,
gsth cfr qug gd vglegehr rgsudtg ks jrgadg y prgsgltg su hogrtf jhl ougrzf y
jrgft`v`efe.
Df prgsgltfj`l.- ^rgsgltfrlhs pgrshlfdkgltg jhkh tfka`l f df
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gkprgsf (prheujths y kfrjfs qug jhkgrj`fd`zf). Z` gd
jhkprfehr lhs rgjhlhjg, hk`t`r pfrtg eg gstf prgsgltfj`l.
Df frmukgltfj`l.- Zhl dfs `egfs qug prhphrj`hlfkhs fd jhkprfehr
pfrf pgrsufe`rdg, sumgr`rdg y/h jhlvgljgrdg qug rgfd`jg df jhkprf eg
lugstrh prheujth h sgrv`j`h. Qgfd`zfr df frmukgltfj`l khstrfleh
dhs aglgo`j`hs pfrf gd jd`gltg. Zg pugegl ut`d`zfr thefs dfs fyuefs eg vgltf
jhkh jftdhmhs, egkhstrfj`hlgs, hasgqu`hs, kugstrfs, gtj., jhl df
o`lfd`efe eg
cfjgr fkglf g `ltgrgsfltg df frmukgltfj`l eg tfd ohrkf qug jfptgkhs df
ftglj`l eg lugstrh jd`gltg. Gl gstf gtfpf sg egag gv`tfr dhs s`mu`gltg grrhrgs2
^rhlulj`fr kfd gd lhkarg egd jd`gltg
Jhkglzfr jhl orfsgs kfl`efs gbgkpdh2 vfyf t`gkph qug
tglgkhs chy!
Orfsgs dfrmfs, orfsgs s`l fjfafr h ut`d`zfr bgrmf jhkgrj`fd egd khkglth.
Lh oukfr orgltg fd jd`gltg.
Lh cfadfr tgkfs qug lh gstl rgdfj`hlfehs jhl gd prheujth.
Lh k`gltf l` gxfmgrg, l` prhkgtf dh qug lh pugeg jukpd`r.
Gd j`grrg.- Jhls`stg gl jhlsgmu`r df vgltf egd prheujth, phr dh tflth gs df
gtfpf ks `kphrtfltg. Z` sg cfl rgfd`zfeh eg kflgrf fegjufef thefs dfs
gtfpfs fltgr`hrgs, gd j`grrg gs jhlsgjuglj`f eg theh gsg prhjgsh. ^frf fyuefr
fd jd`gltg f efr gstg pfsh gs jhlvgl`gltg tglgr gl jugltf y ut`d`zfr dfs tjl`jfs
eg j`grrg, dfs jufdgs sg kglj`hlfl f jhlt`lufj`l2
grlft`vf.- Jhls`stg gl qug gd vglegehr ef phr supugsth gd pge`eh, y
rgfd`zf ulf prgmultf fd jd`gltg pfrf qug gstg egj`ef sharg fdmulf fdtgrlft`vf
qug dg prhphlg gd vglegehr.
Qgkftg habgj`l jdfvg.- Wt`d`zfef phr gd vglegehr jufleh pgrj`ag ulf
habgj`l phr pfrtg egd jhkprfehr.
J`grrg jhl hogrtf - jhls`stg gl hthrmfr ulf hogrtf eg eurfj`l d`k`tfef pfrf
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ofvhrgjgr df rgfd`zfj`l eg df jhkprf.
@ljglt`vhs.- Z`k`dfr fd j`grrg eg hogrtf, jhls`stg gl `ljdu`r htrh t`ph eg
`ljglt`vhs qug pugefl sgr pultufdgs f egtgrk`lfefs fjt`v`efegs jhkh
rgmfdfr dhtgrfs eg lfv`efe jhl df rgfd`zfj`l eg pge`ehs gl gstf ogjcf.
Fld`s`s eg df v`s`tf.- Gs df gtfpf o`lfd qug jhls`stg gl gstfr s`gkprg gl
ulf phs`j`l eg fprgle`zfbg y kgbhrf jhlt`luf fprgle`gleh eg dhs grrhrgs y
fj`grths qug cfjgkhs gl jfef gltrgv`stf eg vgltf.
J. ^HDU@JF EG _GLUF
Dfs phdt`jfs rgdfj`hlfefs fd ^dflgfk`glth Gstrftm`jh eg _gltfs shl2
_gltfs e`rgjtfs h vgltfs `le`rgjtfs.- Zgml df `leustr`f y gd gstfeh eg
kfeurgz eg df gkprgsf, jhls`egrgkhs egj`e`r s` vfkhs f vglegr gl ohrkf
e`rgjtf h `le`rgjtf jhkh ulf egj`s`l gstrftm`jf. Z` sg pdfl`o`jf vglegr gl
ohrkf e`rgjtf cfar qug flfd`zfr gd gsqugkf eg df prhp`f ougrf eg vgltfs, su
e`sgh y su gstrujturf2 gl jfka`h s` gd gsqugkf gs vglegr gl ohrkf `le`rgjtf
gd fld`s`s jfg sharg gd t`ph egd jflfd eg vgltf qug sg vf f fehptfr.
Egltrh eg gstg sgmkglth y eg dhs prheujths qug sg vf f jhkgrj`fd`zfr, sg
pugeg rgfd`zfr fd`flzfs gstrftm`jfs jhl shj`hs eg lgmhj`h, ego`l`r mrfehs eg
jhkprhk`sh h l`vgdgs eg ^frtlgrs.
Kgrjfehs.- Judgs shl dhs kgrjfehs qug vfkhs f ftfjfr8, gs
jdfvg gl gd egsfrrhddh egd pdfltgfk`glth gstrftm`jh eg vgltfs.
Gsth gs ego`l`r dfs mghmrfofs y dhs sgjthrgs `leustr`fdgs gl dhs jufdgs shkhs
ks jhkpgt`t`vhs gl gd lgmhj`h A1A. Fqu cfy kujcf `ltgrfjj`l jhl gd
rgf eg kfrigt`lm, qu`glgs prhphrj`hlfrfl `lohrkfj`l sgls`adg pfrf df thkf
eg egj`s`hlgs.
Eg fjugreh f df `lohrkfj`l suk`l`strfef phr gd kfrigt`lm phegkhs
gstfadgjgr gd phtglj`fd eg kgrjfeh y lugstrh scfrg phr dlgf eg prheujths.
Ugrr`thr`h2 Dhs tgrr`thr`hs shl dfs jugltfs (gkprgsfs, jd`gltgs y
prhspgjths) f dfs qug df ougrzf eg vgltfs vf f ftglegr jhkgrj`fdkgltg. Cfy
ulf pr`kgrf jdfs`o`jfj`l eg fjugreh fd phrtg eg jfef ulf y fd phtglj`fd eg
vgltfs gl jfef ulf eg gddfs. Gx`stgl kgthehdhmfs gstrujturfefs dfs jufdgs
lhs pgrk`tgl
jfd`o`jfr jfs` j`glto`jfkgltg gd phtglj`fd eg jfef jd`gltg. Df kgthehdhmf egd
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"Ofjthr eg Lgmhj`h" afsfef gl gd pgro`d eg df jugltf, lugstrh
phs`j`hlfk`glth egltrh eg gddf y dfs Hphrtul`efegs eg Lgmhj`hs qug
gx`stgl pfrf gstg fh o`sjfd gs ulf eg dfs ks gx`thsfs.
Mruphs gjhlk`jhs.- Dhs mruphs gjhlk`jhs shl
jhlmdhkgrfehs eg gkprgsfs f vgjgs pfrt`j`pfltgs gl kgrjfehs e`vgrs`o`jfehs,
dhs jufdgs gs rgjhkglefadg pdfl`o`jfr ul trftfk`glth gspgj`fd fpfrtg egd rgsth
eg dfs jugltfs egd tgrr`thr`h ego`l`eh. Gd trftfk`glth pfrf gstg t`ph eg
jhlmdhkgrfehs sg cfjg f trfvs eg ul`efegs eg lgmhj`h sgpfrfefs jhlhj`efs
jhkh "Ftglj`l Jhkgrj`fd f Mrflegs Jugltfs" jhl ulf gstrujturf y ulf
ougrzf eg vgltfs gspgj`fdkgltg gltrglfefs.
Urfeg-hoo.- Gd trfeg-hoo sg prfjt`jf gspgj`fdkgltg gl df gtfpf eg
pdfl`o`jfj`l gstrftm`jf eg vgltf. Gstf phdt`jf s`ml`o`jf qug pfrtg eg df thrtf
lh vfkhs f jhkgr phr egj`s`l prhp`f. Cfy rfzhlgs eg lgmhj`h ehleg df fdtf
mgrglj`f egj`eg lh gltrfr gl egtgrk`lfefs
jugltfs f pgsfr eg sfagr qug gx`stgl hphrtul`efegs eg vgltf. Fs jhkh dhs
jhkprfehrgs pugegl egj`e`r f jufd prhvggehr lh jhkprfrdg, dhs vglegehrgs
tfka`l egj`e`khs f jufd jd`gltg lh vglegrdg.
^r`j`lm.- Df phdt`jf eg prgj`hs tfka`l gs ul pulth kuy sgls`adg pfrf gd
lgmhj`h. Z` egj`e`khs qug prgj`h gs `mufd qug jhsth ks ut`d`efe (^;J+W), gd
rgf eg vgltfs mglgrfdkgltg sg kflgbf jhl
l`vgdgs e`st`lths eg ut`d`efe pgrk`t`ehs y ego`l`ehs gl gd kstgr pdfl.
Qgltfa`d`efe.- Z` egj`khs qug ^; J + W, W gs df ut`d`efe qug ego`lg df
rgltfa`d`efe egd lgmhj`h (Kfrmgl K ; W / ^9 y Kfri-up gs K-Wp ; W /
J). Df rgltfa`d`efe eg ulh lgmhj`h gst ohrkfef phr df rgltfa`d`efe
o`lflj`grf, df rgltfa`d`efe `kphs`t`vf y df rgltfa`d`efe hpgrft`vf. Gstf dt`kf
gs df qug lhs jhlvhjf y gst fshj`fef f dh e`jch gl phdt`jf eg prgj`hs.
Ofjturfj`l.- Dfs phdt`jfs eg vgltfs afsfefs gl ofjturfj`l shl fqugddfs qug
pr`hr`zfl gd "jfsc odhw" egd lgmhj`h ks qug df jfd`efe eg dfs vgltfs. Zhl
gstrftgm`fs eg vhdukgl qug mglgrfl mrflegs kfsfs eg odubh eg ohleh
mglgrfehs phr prgj`hs fdtfkgltg jhkpgt`t`vhs.
Qglgmhj`fj`l eg jhltrfths.- ^frf fqugddfs gkprgsfs eg sgrv`j`hs ul
pulth kuy `kphrtfltg egd ^G_ gs df phdt`jf eg rglgmhj`fj`l eg
jhltrfths.
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G. U@^HZ EG _GLUFZ
Dfs vgltfs sg pugegl jdfs`o`jfr sgml e`vgrshs jr`tgr`hs2
Egseg gd pulth eg v`stf egd ofar`jfltg2
_gltfs e`rgjtfs2 Dfs gkprgsfs ut`d`zfl su prhp`f ougrzf eg vgltfs. Dhs
vglegehrgs eg df gkprgsf shl oj`dgs eg jhltrftfr y kht`vfr. Gv`tfl gd
e`oj`d prhadgkf eg gljhltrfr `ltgrkge`fr`hs juyf ougrzf eg vgltfs sgf egd
theh sft`sofjthr`f. Gs ks afrftf s` sg vgleg f jd`gltgs `kphrtfltgs.
_gltfs `le`rgjtfs2 Zg ut`d`zf f dhs gkpdgfehs eg dhs kge`fehrgs.
Dhs auglhs rgprgsgltfltgs jhlhjgl gd kgrjfeh y ddgvfl auglfs rgdfj`hlgs
jhl jd`gltgs `kphrtfltgs. F dhs rgprgsgltfltgs sg dgs pfmf jhk`s`l y lh
sugdehs y mfsths. Gl prheujths gstfj`hlfdgs rgprgsgltfl ul fchrrh
`kphrtfltg.
Zgml gd t`ph eg jd`gltg2
Kfyhrgh2 Gs fqugddf qug sg rgfd`zf gl jflt`efegs `kphrtfltgs,
mglgrfdkgltg f htrhs jhkgrj`fltgs. Df vgltf fd phr kfyhr h gd kfyhr`stf
lh vgleg phr ul`efegs. Gd kfyhr`stf lh vgleg fd jhlsuk`ehr o`lfd h
pad`jh gl mglgrfd. Gbgkpdh2 ^fdkhd`vg, Lgstd, O`scgr ^r`jg.
Kgluegh2 Dfs vgltfs shl rgfd`zfefs fd jhlsuk`ehr o`lfd pfrf su ush
jhkgrj`fd h pgrshlfd, rgfd`zfleh prgsgltfj`hlgs eg sus prheujths gl ks
eg ulf p`gzf h gl jflt`efegs kfyhrgs eg dfs kflgbfefs phr dhs
k`lhr`stfs. ^hr dh qug gs lgjgsfr`h phsggr gl ulf vfr`gefe eg kgrjfljfs
jhlhj`efs y prgst`m`fefs. Gbgkpdh2 Jhsjh, Zkfr & O`lfd, Hoo`jg Egpht.
Egtfdd`stf2 Gs df vgltf rgfd`zfef fd jhlsuk`ehr o`lfd pfrf ush lh
jhkgrj`fd9 fulqug df kfyhr pfrtg eg gstg t`ph eg vgltfs sg ddgvfl f jfah f
trfvs eg dfs t`glefs fd egtfddg y gs lgjgsfr`h gstfr fphyfeh phr ulf mrfl
vfr`gefe eg kgrjfljfs jhlhj`efs y prgst`m`fefs. Gbgkpdh2
Zhr`flf, Jhkgrj`fd kgx`jflf, Jfd`kfx, ]fdd Kfrt.
@leustr`fdgs2 Gs df vgltf qug sg rgfd`zf eg prheujthr f prheujthr.
^hr dh rgmudfr df gogjtf gl ohrkf e`rgjtf gd prheujthr y rgqu`grg eg ulf
auglf pdflgfj`l y prgpfrfj`l eg dhs vglegehrgs yf qug sg vf f trftfr jhl
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gxpgrths.
^frt`judfrgs2 Gs df qug vf e`r`m`ef fd jhlsuk`ehr o`lfd eg dhs frtjudhs qug
sg jhkgrj`fd`zfl, df pugegl gbgrjgr e`rgjtfkgltg fd prheujthr h fdmulh eg
sus `ltgrkge`fr`hs. Gbgkpdh2 Dhs frtjudhs qug phsggl dhs dhmht`phs eg dfs
gkprgsfs qug vfl f jhkpdgkgltfr f dhs qug sg jhkgrj`fd`zfl9 tfdgs
jhkh sgrv`ddgtfs, vfshs, tglgehrgs, gtj. h dhs `lsukhs tfdgs jhkh jfrlg,
pfpfs, fegrgzhs, gtj.9 eg gkprgsfs jhkh KjEhlfdes.
Zgml gd t`ph eg fjt`v`efegs qug rgfd`zfl dhs vglegehrgs
Jhkgrj`fdgs2 E`r`m`ef pr`lj`pfdkgltg f dhs egtfdd`stfs jhl habgth eg
prhphrj`hlfrdgs df fs`stglj`f prhkhj`hlfd lgjgsfr`f f o`l eg `ljrgkgltfr
sus vhdkglgs eg vgltfs. Gbgkpdh2 Jhjf Jhdf, A`kah, Lgstd gltrg htrfs,
prhphrj`hlfl f t`glefs egtfdd`stfs jhkh Kgtrh, Uhttus, gtj., df puad`j`efe y
prhkhj`hlgs lgjgsfr`fs pfrf qug rgfd`jgl jhl kfyhr ofj`d`efe df vgltf
eg sus prheujths.
Qgpgt`t`vfs2 Zhl fqugddfs qug gogjtfl dhs ddfkfehs "thkfehrgs
eg pge`ehs" y pugegl sgr2
@ltgrlhs eg khstrfehr2 Zg gljugltrfl dhjfd`zfehs gl dfs
ho`j`lfs eg dhs gstfadgj`k`glths eg vgltfs y su fjt`v`efe sg rgeujg f
sgrv`r fd jd`gltg, qu`gl yf sfag qug vf f jhkprfr.
Gbgkpdh2 B&Jcgfsgg egag ddfkfr pgr`e`jfkgltg f Ehk`lhs
^`zzf, pfrf vglegrdg dhs `lsukhs qug rgqu`grgl.
Gxtgrlhs2 _gltfs gl dfs qug gs e`oj`d gljhltrfr jhl x`th lugvhs
jd`gltgs, jgltrlehsg gl vglegrdg fd k`skh mruph eg jd`gltgs, htrfs dlgfs
eg prheujths y/h sgrv`j`hs. Gbgkpdh2 _gltf eg sgmurhs eg Df phs`t`vf.
Qgpfrt`ehrgs2 ^herfl jhls`egrfrsg jhkh ulf vfr`fj`l eg dfs vgltfs
rgpgt`t`vfs yf qug shdh vfrf gd cgjch eg qug gd vglegehr trfg jhls`mh
df kgrjfljf qug vf f jhdhjfr9 yf qug jufleh v`s`tf f su jd`gltg,
lhrkfdkgltg lh sfag julth dg vf f jhkprfr. Gbgkpdh2 Gd fmuf pur`o`jfef
y dfs mfsghsfs.
uthkt`jfs2 Ohrkf eg vgltf fd kgluegh gl df jufd df kgrjfljf sg
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gltrgmf f trfvs eg ulf kqu`lf fd `lsgrtfr dfs khlgefs gd jhlsuk`ehr. Df
trflsfjj`l gs jhkpdgtfef s`l df fyuef eg ul vglegehr gl gd khkglth
eg df vgltf. Gbgkpdh2 Dfs kqu`lfs eg mfsghsfs, j`mfrrhs, pgr`e`jhs,
pfpfs y eudjgs, gtj.
gltf f ehk`j`d`h2 Gstg t`ph eg vgltfs sg pugegl hpgrfr eg e`ogrgltgs
kflgrfs, jhkh shl2
Gl Jfeglf2 Zg `lj`tf fd vglegehr f fprhvgjcfr fdmulfs rgdfj`hlgs
pgrshlfdgs pfrf thkfrdfs jhkh prhspgjths fd `l`j`fr su dfahr eg vgltfs.
Gbgkpdh2 Hr`odfkg.
^hr tgdohlh2 Jhls`stg gl sgdgjj`hlfr egd e`rgjthr`h tgdgol`jh lkgrhs
fd fzfr, sg jhkul`jf jhl df pgrshlf y sg dg gxpd`jf
gd kht`vh eg df ddfkfef y fs jhlgjtfr ulf phs`adg j`tf pfrf rgfd`zfr gd
prhjgsh eg vgltfs. Gbgkpdh2 Fvfltgd.
Gl rgul`hlgs2 Zg hrmfl`zf ulf rgul`l gl jfsf eg ul fk`mh h flo`tr`l
pfrf khstrfr dfs dlgfs eg prheujths. Zg ef ul hasgqu`h eg fjugreh jhl gd
mrfeh eg x`th eg df rgul`l. Gbgkpdh2 Dfs rgprgsgltfltgs eg vgltfs eg
gkprgsfs jhkh Wl`qug h Lfturf hrmfl`zfl jhl sus jd`gltfs orgjugltgs
"pfrtys eg egkhstrfj`l", gl dhs qug f dfs flo`tr`hlfs sg dgs cfjgl
hasgqu`hs egpgle`gleh gd vhdukgl eg vgltfs dhmrfeh.
Eg rgvgltf2 Dfs gkprgsfs, kge`fltg flulj`hs gl df prglsf h jhltrfths
pgrshlfdgs, rgjdutfl mgltg e`spugstf f prhkhvgr sus prheujths.
^hr jfkafjgh2 Gs df vgltf jds`jf f ehk`j`d`h9 qug jhls`stg gl vglegr
eg pugrtf gl pugrtf jhl gd habgth eg gljhltrfr phs`adgs jhlsuk`ehrgs eg
ul egtgrk`lfeh frtjudh. Gbgkpdh2 Dfs ks jhkulgs shl dfs
glj`jdhpge`fs, frtjudhs eg agddgzf y egd chmfr.
^hr jhrrgh2 F trfvs eg df jhrrgsphleglj`f sg prhphlg df vgltf jhl
df fyuef eg ohddgths, jftdhmhs, d stfs eg prgj`hs, prhkhj`hlgs, gtj.
Gbgkpdh2 dfs gkprgsfs qug ut`d`zfl ks jhklkgltg gstg t`ph eg
vgltfs shl pgr`e`jhs, susjr`pj`hlgs eg rgv`stfs, afljhs y jhkpffs eg
tgdohlhs.
^hr `ltgrlgt2 Chy ef gs ulf eg dfs pr`lj`pfdgs ohrkfs eg vglegr
ega`eh fd `kpfjth qug gstl tgl`gleh dfs
jhkputfehrfs df e`ous`l y gd fjjgsh @ltgrlgt qug t`glgl tflth
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vglegehrgs (pfrf flulj`frsg), jhkh jhkprfehrgs pfrf ausjfr dhs
prheujths y/h sgrv`j`hs qug lgjgs`tfl s`l tglgr qug sfd`r eg sus jfsfs y f
df vgz tglgr fjjgsh f ul kfyhr lkgrh eg phs`a`d`efegs.
QGZGF C@ZUQ@JF EGD KGQJFEH KHEGDH EG CWLWJH
Gl gd fh 6071, df Kul`j`pfd`efe ^rhv`lj`fd eg Culujh jhkprf ul tgrrglh
jhl df o`lfd`efe eg jhlstru`r ul kgrjfeh, y gl gsg k`skh fh dh gbgjutf, pgrh, shdh
ulf pfrtg, yf qug dhs fdrgegehrgs grfl gspfj`hs egs`mlfehs pfrf dhs phadfehrgs
eg dfs zhlfs rurfdgs, qu`glgs trffl sus prheujths pfrf phegr vglegrdhs (chy shl
dhs pugsths fzudgs).
Gl 600?, sg ef df dgy eg pr`vft`zfj`l L 1?7?0, rgmdfkgltfeh phr gd
Egjrgth Zuprgkh L >5, gl df jufd sg gspgj`o`jfaf qug gd Kgrjfeh Khegdh tglf
qug pfsfr f kflhs eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs, jhlhj`lehsg e`jcf dgy gl gd fh 6000, sg
`l`j`f ul prhjgsh eg fjj`l eg jukpd`k`glth f df Kul`j`pfd`efe ^rhv`lj`fd eg
Culujh, qug pfrf gsg glthljgs tglf jhkh fdjfdeg fd sghr Frludoh Kglehzf,
qu`gl oug vfjfeh gsg k`skh fh, phr dh qug gltr jhkh fdjfdeg gd sghr
Glr`qug Qhbfs Cufkl.
^frf gd fh 1>>6, gd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh dg mflf gd bu`j`h eg
pr`vft`zfj`l f df Kul`j`pfd`efe ^rhv`lj`fd eg Culujh, pgrh, sfdg ulf lugvf
dgy, df Dgy L 1=>>6 jhl EZ L>1, gl df qug sg
gspgj`o`jfaf qug s` gl Kgrjfeh lh sg pr`vft`zfaf, df Kul`j`pfd`efe ^rhv`lj`fd eg
Culujh pherf phlgrdh gl jhljgs`l f htrfs gkprgsfs `lvgrshrfs. Z`l gkafrmh,
pfrf phegr pr`vft`zfr gd Kgrjfeh tglfl qug
vgl`r prhogs`hlfdgs eg df j`uefe eg D`kf, pfrf dh jufd sg ddgm f ul fjugreh gl
ulf fsfkadgf gxtrfhre`lfr`f, df jufd grf qug thehs dhs shj`hs tglfl qug fahlfr df
sukf eg s/. 7.>> pfrf phegr juar`r dhs chlhrfr`hs y v`t`jhs eg dhs prhogs`hlfdgs,
pgrh dhs shj`hs lh ddgmfrhl f efr dh juhtf, phr dh qug egbfrhl gsg tgkf, s`l tglgr
kfyhr jhlhj`k`glth pfrf gd s`mu`gltg fh.
Gl gd 1>>:, gltrf jhkh fdjfdeg prhv`lj`fd gd sghr Geufreh K`rfvfd Ugkpdh,
f qu`gl df gkprgsf ^DFRF _GF dg cfaf horgj`eh df sukf eg s/. 67>>>,>>>.>>
phr gd tgrrglh y dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd kgrjfeh lh phefl juar`r gsg khlth, gs phr
gddh qug gd fdjfdeg sg l`gmf f pr`vft`zfr gd kgrjfeh y sg fpgrturf trgs bu`j`hs qugeurfrhl juftrh fhs y qug tuvh jhkh ofddh ofvhrfadg pfrf dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd
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Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh. Fd efrsg dfs lugvfs gdgjj`hlgs prhv`lj`fdgs, p`greg
gd sghr Geufreh K`rfafd y gd bugz dg ef ul udt`ktuk, df jufd grf pr`vft`zfr gd
kgrjfeh gl ehs efs, jfsh jhltrfr`h sgrf egst`tu`eh eg su jfrmh y shkgt`eh f
pfmfr ulf kudtf, jhkh lh tglf htrf hpj`l, `lv`tf fd Jhlsgbh Lfj`hlfd eg
Ufsfj`hlgs y gk`tg ul ehjukglth gl df qug sg gspgj`o`jfafl ehs hpj`hlgs, df
pr`kgrf grf jhkprfr gd tgrrglh phr ul `kphrtg eg s/.67>>,>>>.>> y df sgmulef
hpj`l grf hogrtf gd tgrrglh phr ul `kphrtg eg
s/.67>>>,>>>.>>, dhs jhkgrj`fltgs hptfrhl phr df pr`kgrf hpj`l y jfef shj`h
fphrt s/.6,637.>>
^frf gd :> eg sgt`gkarg eg 1>>?, gd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh pfsf
f sgr pr`vfeh, pgrh fl sgmuf s`gleh fek`l`strfeh phr df Kul`j`pfd`efe
^rhv`lj`fd eg Culujh cfstf gd 11 eg glgrh eg
1>>=, gs egseg gsf ogjcf qug gd Kgrjfeh Khegdh gs pr`vfeh, fulqug fl t`glg
bu`j`hs pgle`gltgs jhkh df lud`efe egd jhltrfth eg df jhkprfvgltf egd Kgrjfeh
Khegdh eg Culujh, jhl gd sghr Bgss M`dgs Fd`pfsfmf (Kul`j`pfd`efe ^rhv`lj`fd
eg Culujh.
@dustrfj`l 6>. Gstrujturf Hrml`jf egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh
Fsfkadgf eg Zhj`hs
E`rgjthr`h
Fshj`fj`l Orgltg eg Egoglsf eg dhs UrfafbfehrgsOhrkfdgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh.
^rgs`egl
Fek`l`strfehr
^grshlfd eg Zgmur`efe ^grshlfd eg D`kp`gzf
OWGLUG 2 Flthl`h Ufdglfs _grrhjfd.GDFAHQFJ@L2 Ugs`stf
1.: EGO@L@J@LGZ JHLJG^UWFDGZ
Jfd`efe2 Jhlbulth eg prhp`gefegs `lcgrgltgs f ul habgth qug dg
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jhlo`grgl jfpfj`efe pfrf sft`sofjgr lgjgs`efegs `kpdj`tfs h gxpdj`tfs.
Jfd`efe Gxtgrlf2 Jhrrgsphleg f df sft`sofjj`l eg dhs jd`gltgs.
^frf su dhmrh rgqu`grg prhphrj`hlfr prheujths h sgrv`j`hs qug sft`sofmfl dfs
gxpgjtft`vfs egd jd`gltg pfrf gstfadgjgr dgfdtfe jhl gd k`skh y eg gsg kheh
kgbhrfr df pfrt`j`pfj`l gl gd kgrjfeh.
Jfd`efe @ltgrlf2 Jhrrgsphleg fd kgbhrfk`glth eg df hpgrfj`l `ltgrlf eg
ulf jhkpff. U`glg phr habgt`vh `kpdgkgltfr dhs kge`hs pfrf pgrk`t`r df
kgbhr egsjr`pj`l phs`adg eg df hrmfl`zfj`l pfrf egtgjtfr y d`k`tfr dhs
oulj`hlfk`glths ljhrrgjths.
Jfd`efe eg Zgrv`j`h2 Gs df jhkpfrfj`l gltrg dh qug gd jd`gltg gspgrf
rgj`a`r y dh qug rgfdkgltg rgj`ag h d pgrj`ag qug rgj`ag.
Jhkprf phr `kpudsh2 Gs ul t`ph eg jhkprf qug sg rgfd`zf
gsphltlgfkgltg, eg ohrkf lh prgkge`tfef. Dhs frtjudhs qug sg cfl
jhkprfeh phr `kpudsh jhrrgsphlegl f ul jhkphrtfk`glth egd
t`ph2 Dh v`, kg must y dh jhkpr.
Jhkul`jfj`l2 gs gd prhjgsh kge`fltg gd jufd sg pugeg trflsk`t`r
`lohrkfj`l eg ulf glt`efe f htrf. Dhs prhjgshs eg jhkul`jfj`l shl
`ltgrfjj`hlgs kge`fefs phr s`mlhs gltrg fd
kglhs ehs fmgltgs qug jhkpfrtgl ul k`skh rgpgrthr`h eg s`mlhs y
t`glgl ulfs rgmdfssgk`t`jfs jhkulgs.
Jhlsuk`ehr2 Gs ulf pgrshlf u hrmfl`zfj`l qug egkflef a`glgs h
sgrv`j`hs prhphrj`hlfehs phr gd prheujthr h gd prhvggehr eg a`glgs h
sgrv`j`hs. Gs egj`r, gs ul fmgltg gjhlk`jh jhl ulf sgr`g eg lgjgs`efegs y
egsghs qug jugltf jhl ulf rgltf e`sphl`adg jhl df qug pugeg sft`sofjgr gsfs
lgjgs`efegs y egsghs f trfvs eg dhs kgjfl`skhs eg kgrjfeh.
Egtfdd`stf2 Ufka`l ddfkfeh k`lhr`stf, gs df gkprgsf jhkgrj`fd
h pgrshlf gl rm`kgl eg futlhkh qug vgleg prheujths fd jhlsuk`ehr
o`lfd. Zhl gd dt`kh gsdfal egd jflfd eg e`str`auj`l, gd qug gst gl
jhltfjth jhl gd kgrjfeh.
E`sgh egd Glvfsg2 Gs ulf fjt`v`efe egltrh egd e`sgh `leustr`fd
qug sg ege`jf f egsfrrhddfr lugvhs glvfsgs, tflth pfrf prheujth gl vgltf,
jhkh pfrf dhs qug sgrl dflzfehs fd kgrjfeh gl gd outurh. Gd e`sgh eg
glvfsgs t`glg ulf ehadg ofjgtf2e`sgh mro`jh ye`sgh gstrujturfd.Gsjfpfrftg2 Ufka`l ddfkfeh v`tr`lf h v`er`grf gs gd gspfj`h s`tufeh gl
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df ofjcfef eg dhs gstfadgj`k`glths jhkgrj`fdgs egst`lfeh f gxc`a`r trfs ul
jr`stfd ulf kugstrf eg dhs prheujths h sgrv`j`hs qug sg horgjgl gl gd
`ltgr`hr. Gd gsjfpfrftg jhltr`auyg tflth f df vgltf jhkh f df auglf `kfmgl
egd gstfadgj`k`glth.
Kgrjfeh2 Gs jufdqu`gr jhlbulth eg trflsfjj`hlgs h fjugrehs eg
`ltgrjfka`h eg a`glgs h sgrv`j`hs gltrg `le`v`euhs h fshj`fj`hlgs eg
`le`v`euhs. Ufka`l pugeg `ltgrprgtfrsg jhkh df `lst`tuj`l u hrmfl`zfj`l
shj`fd f trfvs eg df jufd dhs hogrtfltgs (prheujthrgs y vglegehrgs) y
egkflefltgs (jhlsuk`ehrgs h jhkprfehrgs) eg ul egtgrk`lfeh t`ph eg
a`gl h eg sgrv`j`h, gltrfl gl gstrgjcf rgdfj`l jhkgrj`fd f o`l eg rgfd`zfr
faulefltgs trflsfjj`hlgs jhkgrj`fdgs.
Kfrigt`lm2 Gs gd prhjgsh shj`fd yfek`l`strft`vh phr gd qug dhs mruphs g
`le`v`euhs sft`sofjgl sus lgjgs`efegs fd jrgfr g `ltgrjfka`fr a`glgs y
sgrv`j`hs.
Kgrjcfle`s`lm2 Gs gd jhlbulth eg fjt`v`efegs qug pgrk`tgl ulf kfyhr
vfdhrfj`l egd prheujth phr pfrtg egd jhlsuk`ehr gl gd pulth eg vgltf.
^fjifm`lm2 Ufka`l ddfkfeh gkafdfbg h gkpfqug, gs ulrgj`p`gltg h
glvhdturf qug jhlt`glg prheujths eg kflgrf tgkphrfd pr`lj`pfdkgltg pfrf
fmrupfr ul`efegs eg ul prheujth pglsfleh gl su kfl`pudfj`l, trflsphrtg
yfdkfjglfbg.
^grsufe`r2 Gs df `loduglj`f shj`fd eg dfs jrgglj`fs, fjt`tuegs,
`ltglj`hlgs,kht`vfj`hlgs yjhkphrtfk`glths. Df pgrsufs`l gs ul prhjgsh
egst`lfeh f jfka`fr eg ulf pgrshlf (h ul mruph eg) df fjt`tue h
jhkphrtfk`glth cfj`f fdml gvglth, `egf, habgth h pgrshlf(s),
kge`fltg gd ush eg pfdfarfs gsjr`tfs h
cfadfefs pfrf trflsk`t`r `lohrkfj`l, sglt`k`glths, h gd
rfzhlfk`glth, h ulf jhka`lfj`l eg dhs k`skhs
^rheujth2 Gs fqugddh qug cf s`eh ofar`jfeh jhl df `ltglj`l eg sft`sofjgr
fqugddh qug lgjgs`tf h qug egsgf ul jhlsuk`ehr.
^ulth eg _gltf2 Gs gd dumfr gl gd qug gogjtufkhs ulf trflsfjj`l
jhkgrj`fd eg jhkprf-vgltf.
^uad`j`efe2 Gs ulf ohrkf eg jhkul`jfj`l jhkgrj`fd qug `ltgltf
`ljrgkgltfr gd jhlsukh eg ul prheujth h sgrv`j`h f trfvs eg dhs kge`hs egjhkul`jfj`l
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fachada#Fachada_comercialhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Establecimiento_comercialhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administraci%C3%B3n_de_Empresashttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recipientehttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportehttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportehttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almacenajehttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creenciahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actitudhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intencionhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivacionhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comportamientohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comportamientohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivacionhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intencionhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actitudhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actitudhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creenciahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almacenajehttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportehttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportehttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recipientehttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administraci%C3%B3n_de_Empresashttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Establecimiento_comercialhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fachada#Fachada_comercial7/25/2019 merchandising y ventas
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Qgltfa`d`efe2 Gs df jfpfj`efe eg prheuj`r h mglgrfr ul aglgo`j`h
fe`j`hlfd sharg df `lvgrs`l h gsougrzh rgfd`zfeh.
Zgrv`j`h2 Wl sgrv`j`h gs gd rgsudtfeh eg ddgvfr f jfah
lgjgsfr`fkgltg fd kglhs ulf fjt`v`efe gl df `ltgrofz gltrg gd prhvggehr y gd
jd`gltg y mglgrfdkgltg gs `ltflm`adg. Ufka`l gs
gd jhlbulth egfjt`v`efegs qug rgsphlegl f dfs lgjgs`efegs eg uljd`gltg.
Zurt`eh2 Gs gd jhlbulth eg rgogrglj`fs qug horgjg ul
gstfadgj`k`glth jhkgrj`fd f su jd`gltgdf jdfvg pfrf sft`sofjgrdg ulfs
egtgrk`lfefs lgjgs`efegs h egsghs, jhlst`tuygleh su phs`j`hlfk`glth
gstrftm`jh gl gd kgrjfeh y pgrk`t`gleh fd egtfdd`stf hatglgr aglgo`j`hs
qug rgltfa`d`jgl su lvgrs`l.
_gltf2 Gs ulf eg dfs fjt`v`efegs ks prgtgle`efs phr gkprgsfs,
hrmfl`zfj`hlgs h pgrshlfs qug horgjgl fdmh (prheujths, sgrv`j`hs u htrhs)
gl su kgrjfeh kgtf, ega`eh f
qug su x`th egpgleg e`rgjtfkgltg eg df jflt`efe eg vgjgs qug rgfd`jgl
stf fjt`v`efe, eg dh a`gl qug dh cfmfl y eg jul rgltfadg dgs rgsudtg
cfjgrdh.
1.5 Z@ZUGKF EG C@^UGZ@Z
F jhlt`lufj`l sg kugstrf df c`ptgs`s mglgrfd y dfs c`ptgs`s gspgjo`jfs
rgspgjt`vfkgltg.
1.5.6 C`ptgs`s Mglgrfd
Gd kgrjcfle`s`lm sg rgdfj`hlf phs`t`vfkgltg jhl dfs vgltfs eg dhs
jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh.
1.5.1 C`ptgs`s Ludf
Gd kgrjcfle`s`lm lh sg rgdfj`hlf phs`t`vfkgltg jhl dfs vgltfs eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs
egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh Eg Culujh
1.5.: C`ptgs`s Gspgjo`jfs
Gd kgrjcfle`s`lm v`sufd sg rgdfj`hlf phs`t`vfkgltg jhl dfs vgltfs eg dhs
jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh.
Gd kgrjcfle`s`lm eg mgst`l sg rgdfj`hlf eg kflgrf phs`t`vf jhl dfs vgltfs
eg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh.
Gd kgrjcfle`s`lm eg sgeujj`l sg rgdfj`hlf eg ohrkf phs`t`vf jhl dfs vgltfseg dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh.
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actividad_econ%C3%B3micahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliente_%28econom%C3%ADa%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliente_%28econom%C3%ADa%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actividad_econ%C3%B3mica7/25/2019 merchandising y ventas
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1.7 Z@ZUGKF EG _FQ@FADGZ
Gd prgsgltg trfafbh jhlt`glg ehs vfr`fadgs qug shl eg kujcf `kphrtflj`f,
df vfr`fadg `legpgle`gltg y df vfr`fadg egpgle`gltgs, dfs jufdgs sg egtfddfl f
jhlt`lufj`l2
1.7.6 vfr`fadg egpgle`gltg
_gltfs
1.7.1 vfr`fadg `legpgle`gltg
Kgrjcfle`s`lm
@dustrfj`l 6. _fr`fadgs
_FQ@FADG
@LEG^GLE@GLUG
_FQ@FADG
EG^GLE@GLUG
KGQJCFLE@Z@LM
GDFAHQFJ@L2 tgs`stf
GDFAHQFJ@L2 tgs`stf.
_GLUFZ
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1.? H^GQFJ@HLFD@RFJ@L EG DFZ _FQ@FADGZ
Df hpgrfj`hlfd`zfj`l eg dfs vfr`fadgs sg egtgrk`lf f jhlt`lufj`l2
@dustrfj`l :. Hpgrfj`hlfd`zfj`l eg dfs
_fr`fadgs
_FQ@FADGZ E@KGLZ@HLGZ @LE@JFEHQGZ
KGQJCFLE@Z@
LM (_FQ@FADG
@LEG^GLE@GLU
G)
Kgrjcfle`s`lm
_`sufd
^fjifm`lm h glvfsgFrqu`tgjturf h lorfgstrujturf
Gsjfpfrft`skh u hogrtfs
Ftkhsogrf h fka`gltg
Kgrjcfle`s`lm eg
Mgst`l
Fld`s`s h gstue`h eg kgrjfeh
Zurt`eh
Qgltfa`d`efeKgrjcfle`s`lm eg
Zgeujj`l Jhkprfs phr ltgrlgt
_GLUFZ
(_FQ@FAD
G
EG^GLE@GLU
G)
_gltf Z`kpdg
^rgpfrfj`l
_gr`o`jfj`l
Fjgrjfk`glth
^rgsgltfj`l
Frmukgltfj`lJ`grrg
Fld`s`s
GDFAHQFJ@L2 tgs`stf
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JF^UWDH @@@
KGUHEHDHM@F EG DF
@L_GZU@MFJ@HL
:.6 U@^H EG @L_GZU@MFJ@L
Gd prgsgltg trfafbh eg `lvgst`mfj`l sg glkfrj egltrh eg dfs
s`mu`gltgs t`phdhmfs eg lvgst`mfj`l2
:.6.6 Glohqug
Gd prgsgltg `lohrkg eg tgs`s t`glg ul glohqug jufd`tft`vh.
:.6.1 ^hr su fdjfljg h l`vgd
Df phadfj`l gst egtgrk`lfef phr dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd Kgrjfeh
Khegdh eg Culujh.
Gd prgsgltg trfafbh eg `lvgst`mfj`l sg ua`jf gl gd l`vgd egsjr`pt`vhjhrrgdfj`hlfd, phrqug lhs prgtgleg egsjr`a`r Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh.
:.6.: E@ZGH EG @L_GZU@MFJ@L
Gd e`sgh egd prgsgltg trfafbh eg `lvgst`mfj`l gs lh prhafa`dst`jh
`ltglj`hlfd jhl su vfr`fltg trflsfjj`hlfd, ehleg sg gstue` df rgdfj`l eg dfs
vfr`fltgs qug shl gd kgrjcfle`s`lm y dfs vgltfs.
Gd gsqugkf sg e`sgf f jhlt`lufj`l2
S
Kh r
P
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Eleg2
Kh ; Kugstrf
S ; Kgrjcfle`s`lm
P ; _gltfs
r ; Qgdfj`l
:.1 ^HADFJ@L P KWGZUQF
Df phadfj`l y kugstrf qug sg egtgrk`lfrhl shl dhs s`mu`gltgs2
:.7.6 Egtgrk`lfj`l eg df ^hadfj`l
Gd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh jugltf jhl 663> shj`hs gltrg vfrhlgs
y kubgrgs eg fjugreh f df `lohrkfj`l ar`lefef phr gd fek`l`strfehr egd
Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh, gd Zr. B`kk Lhdfsjh Jhtr`lf.
:.7.1 Jfrfjtgrst`jfs eg df phadfj`l
Df phadfj`l gstuvh jhlst`tu`ef phr dhs jhkgrj`fltgs egd
Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh gltrg vfrhlgs y kubgrgs.
:.7.: Kugstrf
^frf gd prgsgltg trfafbh eg `lvgst`mfj`l lugstrf kugstrf oug eg 10>
shj`hs (jhkgrj`fltgs) egd Kgrjfeh Khegdh eg Culujh. Df tjl`jf eg
kugstrgh qug sg gkpdg gs gd lh prhafa`dst`jh `ltglj`hlfd phrqug sg rgfd`z
sharg df afsg egd jhlhj`k`glth y jr`tgr`hs egd `lvgst`mfehr.
:.: UJL@JFZ G @LZUQWKGLUHZ EG QGJHDGJJ@HL EG EFUHZ
Dfs tjl`jfs g `lstrukglths qug sg ut`d`zfrfl eurfltg gd trfafbh egjfkph jhl df o`lfd`efe eg rgjhmgr efths rgdfj`hlfehs jhl gd prgsgltg trfafbh
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eg lvgst`mfj`l, sg egtfddfl f jhlt`lufj`l2
@dustrfj`l 66. Ujl`jfs g @lstrukglths eg @lvgst`mfj`l
UJL@JFZ @LZUQWKGLUHZ F^D@JFJ@L / WZH
Gljugstf Jugst`hlfr`h Jhkgrj`fltgs
Hasgrvfj`l Muf eg hasgrvfj`l @lvgst`mfehrgs
Gltrgv`stf Muf eg gltrgv`stf Jhkgrj`fltgs
GDFAHQFJ@L2 tgs`stf.
:.5 ^QHJGZFK@GLUH P ^QGZGLUFJ@L EG EFUHZ
Gl gd prgsgltg trfafbh eg `lvgst`mfj`l, pfrf df jhe`o`jfj`l,
tfaudfj`l, jdfs`o`jfj`l y hreglfk`glth eg df `lohrkfj`l sg cfrf ush eg dh
s`mu`gltg2
Gstfest`jf egsjr`pt`vf pfrf jfef vfr`fadg2
E`str`auj`l eg orgjuglj`fs2 Qgdft`vf, fashdutf y orgjuglj`f
fjukudfef.
Dfs kge`efs eg tgleglj`f jgltrfd2 Df khef, df kge`flf y df kge`f.
Dfs kge`efs eg vfr`fa`d`efe2 Gd rflmh, df egsv`fj`l
gstlefr y df vfr`flzf.
O`lfdkgltg df prgsgltfj`l eg df `lohrkfj`l sg rgfd`zfr gl gsjr`th y
ut`d`zfleh mro`jhs gstfest`jhs.
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JF^@UWDH @_
5.6 QGZGLUFJ@HL EG EFUHZ.
Gl gd prgsgltg trfafbh eg `lvgst`mfj`l sg rgfd`z ulf gljugstf gd jufd lhs pgrk`t`
rgjhdgjtfr `lohrkfj`l y prhjgsfrdf jhl df o`lfd`efe eg gltglegr df prhadgkt`jf eg df
`lvgst`mfj`l.
^QGMWLUF 6
Wl fegjufeh glvfsg eg sus prheujths dhmrf pgrsufe`r f dhs jd`gltgs,
X`lvhdujrlehlhs gl gd prhjgsh eg vgltf8
JWFEQH L6
Orgjuglj`f ^hrjgltfbg ^hrjgltfbg
vd`eh
^hrjgltfbg
fjukudfeh
_d`ehs
phjfs vgjgs 1 6>,> 6>,> 6>,>
kujcfs vgjgs 5 1>,> 1>,> :>,>
Z` 65 =>,> =>,> 6>>,>
Uhtfd 1> 6>>,> 6>>,>
OWGLUG2 JWGZU@HLFQ@H
GDFAHQFJ@HL2 ^QH^@F EGD @L_GZU@MFEHQ
MQFO@JH L 6
OWGLUG2 JWFEQH
GDFAHQFJ@HL2 ^QH^@F EG @ @L_GZU@MFEHQ
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@LUGQ^QGUFJ@HL
Zg pugeg hasgrvfr gl gd s`mu`gltg juferh qug ul 6>% eg dhs gljugstfehs jrgg qug phjfs
vgjgs gd glvfsg egd prheujth pgrsufeg f dhs jd`gltgs gl gd prhjgsh eg vgltf gsth sg egag
f qug dh jhkgrj`fltgs egsjhlhjgl eg dfs vgltfbfs qug mglgrf df gltrgmf eg prheujth gl
ul glvfsg fegjufeh dh qug ohkgltfrf kujch ks dfs vgltfs. Fs jhkh tfka`l ul 1>% eg dhs gljugstfehs kfl`ogstfrhl qug kujcfs vgjgs gd glvfsg egd prheujth pgrsufeg f
dhs jd`gltgs gl gd prhjgsh eg vgltf pgrh lh df fafrjf jhkpdgtfkgltg gsh qu`grg egj`r qug
gx`stg ul phjh eg `ljgrt`eukarg gl df prgsgltfj`l egd glvfsg egd prheujth. Fs jhkh
tfka`l ul =>% eg gljugstfehs kfl`ogstfrhl qug s` ul fegjufeh glvfsg eg dhs
prheujth dhmrf pgrsufe`r f dhs jd`gltgs gl gd prhjgsh eg vgltf dh jufd lhs fo`rkf qug df
mrfl kfyhrf eg gljugstfehs jhlhjgl df `kphrtflj`f eg ul fegjufeh glvfsg egd
prheujth.
^QGMWLUF 1
Wlf lorfgstrujturf fegjufef, hreglfef y ftrfjt`vf mglgrf ul fka`gltg prhp`j`h
pfrf df vgltf eg sus prheujths8
JWFEQH L1
Orgjuglj`f ^hrjgltfbg ^hrjgltfbg
vd`eh
^hrjgltfbg
fjukudfeh
_d`ehs
Lh 6 7,> 7,> 7,>
phjfs vgjgs = :7,> :7,> 5>,>
kujcfs vgjgs 5 1>,> 1>,> ?>,>
Z` 3 5>,> 5>,> 6>>,>
Uhtfd 1> 6>>,> 6>>,>
OWGLUG2 JWGZU@HLFQ@H
GDFAHQFJ@HL2 ^QH^@F EGD @L_GZU@MFEHQ
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MQFO@JH 1
OWGLUG2 JWFEQH
GDFAHQFJ@HL2 ^QH^@F EG @ @L_GZU@MFEHQ
@LUGQ^QGUFJ@HL
Zg pugeg hasgrvfr gl gd s`mu`gltg juferh qug ul 7% eg gljugstfehs lh jrggl qug ulf
`lorfgstrujturf fegjufef mglgrg ul fka`gltg prhp`j`h pfrf df vgltf eg sus prheujths
gsth sg egag f qug qu`zs h tglmfl jhlhj`k`glths qug gd dumfr gl ehleg sg egsfrrhddfldfs vgltfs gs kuy `kphrtfltg yf qug mglgrf ul fka`gltg gl ehleg dfs pgrshlfs vfl f
rgfd`zfr sus jhkprfs. Fs jhkh tfka`l ul :7% eg gljugstfeh jrggl qug phjfs vgjgs gd
fka`gltg `loduyf gl df vgltfs eg dhs prheujths dh jufd mglgrf ul mrfeh eg `ljgrt`eukarg
gl gddhs. Fs` tfka`l ul 1>% eg gljugstfeh jrggl qug kujcfs vgjgs ulf `lorfgstrujturf
fegjufef mglgrf ul fka`gltg prhp`j`h pfrf df vgltf eg sus prheujths y ul 5>% jrgg qug
s` ulf `lorfgstrujturf fegjufef mglgrf ul fka`gltg prhp`j`h pfrf df vgltf yf qug shl
zhlfs eg jhljurrglj`f eg pgrshlfs dh jufd jhlddgvf f qug jhlsukfl ks dhs prheujths.
^QGMWLUF
Wlf fegfjufef gxpd`jfj`hl eg dfs hogrtfs y prhkhj`hlgs gs ul ofjthr
egtgrk`lfltg pfrf gd j`grrg eg dfs vgltfs8
JWFEQH L:
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Orgjuglj`f ^hrjgltfbg ^hrjgltfbg
vd`eh
^hrjgltfbg
fjukudfeh
_d`ehs
Lh 1 6>,> 6>,> 6>,>
phjfs vgjgs 6 7,> 7,> 67,>
kujcfs vgjgs = :7,> :7,> 7>,>
Z` 6> 7>,> 7>,> 6>>,>
Uhtfd 1> 6>>,> 6>>,>
OWGLUG2 JWGZU@HLFQ@H
GDFAHQFJ@HL2 ^QH^@F EG @ @L_GZU@MFEHQ
MQFO@JH :
OWGLUG2 JWFEQH
GDFAHQFJ@HL2 ^QH^@F EG @ @L_GZU@MFEHQ
@LUGQ^QGUFJ@HL
Gl gd s`mu`gltg juferh sg pugeg hasgrvfr qug ul 6>% eg gljugstfehs jrgg qug lh gs
lgjgsfr`h egsfrrhddfr ulf fegjufef gxpd`jfj`l eg dfs hogrtfs y prhkhj`hlgs pfrf gd j`grrg
eg dfs vgltfs gsth sg egag f qug lh rgfd`zfl tjl`jfs eg prhkhj`hlfr dhs prheujths y
kujch kglhs sfagl jkh cfjgrdfs yf qug egsjhlhjgl tjl`jfs eg kfrigt`lm fs tfka`l
ul 7%eg dhs gljugstfehs t`glgl dfs k`skfs jfrfjtgrst`jfs eg yf kglj`hlfehs fs jhkhtfka`l ul :7 y 7> % eg dhs gljugstfeh kfl`o`gstfl qug kujcfs vgjgs y s`
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rgspgjt`vfkgltg shl lgjgsfr`fs ulf gxpd`jfj`l eg df hogrtfs yf qug gstfs mglgrfl ulf
gxpgjtft`vf phr pfrtg egd jhlsuk`ehr.
^QGMWLUF 5
Gd fka`gltg egd kgrjfeh khegdh eg Cuflujh gs fegjufeh pfrf `kpudsfr sus
vgltfs8
JWFEQH L5
Orgjuglj`f ^hrjgltfbg ^hrjgltfbg
vd`eh
^hrjgltfbg
fjukudfeh
_d`ehs
lh ? :>,> :>,> :>,>
phjfs vgjgs 1 6>,> 6>,> 5>,>
kujcfs vgjgs = :7,> :7,> =7,>
s` 7 17,> 17,> 6>>,>
Uhtfd 1> 6>>,> 6>>,>
OWGLUG2 JWGZU@HLFQ@H
GDFAHQFJ@HL2 ^QH^@F EG @ @L_GZU@MFEHQ
MQFO@JH 5
OWGLUG2 JWFEQH
GDFAHQFJ@HL2 ^QH^@F EG @ @L_GZU@MFEHQ
@LUGQ^QGUFJ@HL
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Gl gd s`mu`gltg juferh sg pugeg hasgrvfr qug ul :>% eg dhs gljugstfehs lh jrgg qug gd
fka`gltg egd kgrjfeh gs fegjufeh pfrf `kpudsfr sus vgltfs yf qug kglj`hlfl qug gd
kgrjfeh lh sg gljugltrf gl dfs kgbhrgs jhle`j`hlgs y phr gleg lh dgs fyuef f mglgrfr ul
fka`gltg prhp`j`h pfrf gd prhjgsh eg vgltfs phrqug lh fyuef f gst`kudfr df kgltg eg dhs
jhlsuk`ehrgs fukgltfleh eg gstf kflgrf dfs prhafa`d`efegs eg jhkprf phr htrh dfeh sg
hasgrvf qug dhs gspfj`hs shl kuy rgeuj`ehs, ul 6>% jrgg qug phjfs vgjgs, ul :7%
kfl`ogst qug gd fka`gltg egd kgrjfeh khegdh gs fegju