MIE TA Study Material

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MIE-Transactional Analysis

What is Transactional Analysis?

Transactional Analysis is a theory of psychology founded by Dr.Eric Berne in the 195s. !ede"eloped the theory to be si#ple to learn$ easy to co#prehend$ and %uic& to bring about change andcure in those 'ho use it. E"enthouh originally it 'as used in psychotherapy$ later the concepts ha"egro'n in scope and depth such that no' it is 'idely applied in the fields of education$ counselling$organisational de"elop#ent as 'ell (TAT).

TA pro"ides to organisations a co#prehensi"e #odel of personality$ co##unication$ #oti"ation$conflict resolution$ group dyna#ics$ organisation structure$ leadership$ goal-setting$ and proble#sol"ing. TA is a social and psychological theory 'ith #utual contracting for gro'th and change. Inan organisation it is applied at three le"els (TA*T)+

personal le"el for the indi"idual to i#pro"e her perfor#ance and gro'

group le"el for the depart#ent (sub-syste#) to function effecti"ely 'ithin and 'ith other

depart#ents

organisational le"el for o"erall i#pro"e#ent in the producti"ity of the organisation$ as a syste#.

All this is possible through proper identification$ and resol"ing the proble# areas and i#ple#entingthe change plans and re"ie's and integrating the change 'ithin the syste#.

Abo"e all TA gi"es e"eryone in the organisation a co##on language. It is a potent interpersonalrelationship tool for organisations because it is a practical$ non-threatening$ interesting and often funapproach to learning about people.(E,)

Reference

te'ard$ I.$ /oynes$ 0. (192). TA today: A new introduction to transactional analysis. 3haphill+ 4ifespace./onge'ard$ D. and contributors. (192).Everybody wins: Transactional analysis applied to orgnisations. 4ondon+Addison ,esley.!ay$ /. (1995).Transactional analysis for trainers: Your guide to potent and competent application of TA in

organisations. Minneapolis+ her'ood.

Ego-state theory, tracing its history and development. Difference between structural andfunctional models of ego-states.

Dr.Eric erne$ in the 196s$ had a client 'ho 'as a la'yer. Berne found that he #anifested t'ocontradictory set of thin&ing pattern$ one associated 'ith his professional practice and the other 'ith

his ga#bling habit. ,hile in practise the la'yer displayed rationale thin&ing$ but 'hile in casinos histhin&ing 'as superstitious. This contradiction resulted in t'o totally different sets of beha"iours+ inprofession he beha"ed nor#ally$ but 'hile in casinos he beha"ed co#pulsi"ely (Barnes$ 1922). ThusBerne found that there 'ere t'o sets of distincti"ely different sets of beha"iours and thoughts in thesa#e person. !e called the# the ego-states. !e obser"ed #any such patients to be shifting fro# onestate of #ind and one beha"iour pattern to another (Berne$ 199). Typically$ there 'as one ego-statecharacterised by reasonably ade%uate reality testing and rational thin&ing and another distinguishedby autistic thin&ing and archaic fears and e7pectations. This led to the assu#ption of t'o psychic

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organs$ a neopsyche and an archeopsyche (199$ p1). 8heno#enological and operational#anifestations of theses t'o organs 'ere called the Adult and 3hild respecti"ely. 4ater thee7teropsyche 'as delineated (Barnes$ 1922)$ and its structure and #anifestation 'as called the8arent.

In su##ary$ Berne found that e"ery hu#an being has three psychic organs - e7teropsyche$neopsyche$ and archeopsyche. These are #anifested as the 8arent$ 3hild$ and Adult ego-statesrespecti"ely. Each ego-state is a consistent pattern of feeling and e7perience directly related to acorresponding consistent pattern of beha"iour (Berne$ 199).

!tructural analysis of ego-states+"arent ego-state is a set of feelings$ attitudes$ and beha"iour patterns 'hich rese#ble those of aparental figure (Berne$ 199). It is this part of the indi"idual 'hich deals 'ith the #orals$ "alues$ andpre:udices that are deri"ed fro# one;s actual parental figures (Dusay$ 1922). The 8arent consists ofthose characteristics of our parent figures that 'e ha"e copied fro# the#. The 8arent ego-statecontains the do;s and don;ts$ sense of right and 'rong$ good and bad$ :udge#ents etc. 'hich are nottested in reality$ but :ust copied as they are fro# the parent figures. 3ulture and religion also for#

part of our 8arent ego-state.

Adult ego-stateis characterised by an autono#ous set of feelings$ attitudes$ and beha"iour patterns'hich are adapted to the current reality (Berne$ 199). The Adult is based upon a logical$ rational$and co#puter-li&e use of data (Dusay$ 1922). The Adult ego-state consists of those aspects rele"antand appropriate to the here-and-no'.

The #hild ego-state is a set of feelings$ attitudes and beha"iour patterns$ 'hich are relics of theindi"idual;s o'n childhood (Berne$ 199). The 3hild ego-state consists of our o'n childhoode7periences 'hich 'e reli"e e"en as gro'n ups. The 3hild ego-state is full of needs$ 'ants$ and theurge to satisfy the#.

$unctional analysis of ego states%Each ego-state #anifests itself in so#e 'ay or the other. Analysis of this beha"ioural #anifestationof ego-states is called functional analysis."arent ego-state+ *unctionally the 8arent ego-state #anifests itself in t'o different 'ays$ the 3ritical8arent and


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3ritical 8arent and


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,oola#s$ .$ Bro'n$ M. (1929).TA: T$e total $andboo% of transactional analysis .


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$our criteria for deciding what ego-state a person is in?

erne recommends four criteriato decide 'hat ego-state a person is in (Berne$ 199). They are+beha"ioural$ social$ historical$ and pheno#enological. Each criterion is the representation of thecharacteristics of each psychic organ. This is sho'n in table .

Table. . Jelation bet'een property of psychic organ and the duagnostic criteria.

"&"E&T* $ "!*#+# &A) D+A)!T+# #&+TE&+)

E7ecuti"e po'er Beha"ioural diagnosisAdaptability ocial diagnosisBiological fluidity !istorical diagnosisMentality 8heno#enological diagnosis

Each criterion 'ill be useful to corroborate and reinforce the clue gi"en by the pre"ious criterion.The social clues corroborate the beha"ioural clueC historical clue corroborates the socialidentificationC and the pheno#enological insight corroborates the others. These criteria are based onthe four significant properties of the psychic organs na#ely$ e7ecuti"e po'er$ adaptability$ biologicalfluidity and #entality.

During one of the indi"idual diagnostic inter"ie's conducted in an organisation$ o#u$ the Luality3ontrol Manager said$


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doing so#ething 'rong as a child. ,hen I as&ed hi# 'hether he 'anted to be the sa#e old helplesschild e"en no'$ he uncrossed his hands and legs$ bent a little for'ard$ place his hands on the des&and said$;,ell$ let us see ho' I can i#pro"e the functioning of #y depart#ent.


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!tro/es as a biological necessity.

!tro/eis a unit of recognition. All of us ha"e the basic need to be recognised. Jecognition #ay be inany for#. But 'hat #atters is that 'e need to be recognised (/a#es /onge'ard$ 192). Bernecalls stro&es as a biological necessity. If the infant is not stro&ed$ his spinal cord shri"els up (Berne$192$ p152).

The follo'ing studies conducted at different ti#es$ support this notion of Berne that stro&es are abiological necessity..

&enee !pit01s e2periments in a nursery and foundling home+ =ne study often sighted in TAliterature (Berne$ 199C 199C 196C /a#es /onge'ard$ 192)$ is that conducted by pit. In thise7peri#ent$ the nursery children 'ere raised by their #othersC those in the foundling ho#e 'erecared for by o"er'or&ed personnel. Both institutions pro"ided ade%uate food$ #edical attention$ andhousing. Jesults sho'ed that the nursery children de"eloped nor#ally$ but 2 per cent in thefoundling ho#e died during the t'o-year obser"ation. This condition has been titled HMaras#us$

indicating that the child is co#pletely star"ed for affecti"e e#otional interchange (pit$ 199CDineyer$ 1962). pit concluded fro# his studies that sensory depri"ation in the infant #ay resultnot only in psychic changes but also in organic deterioration (Berne$ 199$ p).

enry 3urray1s arvard study+ In an interdisciplinary effort in !ar"ard$ !enry Murray (Murray$19C Engler$ 1991) studied 5 #ale undergraduates for a period of si7 #onths. At the end heconstructed a list of t'enty basic needs li&e do#inance$ aggression$ se7$ re:ection$ affiliation 'hichare "arious for#s of recognition or stro&es.

arlow1s study on primates+ !arry !arlo' found that infant #on&eys 'ho 'ere gi"en the choiceof a 'ire H#on&ey that pro"ided food$ or a soft$ terry-cloth H#on&ey that 'as 'ar# but did not

pro"ide food clearly preferred the cloth one$ although they #ade occasional forays to the 'ire#on&ey to nurse (!arlo' i##er#an$ 1959C *eld#an 192).

=ne of the #ost potent tool I use to bring about change and de"elop#ent in #y clients is stro&es.ince all need to be stro&ed$ I continuously stro&e the participants "erbally (. ?Its good that you area'are of the proble#;) or non-"erbally (an appro"ing nod$ an applause).

I also teach #y clients ho' stro&es are po'erful #oti"ators. They also realise that ?good; leaders uselot of stro&es. As the ?=ne #inute #anager; says$ they learn %uic&ly ho' to catch others doingso#ething right. They also learn to gi"e one #inute appreciation %uite fre%uently. In oneorganisation$ lac& of basic ritualistic stro&es 'ere brought to light$ 'hen they did the stro&e econo#ye7ercise. The participants 'ere thrilled to find their :ob in"ol"e#ent i#pro"e as they started to greeteach other at different ti#es of the day. o#e reported that it de"eloped a sense of belonging inthe#. I often find that stro&es are the #ost easily understood and i##ediately i#ple#ented concepta#ong the clients at all le"els. They also find that it gi"es the# tangible results$ i##ediately.

tro&e econo#y is also part of the organisational cli#ate. enerous stro&es create a 'ar# cli#ate$'hereas$ a strict econo#y of stro&es create a cold$ suffocating cli#ate. In an organisation$ lot ofplastic stro&es resulted in a laiie faire en"iron#ent. ,hen the #anage#ent beco#es a'are of the#aterial and e#otional (tangible and intangible) stro&es and their personal pattern$ they find it easy


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to shift and change to better patterns. Thus they find that stro&es could be used potentially toi#pro"e producti"ity.

Reference

Berne$ E. (196). +ames people play(


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Types of stro/es.

#onditional stro/esis recognising a person for doing so#ething.Example+ ,hen a participant fulfills a pre"ious contract I appreciate hi#.'nconditional stro/es is recognising the person for being 'hat he is. !ere recognition is notassociated to an action.Example:,ishing good luc& to the participants$ listening e#pathetically to the client."ositive stro/esare intended to create a pleasant feeling in the recei"er. The recei"er feels good onrecei"ing a positi"e stro&e.Example+ An incre#ent$ pay hi&e$ an a'ard.)egative stro/esput the recei"er do'n. The recei"er feels s#all.E7a#ple+ repri#anding$ ignoring the presence of the other person$ not responding.3o#bination of these lead to the follo'ing+3onditional positi"e stro&es+Example+ Jaise in salary for co#pleting an assign#ent.3onditional negati"e stro&es+Example+ issuing a #e#o for a fault co##itted.Knconditional positi"e stro&es+Example+ sending a birthday 'ish to the e#ployees.

Knconditional negati"e stro&es+Example+ #isplaced anger$ super"isor being repri#anded for nofault of his.

,hen so#e one is constantly see&ing negati"e stro&es$ it is because in his de"elop#ental stages$ he'ould ha"e not got enough stro&es.


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I record all #y successful acco#plish#ents and often go through the#.

I as& for feedbac& 'hene"er I feel I ha"e done so#e thing good.

I share #y sense of success 'ith friends$ colleagues and clients.

I do a personal ,=T analysis and feel good about #y strength and plan to e7ploit #y strength.

I ta&e ti#e for #yself to reflect and at ti#es :ust to be.

I passti#e 'ith #y fa#ily.

I structure #y ti#e 'ith lots of touch and inti#acy 'ith friends and fa#ily #e#bers.

ReferenceBlanchard$ >.$ /ohnson$ . (199). T$e one minute manager.


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&ac/ets

According to erne$ (199$ p19) a rac&et$ His a feeling out of all the possible feelings$ that ishabitually turned on by a gi"en person as his payoff in the ga#es he plays. !e says that rac&ets arefa"orite feelings that are learned fro# the parents. As the child gro's$ he displays "arious feelings$guilt$ anger$ sorro'$ fear$ etc. And he finds that 'hile so#e of these are ignored or stronglydisappro"ed$ one of these is responded to and gets results for the child. This beco#es his fa"oritefeeling-the rac&et - and he carries it throughout his life.

According to $anita English(1921$ 192)$ e7pression of rac&et feeling see#s artificial$ repetiti"eand stereotyped. This brings about the ?bro&en phonograph effect; - so#e e7press #ore and #ore ofthe rac&et$ since they are not satisfied and as though repetition 'ill clarify 'hat is suppressed. Inother 'ords$ rac&ets are feelings substituted for repressed or prohibited feelings.

In the a'ard 'inning article$ HThe rac&et syste#+ a #odel for rac&et analysis (1929)$ Ers/ine and4alcmanagree upon "arious definitions of rac&ets and ac&no'ledge the facts that

Indi"iduals do not ha"e only one rac&et feeling$ but use a "ariety of feelings in rac&ety displace. There is a hierarchy of substitute feelings rather than a one-to-one relationship.

There are also ?thin&ing rac&ets; 'hich ta&es rac&ets to a ne' plane of thin&ing co#pared to the

traditional feeling rac&ets$ (*or e7a#ple$ 3onfusion as a rac&et)

3ontrary to 'hat teiner (192$ p) belie"ed$ 'e cannot e%uate rac&ets to tracing sta#ps in all

cases. *or e7a#ple$ depressed people use sadness as a #anipulati"e rac&et and use anger to tradesta#p to :ustify suicide or falling sic& or #eeting 'ith an accident.

The salient features of rac&ets that are useful for organisational application isJac&ets are outside our a'areness and they lead to negati"e payoff (!ay$ 1995)These #ay be as feeling rac&ets$ thin&ing rac&ets or short se%uences of beha"iour.,e use rac&ets to force others to do 'hat 'e 'ant$ in a #anipulati"e #anner$ and not in an

open #anner.

As suggested by /ulie !ay (1995)$ I %uiet often co#e across people 'ho e7hibit helpful$ helpless orhurtful rac&ets.

In a group 'hen the participants see# to be engaged in a ga#e and end 'ith negati"e feelings$ then Iintroduce Berne;s theory of rac&ets. ,hen I see that participants beha"e inappropriately to asti#ulus$ 'hich is not a ga#e$ then I introduce English;s theory of rac&ets. ,hen participants areconfused or report that they feel differently at the sa#e ti#e$ I introduce Ers&ine and alc#an;stheory of rac&ets.

In a proble# sol"ing group session$ >arthi - the Ad#inistrati"e Manager - co#plaint that Asha$ hisecretary 'as al'ays irregular to 'or& and #ade too #any #ista&es. =n hearing this$ Asha 'ho 'asalso a #e#ber of the group started to cry. he 'as acting a helpless (e7istential position). I said toher$ ?Asha$ if I 'ere you$ I 'ould rather feel angry$; in a %uestioning 'ay. he stopped crying andsaid that she 'as also feeling angry 'hen >arthi accused her$ but she could not do anything about it.Thus she 'as a'are of the real feeling. As a child$ she 'as scolded and put off 'hene"er she sho'edher anger. The repeated #essage that she recei"ed 'as that girls are not supposed to feel angry and

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act rude. But as a girl she 'as consoled and ta&en care of 'hene"er she sul&ed and cried. 4ater inthe session$ I presented Berne;s theory of rac&ets and Asha entered into a contract to e7press the realfeeling by clarifying 'ith the other person.

In another occasion$ Da"id$ a design engineer$ 'anted to increase his *ree 3hild beha"iour 'hich'ill reduce his Adapted 3hild beha"iour. ,hen as&ed to identify a specific beha"ioural change$ hesaid that he 'as confused and that he could not thin& of any options. This confusion 'as his thin&ingrac&et. I as&ed hi#$ HIs this the 'ay you feel %uiet often. !e said H@es. I further probed and foundthat 'hene"er there 'as a need to change fro# the routine (at 'or&)$ he had the sa#e proble# andulti#ately others 'ould bac& off and it 'ould end in an unpleasant 'ay. Thus Da"id 'as able toreinforce his belief that he cannot change. I introduced Ers&ine and alc#an;s theory of rac&ets andthen he realised that 'hat he thought 'as not appropriate. ,hen he 'as a'are of his thin&ing rac&et$he 'as able to identify 'hat he used to say in those occasions (I;# confused and I can;t thin&). Thenhe acted his o'n old 'ay. I ga"e hi# per#ission to thin& by saying$ HIt is =.>. to thin&. @ou aregro'n enough to process infor#ation and loo& at options. !e too& it in and contracted for achanged beha"iour.

hri$ Director of an educational institute$ had a hurtful rac&et. ,hene"er he #ade a #ista&e$ heshouted at a staff. Thus he 'as able to suppress his o'n feelings of inade%uacy. !e bla#ed others sostrongly that they found it i#possible to confront hi#. ,hen this 'as presented as a proble# in agroup$ I presented English;s theory of rac&ets. I used here the a'areness - identification - action#odel of rac&ets. *irst$ I helped hi# to be a'are of the here and no' clues by as&ing hi# 'hat hefelt in his bodyC to be in touch 'ith his breathingC and find out 'hat he 'as thin&ing during those#o#ents of outburst. I used /ulie !ay;s (199) body - breathing - brain #odel of rac&et feelings.hri 'as able to be a'are that his outrage 'as not a genuine feeling. !e could identify and na#e itas guilt and his act 'as "ery rude. ,ith this a'areness$ he loo&ed at his original guilt and 'as able toaccept that it is o&ay to feel guilty as that 'ill sti#ulate hi# to a"oid #ista&es in future.

In a group setting$ 'hen a rac&et feeling or beha"iour or e7istential position is e7pressed$ I 'ouldhandle it in any of the follo'ing 'ays+

In a session$ 0ic&y$ The Managing Director retorted "ehe#ently to Bas&ar$ The 8ersonnelManager;s obser"ation that the salary in the fir# 'as belo' the general industry le"els. I inter"enedand chec&ed out 'ith 0ic&y if his thin&ing and feeling see#ed genuine and appropriate response tothe situation. This diffused the tension and helped 0ic&y to thin& and accept the fact #entioned byBas&ar.

heela$ 3lient 3oordination =fficer$ had the habit if not fulfilling her contracts agreed uponduring the group sessions. he played her fa"ourite H8oor #e ga#e and end up 'ith her fa"ouriteguilt. In the process$ she entered into contracts she did not 'ant to fulfill under the prete7t ofpleasing #e and the group #e#bers. I encouraged her to be asserti"e in telling others 'hat she'ould do and 'hat she 'ould not 'ant to do.

8ra&ash$ *actory *ore#an$ used to e7cuse hi#self and lea"e the training sessions %uietfre%uently. This 'as a rac&ety beha"iour as his e7cuses 'ere not genuine and he 'as reported to beloitering around during these sessions. I as&ed hi# to ta&e ti#e out to e7plore ho' he really felt andbe open about his real feelings. 4ater$ he reported in the group that he belie"ed that the groupsessions 'ere of no use and he felt restless and frustrated to sit in the group. !e 'as able to identifythat he 'as really afraid to change. !e continued 'ith the sessions$ once he 'as able to e7press hisreal feeling.

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,hen people #a&e s'eeping co##ents regarding the practicality and applicability of theconcepts taught in the group sessions$ I as& the# #ore %uestions to establish 'hat they do or do not'ant. This brings to light their real thoughts and feelings$ 'hich are easier to deal 'ith.

As in the case of >arthi and Asha$ referred earlier in this ans'er$ I gently suggest to the otherperson that their true feeling #ay be different.

The Jac&et syste#$ gi"en in figure $ helps #e to analyse the dyna#ics 'here rac&ets are in"ol"edand to deal 'ith it appropriately. As an organisational specialist$ I focus #y inter"ention at thebeha"ioural le"el$ 'hich e"entually effects change at the intrapsychic le"el$ in due course.

ReferenceBerne$ E. (199). -$at do you say after you say $ello: T$e psyc$ology of $uman destiny . 4ondon+ 3orgi.English$ *. (1921). The substitution factor+ Jac&ets and real feelings. Transactional analysis .ournal.1+.5-6.English$ *. (192). Jac&ets and real feelings 8art II. Transactional analysis .ournal. +1. -5.Ers&ine$ J..$ alc#an$ M./. (1929). Jac&et syste#+ A #odel for rac&et analysis. Transactional analysis

.ournal. 9+1. 9-1.!ay$ /. (199). -or%ing it out at wor%. !erts+ her'ood.!ay$ /. (1995)./on%ey bridges for developmental TA. !urts+ her'ood.

!ay$ /. (1995).Transactional analysis for trainers: Your guide to potent and competent application of TA inorganisations. Minneapolis+ her'ood.

teiner$ 3.M. (192).,cripts people live: Transactional analysis of life scripts.


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Transactions and three rules of communication.

Transaction is a unit of co##unication. A sti#ulus and response constitute one transaction.Example: ,timulus+ ?!o' are you; "esponse+ ?I;# fine$ than& you.;

According to Berne (Berne$ 199)$ transactions #ay be co#pli#entary$ crossed$ or ulterior.&ule 5+ ,hen the transactions are complimentary, i.e. if the sti#ulus and response "ectors areparallel$ i.e. if the response is fro# the e7pected ego-state$ then the co##unication 'ill proceeds#oothly and indefinitely unless either or both parties decide to 'ithdra' (te'ard /oynes$ 192C/a#es /onge'ard$ 192C ,oola#s Bro'n$ 1929). This is illustrated in figure .

,: Adult*Adult!?!as the consign#ent been shipped on ti#e;": Adult*Adult!?


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,: Adult*C$ild!?,hy 'as the consign#ent not shipped on ti#e;": C$ild*Adult!?I;# sorry sir$ I tried #y best but I couldn;t.;

*igure 6 sho's the duple7 ulterior transaction. E"en though at the social le"el the response see#s tobe A-A$ at the psychological le"el$ it is 8-3. =n the contrary$ as sho'n on figure 2$ the see#ingly A-A sti#ulus is percei"ed by 3 of the recei"er. !ence he social response is fro# 3$ 'hich is also thepsychological response.

The &no'ledge of transactions helps the participants to

identify the type of transaction they are in"ol"ed in$

gi"es the# #any options to function fro# different ego states and not stuc& 'ith one$

choose the appropriate ego-state to respond fro# or send a sti#ulus fro# 'hich 'ould get their

desired result$

cross transactions deliberately 'hen needed$

identify the ulterior #essages and not to respond to it$

as&ing or saying things directly rather than ulteriorly$ there by pro#oting openness in the 'or&

place.

ReferenceBerne$ E. (199). Transactional analysis in psyc$ot$erapy: A classic $andboo% to its principles .


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Time !tructuring

3an1s hunger for structuring time is li&e any other hunger. Berne proposes si7 'ays of structuringti#e$ na#ely 'ithdra'al$ rituals$ passti#e$ acti"ity$ ga#es$ and inti#acy (Berne$ 199C 196C/onge'ard eyer$ 192).

Depending upon ho' 'e structure ti#e$ the %uality and %uantity of stro&es that 'e get also differs.

,ithdra'al gi"es no stro&es e7cept self stro&es$ 'hile inti#acy gi"es lots of positi"e and po'erfulstro&es. Jituals gi"e little stro&es (#any plastic stro&e - probably) 'hile ga#es gi"e lot of highintensity negati"e stro&es. 8asti#es gi"e #ore positi"e stro&es than rituals 'hile acti"ities gi"eintense positi"e and negati"e stro&es.

Withdrawal+ ,hen one is not including self in 'hat e"er is going around heFshe is said to ha"e'ithdra'n. 8eople see# to dra' into their o'n shell or go for a recluse.


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As a trainer$ I ensure that participants in training sessions ha"e opportunity to structure ti#e in allthese 'ays.

,ithdra'al+ I allo' sufficient brea&s for the# to rela7 and be on their o'n. o they do not #entally'ithdra' 'hen the session is on.

Jitual+ reeting each other personally before and after the session is encouraged.

8assti#e+ ufficient ti#e is gi"en for the participant to tal& about the#sel"es and introduce eachother.

Acti"ity+ =fcourse lot of learning ta&es place. But the real challenge is to include other 'ays of ti#estructuring into this so that the participants do not feel #onotony.a#es+ 8sychological ga#es are dealt 'ith as discussed in Luestion 19. But physical ga#es areincluded 'here"er space is a"ailable. This includes outdoor sessions 'ith physical ga#es.

Inti#acy+ 8ro"iding other fi"e 'ays of structuring ti#e$ encourages the participants to openly discuss

their issues and air their "ie's freely. This brings a sense of closeness a#ong the#.

As a consultant$ I use this &no'ledge of ti#e structuring to identify the participants; ti#e structuringpattern using the pie diagra# as sho'n belo' and to contract for change.

This gi"es #e an understanding of the %uality and type of stro&es each person elicits. ,hen a'are ofthis$ it is helpful for the# to #a&e contractual changes to a different beha"iour by structuring theirti#e differently.pecific beha"ioural changes+Example: -it$drawal to 'ntimacy+ ?I;ll spend an hour e"ery e"ening 'ith #y 'ife and children.;

+ame to Activity+ ?,hen I find the other person is trying to hoo& #e into a ga#e$ I;ll

politely e7cuse #yself and get bac& to 'or&.; -it$drawal to "ituals+ ?I;ll 'ish e"ery one I co#e across ?ood #orning; 'hen I enter

the office e"ery day.; Activity to 'ntimacy+ ?As the head of the depart#ent$ I 'ill con"ene a 'ee&ly #eeting for

an hour and a half to discuss personal needs and 'elfare issues.;

ReferenceBerne$ E. (196). +ames people play(


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Definition of a game.

erne (196$ p) defines a ga#e as Han ongoing series of co#ple#entary ulterior transactionsprogressing to a 'ell-defined predictable outco#e.

Why don1t you - *es but 8*D*9%I chose this ga#e because it 'as the original sti#ulus for theconcept of the ga#es. It 'as the first ga#e to be analysed out of its social conte7t and it is the ga#e#ost often played in organisations and in group sessions as 'ell.

*ollo'ing are the #o"es of a brief @D@B ga#e setting+ a 'ee&ly #eeting of a s#all fir#$ facilitatedby #e.Move 1:M/ :,e ha"e to do so#ething to boost the #orale of our 'or&ers.problem!

Manager 0:,hy don;t 'e introduce an incenti"e sche#esolution!Move 2:

M/ + @es$ but it 'ill put pressure on our already 'ea& financial position.ob.ection!

Manager 1+ ,hy don;t 'e launch a suggestion sche#e and gi"e pries for best suggestionssolution!

M/ : @es$ but 'here is the ti#e and #en to scrutinie and i#ple#ent the# The 8ersonnelDepart#ent is already o"erloaded.ob.ection!

Manager 2+ ,hy don;t 'e ta&e our 'or&ers and their fa#ily for a picnic solution!Move 3:M/ + @es$ but ho' is it possible in this #onsoon seasonob.ection!

3neasy silence prevails!M/ + I don;t thin& any of this 'ill 'or&. As usual I ha"e to 'or& it out #yselfdisconcertion!

&oles and Aims%The #anager starts the ga#e as a helpless person (0icti#) not &no'ing ho' to boost the #orale ofthe 'or&ers. All the staff :u#p in$ to help hi# out of the apparent proble# by being Ad"isers(Jescuers). *inally$ the #anager #o"es to the role of the 8ersecutor$ by co"ertly saying that othersare inade%uate. By being sheepish and silent$ others end up as "icti#s. The ai# of the #anager is toreassure hi#self that his proble# is insur#ountable and others are inade%uate to deal 'ith it.,hereas the staff play the co#pli#entary ga#e of ?I;# trying only to help you$; 'here their ai# is topro"e that they are capable of sol"ing anything and 'anting to alle"iate the guilt in others.

erne1s $ormula %3on N i##ic&Transactions'itch3ross - up(confusion)8ayoff.

In the ga#e illustrated abo"e$ the #anager;s first state#ent is the con. Because$ e"enthough sociallyit is fro# his Adult that see#s li&e 'anting to sol"e the proble#$ psychologically it is his 3hild thatsays$ ?ee$ if you can help #e;.

19


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The suggestion gi"en by Manager 1 is the gi##ic&$ as he is responding psychologically fro# his8arent ( I can sol"e your proble#)$ e"enthough socially it appears to be AA. The response is topro"e hi#self and not a genuine atte#pt to identify and sol"e the proble#. Many ulterior e7changesfollo'. The silence is the s'itch$ 'hich is follo'ed by the #anager;s disconcertion$ lea"inge"erybody confused and both the parties end up 'ith their fa"ourite negati"e feelings - the payoff.

Transactional diagra# (!ay$ 1995) of @D@B is gi"en in figure 16. The >arp#an Dra#a Triangle isgi"en in figure 12.

ReferenceBerne$ E. (196). +ames people play(


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(ife !cript

!criptis a life plan based on a decision #ade in childhood$ reinforced by the parents$ :ustified bysubse%uent e"ents and cul#inating in a chosen alternati"e. I use the script #atri7 gi"en in figure 1$designed by Berne (199C teiner$ 192)$ in #y 'or& setting for understanding the follo'ing+

!teiner(192) classifies scripts as


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H)ever scripts are represented by Tantalus$ 'ho through all eternity 'as to suffer fro# hunger andthirst in sight of food and 'ater$ but ne"er to eat or drin& again. 8eople 'ith such scripts spend theirli"es being tantalied and surrounded by te#ptations.HAlways script follo's Arachne$ 'ho dared to challenge the oddess Miner"a in needle'or& and aspunish#ent 'as turned into a spider and conde#ned to spend all her ti#e spinning 'ebs. 8eople 'iththese scripts spend their 'hole life doing the sa#e old :ob.H'ntil or Hefore scripts follo' the story of ason$ 'ho 'as told that he could not beco#e a &ingbefore he had perfor#ed certain tas&s. !ercules has a si#ilar script. 8eople 'ith these scripts &eep'aiting until their retire#ent to en:oy life $ or 'ait for his father;s death$ to be independent.HAfter scripts co#e fro# Da#acles 'as allo'ed to en:oy the happiness of being a &ing$ until henoticed that a s'ord 'as hanging o"er his head$ suspended by a single horse hair. The #otto ofHAfter script is + H@ou can en:oy yourself for a 'hile$ but after that your troubles begin.Hver and over scripts are isyphus. !e 'as conde#ned to roll a hea"y stone up a hill and :ust ashe 'as about to reach the top$ the stone rolled bac& and he had to start o"er again. This is theclassical HAl#ost Made If script 'ith one HIf only after another.Hpen-ended script is the non-'inner scenario$ and follo's the story of 8hile#on and Bancis 'ho'ere turned into laurel trees as a re'ard for their good deeds. =ld people 'ho ha"e carried out their

parental instructions don;t &no' 'hat to do ne7t after it is all o"er and spend rest of their li"es li&e"egetables.

8eople tend to act out their scripts 'ithin organisations as 'ell as 'ithin their fa#ilies(,agner$192). They select the &ind of organisation and the &ind of super"isor or boss that 'ill per#it the#to stay in their scripts. *or e7a#ple+ In the case of Tina and


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ince 'e #ade these decisions $ 'e alone can change the#.

,hen 'e &no' about our script ('hether 'inner or loser$ After or


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!cripts and rganisations

!criptis a life plan decided in childhood by e"ery indi"idual. This plan is li"ed out throughout theperson;s life. E"ery organisation is a group of such people. ,hen people interact they find 'ays tofurther their script. =rganisations are also li&e fa#ilies (,agner$ 192$ p5 - 61). These scriptdecisions are li"ed out in an organisation in the follo'ing 'ays+

8eople play their fa"ourite ga#es (a#ple opportunity in organisations$ to choose his

co#pli#entary partner to play these ga#es (/onge'ard eyer$ 192$ p$ 12-12)

Jeinforce their stro&e econo#y.

*urther their personal patterns 'hether self-defeating or self-enhancing.

3ollect and trade their fa"ourite sta#ps.

Jeinforce their life-positions 'hich deter#ines #anagers; #anage#ent style - authoritarian$

de#ocratic$ beaurocratic or laiie-faire$ hence furthering the script.

E"en the choice of organisation and the boss is such that their scripts are furthered.

Bosses select subordinates on the basis of their script beliefs and decisions.

There are parental figures 'ho send both positi"e and negati"e #essages to others 'ho accept or

rebel li&e children.

Inter-depart#ental ri"alry and conflicts are fall outs of the e#ployees; script.

In:unctions are acted out in the 'or& place 'hich is re"ealed in their 'or&ing style.


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subordinates (silent and obedient)$ annual get together$ fare'ell parties and all those dra#aticco##it#ents that #a&e a script.

,hen the script is analysed and the clients beco#e a'are of these practices$ they %uestion the"eracity of each practice and discard those that are non-producti"e and self-li#iting.

=ne organisation refused to di"ersify into a ne' (but related) business$ 'hen suggested by a#anager. /ust because they belie"ed that it 'as possible to function 'ith only one product. It too& aseries of sessions 'ith the top-#anage#ent$ 'ith the help of analysing the organisation;s script$ tobrea& that strong belief and "enture into the ne' business. It pro"ed successful.

Indian organisations face a "ery strong tradition in the for# of superstitions$ 'hich go"ern al#ost all#a:or decisions. /ust because the day 'as not ?auspicious;$ one fir# delayed its first air-ship#ent and#ade a hea"y loss.

. rganisational #hange+ =rganisational script is a potent tool to de"elop an in-built syste#'ithin the organisation to change. This facilitates Manage#ent By =b:ecti"es (MB=). This

=rganisational 3hange is the input to a larger process of =rganisational De"elop#ent. =rganisationalscripting helps to diagnose 'hat changes are necessary and desired. This is done in three stages+

a. identifying the organisation;s script in ter# of the stage$ the characters$ conflicts and theireffects$ e7tent of a'areness of each character.

b. The interactions phase - 'here the indi"idual script and the organisational script co#es intointerplay and possible conflicts$ or proble#s co#e to the fore. !o' each character tries to 'or&through this stage is e7plained

c.


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Autonomy

According to erne (196$ p15) the attain#ent of autono#y is #anifested by the release orreco"ery of three capacities+ a'areness$ spontaneity and inti#acy.Awareness #eans the capacity to see a coffee pot and hear the birds sing in one;s o'n 'ay and notthe 'ay one 'as taught. A'areness re%uires li"ing in the here-and-no' and not in the else'here$ thepast or the future. The a'are person is ali"e because he &no's ho' he feels$ 'here he is$ and 'hen itis. !e &no's that he is not indispensable. Therefore$ rather than clinging on to the position he holds'ith the fear of usurption$ an a'are person prepares others around hi# to be ready for hisdispensation. !e is able to recognise his o'n sensations and feelings in respond to current reality(!ay$ 1995).

!pontaneity #eans feeling free to choose fro# options for our o'n beha"iour. It #eans liberation -liberation fro# the co#pulsion to play ga#es and ha"e only the feeling one 'as taught to ha"e. Aspontaneous person has the freedo# to choose and e7press one;s feelings$ be it 8arent feelings$ Adult

feelings or 3hild feelings. In organisational settings$ it is characterised by being creati"e$ not strictlygoing by the boo&s$ free e7pression$ uninhibited participation$ unorthodo7 decisions and the li&e.

+ntimacy #eans the spontaneous$ ga#e-free candidness of an a'are person$ deliberation of theuncorrupted child in all its capacity in the here-and-no'. It is an open$ trusting interaction 'ithanother person during 'hich you can sho' and share your true feelings. This is possible inorganisations by tal&ing freely and being open to feedbac&. But it is often inter"ened by ga#es and8arental influences fro# others. Thus$ in an organisational setting$ an autono#ous person encouragesa'areness by respecting the feelings and opinions of others and ta&e the# into account 'hendecisions are #ade (being consensual). !e fosters spontaneity by trusting others to sho' initiati"eand #a&e decisions relating to their o'n 'or& (proper delegation of responsibility and authority). !e

is inti#ate by 'illing to share his o'n hopes and concerns 'ith co-e#ployees$ so that open t'o-'ayco##unication is established. I find that an autono#ous person is a ?healthy; . !arris (1991$ p19)defines ?health; as an ?e#ancipated Adult that is consistently incharge of e"ery transaction;. This#eans that in e"ery transaction the Adult ta&es data fro# the 8arent$ fro# the 3hild and fro# realityand co#es up 'ith a decision as to 'hat to do. To #e$ this is the Integrated Adult.8arents$ deliberately are una'are$ teach their children fro# birth ho' to beha"e$ thin&$ feel andpercei"e. 4iberation fro# these influences is a "ery difficult tas&$ since they are deeply ingrained andare necessary during the first t'o or three decades of life for biological and social sur"i"al. It isroughly at this age that an indi"idual :oins a fir#$ hence it is still #ore difficult to be free andautono#ous. ince$ it is our decision to be adapted$ 'e can al'ays bring about the change in us.

I follo' Berne;s step-by-step process to attaining autono#y in organisations.

*irst$ the conta#inations due to historical and indi"idual parental$ social and cultural bac&ground iscleared. E7posing the participants to the concepts of ego-state and pathology and group 'or& to sortout inter"ening issues achie"es this.

econd$ the participants are prepared to partly or 'holly sacrifice so#e of the ad"antages deri"edfro# one;s i##ediate social circle. Teaching the# the concepts of transactions$ stro&es and stro&e

6


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econo#y and e7ercises to i#pro"e their stro&e ban&$ especially self stro&es furthers this process. Anunderstanding of ti#e structuring and re-aligning their ti#e structure prepares the# for the ne7t step.

Third$ all the ad"antages of in"ol"ing in ga#es are gi"en up. a#e analysis and contracting forchange brings this about.

*ourth$ the indi"idual is helped to attain personal and social control by being a'are of his discountpattern and the rac&et syste#. At this point $ he is ready to de"elop his capacities for autono#y.

I e7trapolate the ten rules for raising children for autono#y$ as put forth by teiner (192) to bringabout autono#y in the 'or&place as 'ell. I call it the Ten &ules of &D for Autonomy.Incorporating these rules in their day-to-day operations helps #anagers be autono#ous and alsofoster autono#y in the organisation. The rules and #y e#phasis are as follo's+

horter the period to achie"e autono#y+ Do not &eep your e#ployees under your clutch$ so that

they al'ays re#ain dependent on you. This gi"es a pseudo i#age of being po'erful andindispensable. Therefore$ #entor your subordinates to be independent and autono#ous$ as earlyas possible.

8ri#ary ai# of !JD is to let the e#ployees fully e7ercise the faculties of inti#acy$ a'areness and

spontaneity.


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E"enthough$ these rules see# to apply for the top #anage#ent$ it is applicable at all le"els for allthose 'ho influence the functioning of others (peers or subordinates) in an organisation. That;s 'hyin any =D progra##e$ I ensure that the learning starts fro# the top-#anage#ent. I strongly belie"eand ha"e also seen in #y 'or& that only autono#ous leadership can inspire and foster a 'or& cultureof autono#y$ 'hich 'ill encourage and prepare the e#ployees for autono#y. =ne 'ay of doing thisis through :ob enrich#ent. /onge'ard and eyer (192) cite #any studies that ha"e sho'n than'hen 'or&ers are gi"en #ore autono#y$ by redesigning and enriching their :ob$ they are not onlyhappier but also #ore producti"e. 8roble#s associated 'ith lateness and absenteeis# also tend todisappear(p).

Reference

Berne$ E. (196). +ames people play(


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rganisational Theories and TA

eneral !ystems Theory+ A syste# is a collection of parts that operate interdependently to achie"ea co##on purpose. (>reitner$ 199). #hester +.ernard$ for#er 8resident of


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paths. It pre"ents lo'er le"el #anagers fro# "ie'ing their :obs as #anaging static$ isolated ele#entsof the organisation.

It is interesting to see that all the abo"e aspects are reflected in Berne;s ?structure and dyna#ics oforganisations and groups.; ,hile the eneral yste#s Theory (T) is conceptual$ Berne;s structuraldiagra# and dyna#ics diagra# is specific to e"ery organisation. ,hile the T gi"es a fra#e'or& ofho' to conceptualise organisations$ Berne;s diagra#s offer a blueprint to analyse and e"aluate thefunctioning of the organisations. Berne;s significant addition is inclusion of the role of leadership intothis approach.

The ma;or e2ternal process sho's the interaction of the open syste# 'ith its en"iron#ent. Thema;or and minor internal processesconstitute the #aintenance and adapti"e acti"ities includingthe group apparatus. The structure is #ore clear and specific to each organisationC syste# separatedfro# the en"iron#ent by the ma;or e2ternal boundary$ leadership and the subsyste#s by thema;orinternal boundary$ and subsyste#s by double lines and ele#ents of the subsyste#s by the minorinternal boundary. Berne;s structure and dyna#ics of a group is sho'n in figure . Berne alsoelaborates on ho' the negati"e entropy functions and he also e7tensi"ely describes ho' each group

can #aintain its stability and still gro' and change. The three group processes are in effect conflictsthat a group tends to face in the process of its gro'th (Berne$ 192$ p9). Berne also adds that lac&of cohesion 'ill threaten the "ery sur"i"al of the group. !e also e#phasies the need tocollecti"eF:oint sessions to resol"e conflicts and highlights the need to bring about change in theleader;s pri"ate structure to resol"e the need for a syste#s approach to proble# sol"ing.

Theory of #onflict % 3onflict is an ine"itable by-product of interpersonal dealings . This isparticularly true of 'or& groups because they generally are e7pediently asse#bled collections ofindi"iduals 'ith differing bac&grounds$ perceptions$ attitudes and "alues or as Berne said - differentindi"idual procli"ities. 3onflict refers to all &inds of opposition or antogonistic interaction. It is based

on scarcity of po'er$ resources and "alue structures. According to >enneth ,. Tho#as (Dunnette$1926) conflict is Hthe process 'hich begins 'hen one party percei"es that the other has frustrated$ oris about to frustrate$ so#e concern of his$ - reflecting the TA concept of ga#es.

The traditional "ie' 'as that conflict 'as bad and 'ould al'ays i#pact organisational effecti"enessnegati"ely. The beha"iouralists position argued that conflict 'as a natural occurrence inorganisations. The current theoretical perspecti"e on conflict is the interactionist approach. ,hile thebeha"ioural "ie' accepted conflict$ the interactionalist approach encourages conflict. It recognisesthe absolute necessity of conflictC e7plicitly encourages functional oppositionC defines conflict#anage#ent to include si#ulation as 'ell as resolution #ethodsC and consider the #anage#ent ofconflict as a #a:or responsibility of all #anagers. The relationship bet'een conflict and orgnisationaleffecti"eness is sho'n in table .Table . Jelationship bet'een conflict and organisational effecti"eness.

Situation Level of conflict Type of conflict Organisations internalcharacteristcs.

Organisationaleffectiveness &outcoe.

A 4o' or none Dysfunctional Apathetic$ stagnant$


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Inno"ati"e3 !igh Dysfunctional Disrupti"e$ 3haotic$

Kncooperati"e4o'.

Thus they conclude that so#e a#ount of conflict is necessary for organisations to change and gro'.

3oncept of a#es is a "aluable contribution to the theory of 3onflict. Bla&e Mouton (199) relateconflicts to the ga#es that are played$ depending upon the #anagerial style on their grid (3oncernfor production "s 3oncern for people). Their obser"ations are su##arised in table 5.Table 5. Jelationship bet'een #anagerial style and ga#es.

!ositionin gri"

Managerial style #ie$ of conflict %aes playe"

9 - 1 Authority - obedience!igh tas& orientation4o' people orientation

an indication that control isbrea&ing


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fro# all depart#ents - shall be constituted and this co##ittee 'ill de"elop a syste# 'hich 'ill beacceptable to all. In the ne7t three 'ee&s$ the ne' syste# 'as in operation. Till date$ no #a:orconflict has arisen in that institute regarding the ne' ad#inistrati"e syste#.

II. rievance handling process+ A preli#inary study conducted in an organisation a#ong its'or&ers to #easure their opinion about the functions of its !JD depart#ent$ sho'ed that the#anage#ent 'as not apathetic to their grie"ances arising due to personal needs andinterpersonalFinterdepart#ental grie"ances. The respondents 'ere e#otionally charged 'hileresponding. I used the follo'ing se%uences of handling the# as proposed by /ulie !ay and itga"e #e results+ (!ay$ 199)

I ga"e a polite Adapted 3hild response to #a&e an initial connection 'ith the#$ li&e saying$ HI;#

sorry$ you are not listened.

I follo'ed through 'ith a reassuring co##ent fro# reitner$ J. (199).Management. Boston+ !oughton Mifflin. 21-25.


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(ife positions

erne(199C196C !arris$ 1991)$ said that the life position is ?The position ta&en in early childhood(rd to 2th year) in order to :ustify a decision based on early e7perience. =n this position are basedscripts and their deri"ati"e ga#es. The sub:ects of all positions are either ?I; or ?others;$ and theirpredicates are particulars of the polarity ?=.>.; or ?.;. It is an e7istential position. Thus allpossible positions are+

1. I;# =>$ @ou;re =>. I;# not =>$ @ou;re =>. I;# =>$ @ou;re not =>. I;# not =>$ @ou;re not =>

This tells us our "ie' of oursel"es and the 'hole 'orld and all the people in it.

+1m


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To facilitate #e#bers in organisations to assu#e leadership but not to do#inate the discussions

but to "alue other;s input.

Disagree#ents are positi"e a#ong #e#bers and bet'een us.

essions are based on the agenda and not on personal ani#osities.

Identify the leadership styles (/a#es$ 192$ p-5) fro# their transactions 'ith subordinates.

3onfident leader - I;# =>$ @ou;re =>Egostatical leader - I;# =>$ @ou;re not =>Insecure leader - I;# not =>$ @ou;re =>!opeless leader - I;# not =>$ @ou;re not =>

!elp clients shift to the ?healthy; position$ I;# =>$ @ou;re =>$ using the indi"idual;s corallogra#

(te'art /oynes$ 192$ p1).

Knderstanding that people see things distorted through the three unhelpful positions$ 'e can

separate their beha"iour fro# their innate 'orth as hu#an beings.

!elps to #aintain a cordial$ protecti"e$ disciplined at#osphere in the training sessions. All

sessions start 'ith a contract for =>ness.

Maintaining an I;# =>$ @ou;re => position helps during #y super"ision session too. I

e7perience sound super"ision by sharing ideas$ infor#ation and feelings on an authentic basis toget guidance$ feedbac& and structure in pursuit of agreed-upon ob:ecti"es.

=rganisation;s life position is part of the script of the organisation. A &no'ledge of this helps to

propel organisations fro# their unhealthy position to an => organisation (,agner$ 192$ p11) -be a 'inner.

*ollo'ing are t'o instances 'here I used the life position concept. In the first one$ I used it directly$'hile in the second$ I used it indirectly.Direct usage of life-position+ At the end of a training session$ /oe entered into a contract 'ith thegroup$ for changing his lethargic 'ay of functioning. I##ediately$ #any in the group burst intolaughter and a fe' #ur#ured$ ?@ou 'ill ne"er change.; I i##ediately rose and as&ed the group$?,hich life position are you all in Do you re#e#ber our early contract of =>ness in the sessions;.There 'as a long silence. =ne person stood and said$ ?I understand that 'e all shifted to$ I;# =>$@ou;re not =>$ life position. I feel sorry for the irresponsible act. I assure you that this 'ill notrepeat.; I found it to be a honest apology fro# an I;# =>$ @ou;re => $ position. 4ater othersfollo'ed suit and apologised to /oe for their one-up-#anship #oc&ery.

I percei"ed that the outco#e of directly e7posing their attitudes 'hich reflected their life position'as "ery positi"e. uch a beha"iour ne"er repeated in that group.

+ndirect usage of life-position+ In a ?fa#ily-group tea# building; session$ Ja"i$ the 8ersonnelManager co#plained that in his organisation only the 8roduction and Mar&eting depart#ents 'ere

gi"en top priority and 'ell ta&en care of. But his depart#ent recei"ed the least attention. !e feltneglected and se"eral ti#es thought of lea"ing the organisation. !e 'as generally depressed andproducti"ity 'as lo'. =b"iously his basic life position 'as I;# not-=>$ @ou;re =>. I did not e7poseit to hi# as he 'as not in his Adult$ but in his 3hild$ therefore not ready for data-processing oranalysis. Instead I conducted a ga#e. I ga"e a ball of rope to the participants and as&ed the# to holdthe end and roll the ball to a person 'ho 'as i#portant in their day-to-day functioning. The ball 'asto go fro# hand to hand 'hile each one holds the rope tight 'hen the ball is rolled to the ne7tperson. Thus a net of rope 'as for#ed 'ith all the #e#bers holding a corner. I as&ed Ja"i$ HTell #e


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Ja"i$ if you lea"e the end in your hand$ 'ill the net sur"i"e I sa' his face brightening up and hesaid$ H


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$rame of reference

Each of person1s ego statehas its o'n structural and functional characteristics 'hose origins can beidentified (see Ans'er ). Moreo"er$ the 8arent$ Adult$ and 3hild ego states are connectedstructurally and integrated functionally into a 'hole 'hich is characteristic of the o"erall person.*ra#e of reference refers to the o"erall structural and functional #atri7 (chiff$ 1925). It is astructure of associated responses 'hich integrates the "arious ego states in response to specificsti#uli. It can be thought as a filter on reality. Therefore$ the sa#e ob:ect #ay be seen differently bydifferent people (te'art /oynes$ 192).

The fra#e of reference influences and is reflected in our life position and our script (!ay$ 1995)$ andare held tenaciously by redefining reality. It is a sheath co"ering all the three ego states together. Itincludes genetic influences$ and en"iron#ental influences li&e culture$ language$ religion$ econo#y$personal attributes$ education$ life style$ social status$ fa#ily$ reference group$ and all e7periences.This is a 'indo' through 'hich 'e see the 'orld.

,hen 'idely di"ergent and tenaciously held fra#es clash it can be dealt by setting goals 'hich areautono#ously defined and are realistic for indi"iduals and their life situation.

This theory of fra#e of reference is highly rele"ant to organisations. =rganisations consist of peoplefro# different bac& grounds and they co#e 'ith different fra#es of reference. In an organisation$they are e7pected to function interdependently. =b"iously interactions are una"oidable and oftennecessary. Therefore$ 'hene"er people interact$ fra#es of reference do clash 'ith each other.=rganisations need decisions to be ta&en collecti"ely and i#ple#ented in a coordinated #anner. Anunderstanding of the theory of fra#e of reference helps people to accept others; "ie's and pa"es 'ayfor successful negotiation and satisfactory co#pro#ises.

ridhar and 8rabhu are partners of a s#all engineering fir#. Both held "ery strong and di"ergentfra#es of reference. ridhar belie"ed that subordinates need not be consulted for decision-#a&ingCconsensus is not possible in a group settingC 'o#en 'ere not fit to 'or& in engineering fir#sC shortter# returns are "italC di"ersifying into ne' products 'as not possibleC a fir# can loo& after only oneproduct at a ti#e. 8rabhu belie"ed that all decisions should be consensualC subordinates ha"e to betreated as e%ualsC 'o#en add life and energy to 'or&C business should focus on long ter# standingCas business gro's ne' products need to be introduced. These contradictory "ie's created fre%uentdisagree#ents and conflicts. Disrupted 'or& progress and their partnership 'as about to brea&. Atthis :uncture$ they approached #e for help. After a fe' indi"idual diagnostic inter"ie's ('hen I ca#eto &no' about the abo"e details)$ I called for a co#bined #eeting. I e7plained to the# the concept offra#e of reference and the associated redefining transactions (tangential and bloc&ing). Being a'areof this$ the first step 'as that they 'ere able to listen to each other.

4ater$ they shifted to their Adult ego state and started to gi"e facts and figures fro# theire7periences. I inter"ened 'here"er necessary to clarify the "eracity of details each ga"e ('as it trueor i#aginary or fabricated). My inter"entions 'ere pri#arily to chec& grandiosity and generalisation.I facilitated the# to loo& at issues on a case-by-case basis. At the end of the session$ they 'ere ableto agree upon a co##on list of areas 'hich 'as acceptable to both of the#. They agreed to de"elopspecific action plans and i#ple#ent.

6


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Reference

!ay$ /. (1995).Transactional analysis for trainers: Your guide to potent and competent application of TA inorganisations. Minneapolis+ her'ood.

chiff$ /.4. (1925). Cat$exis reader: Transactional analysis treatment for psyc$osis.


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(eadership and TA

(eadership is the ability to influence a group to'ard the achie"e#ent of goals (Jobbins$ 1991).Depending upon the source of this influence and the "ery nature of this influence$ Berne classifiesleadership into three types+"sychological leadership- 'hich finds place in the #e#bers; i#ago and'hich could be located by obser"ing the group functioningC Effective leadership- 'ho #a&es thefinal decision and effecti"ely influences the groupC and the &esponsible leadership - 'ho isappointed for#ally and 'ill be held responsible for anything that is done in the group.

In organisations$ the person #ay be all the three leaders and in #any$ the leadership is distributedo"er #ore than one. In one of #y client organisation$ the MD is the psychological and responsibleleader$ 'hile the 3hair#an;s decision 'as al'ays final - he 'as the effecti"e leader running the sho'fro# behind the screen.

Many studies on leadership (Jobbins$ 1991C Bla&e Mouton$ 199) and TA literature (Berne$ 192C199C 3lar&son$ 1991)$ as I understand$ infer that the follo'ing are the three functions of a leader.

1. Ensuring the survival of the group, (by setting the goal$ #obilising resources and planstrategically). Directing the members achieve the goal8s9(by co##unicating$ delegating and gi"ing feedbac&).. #reating an atmosphere of cohesionand healthy interaction$ conduci"e for gro'th and change -both personal and organisational (by #oti"ating and pro"iding opportunity to e7cel).

These functions relate to the three forces 'hich act in a group na#ely$ 8ressure (fro# theen"iron#ent)$ agitation(fro# 'ithin the group - the #e#bers) and cohesion (a#ong the group#e#bers).

I a# the secretary of a local TA study centre$ 'hich 'as started o"er a decade ago. A year ago$ 'hen

I 'as appointed its secretary$ the group 'as in a state of near e7tinction. ,ee&ly #eetings 'ere notregular$ attendance 'as thin and registered #e#bership had nose-di"ed to single digit. It 'as a clearcase of an ailing group$ disrupted fro# all fronts - 'ithin and 'ithout. The leadership 'as co#ple7'ith three #e#bers - the 8resident$ ecretary and the Treasurer. =ur i##ediate tas& 'as tore:u"enate the group. The concept of three functions of leadership ca#e handy to #e. ,e set ourpriorities+

The sur"i"al 'as fore#ost. To ensure that$ progra##es 'ere arranged regularly 'ithout

interruption.

All those 'ho participated 'ere consulted and the progra##es 'ere structured consensually. As

a leader I too& the responsibility of co##unicating the acti"ities to all$ so that #e#bers felt#oti"ated to enrich the group.

The at#osphere 'as thus #ade conduci"e for the e7isting #e#bers to interact and acti"elyparticipate in the group;s acti"ities.


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roup Dynamics and TA

When a new member ;oins a group$ he enters the group 'ith a preset idea about the group and its#e#bers (Berne$ 192C 199C !ay$ 1995). This is based on his past e7periences and relationships'ith si#ilar groups or his fa#ily. This #ental picture about the group as seen through the eyes of the#e#ber is called the personal structure$ 'hich is diagra##ed as a group i#ago. It sho's ho' theperson percei"es the leader$ indi"idual #e#bers and the group process$ probably outside a'arenessand it influences our actions.*or e7a#ple+ ,hen a ne' e#ployee :oins a training group$ he enters it 'ith a #ental i#age of thegroup based on past e"ents$ preconceptions$ ru#our and fantasy. The i#age is personal to each#e#ber of the group as they enter 'ith different e7pectations$ leading in turn to differentperceptions. Berne identified four stages in the de"elop#ent of our i#ago$ fro# the ti#e one firstenters the group until the point at 'hich the #e#bers are integrated as a group as they 'ill beco#e.These phases are not separated by clear boundariesC 'e gradually #o"e through the#. !o'e"er$ thecharacteristics of each are recognisable and &no'ledge of the# is helpful 'ith the tea# buildingprocess. These stages are+ 8ro"isional group i#ago$ Adapted group i#ago$ =perati"e group i#ago$

Ad:usted group i#ago. Any i#ago has a #a7i#u# of four types of slots+ The leadership slot$ selfslot$ differentiated slot and undifferentiated slot.

"rovisional group imago+ Any ne' #e#ber 'ill enter the group 'ith his o'n idea about the leader$based on his pre"ious e7periences 'ith si#ilar group leaders or other leaders. The leader 'ill begi"en a separate slot. The person #ay allot a slot for hi#self based on his i#age about hi#self$ hise7pectations fro# the progra##e$ the leader and other #e#bers. Those #e#bers of the group'ho# he &no' 'ill occupy indi"idual slots (differentiated) based on his e7perience and relationship'ith the#. *inally all others 'ill occupy a co##on undifferentiated slot$ as sho'n in figure 2. Inorganisations it could #ost li&ely be depart#ent 'ise slots. The beha"iour and attitudes of the#e#ber as he :oins the group 'ill be structured by his pro"isional i#ago. !e 'ill gain a certain le"el

of satisfaction if he can confir# his anticipations.

Adapted group imago+ As he gets to &no' the other #e#bers in the group$ he updates andaug#ents his i#ago. radually he begins to differentiate bet'een indi"iduals 'ho 'ere for#erlygrouped into one slot$ so that his i#ago co#es to rese#ble that in the gi"en figure . 8assti#ingand 'or&ing together helps hi# collect data about others and he fits it in the slots. I include regularbrea&s and group e7ercises in #y training sessions to facilitate this ad:ust#ent. I also find that thosepeople 'ho do not con"erse 'ith others$ or do not #o"e around during brea&s$ are stuc& 'ith thepro"isional i#ago. In those cases$ learning and change 'ould be "ery slo' and #any ti#es eluding.

perative group imago+ This third step concerns the #e#ber;s relationship 'ith the leader. !e'ants to sort this out before he can decide ho' to beha"e to'ards other #e#bers of the group. The

position of the slots in his i#ago is 'ith respect to the leader;s slot$ ta&e on #ore significance$ assho'n in figure 9. 8o'er plays are li&ely to occur at this stage$ as 'e see& to establish the le"el ofcontrol that 'ill apply. At this stage$ the tas&s of the group 'ill ta&e place. This is the ti#e 'hen#e#bers engage in psychological ga#es as they #o"e into habitual patterns for transacting 'ithinone another.

Ad;usted group imago+ The #e#ber 'ill enter this stage 'ith a clearer "ie' of indi"idual #e#bersof the group. There 'ill be enough details for hi# to ha"e decided 'hich people he 'ants to 'or&


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closely 'ith$ 'ho he 'ould prefer to lose fro# the tea# and 'ho he 'ill tolerate pro"ided he doesnot ha"e to spend #uch ti#e 'ith the#. !e has also decided the leadership issues or ha"edeter#ined to continue his struggle for control. !is i#ago 'ill loo& as in figure . Each #e#ber'ould ha"e co#e to so#e conclusion or the other$ but all the #e#bers by no'$ 'ould ha"e so#eshared e7pectations about ho' the group 'ill function.

Berne said HThe pri"ate structure$ that is the group as seen through the eyes of each #e#ber$ is the#ost decisi"e structural aspect for the outco#e of the indi"iduals therapy. This is e%ually good 'ithrespect to organisational training groups as 'ell. Indi"iduals #a&e groups. Therefore$ effecti"enessof the group is dependent of indi"idual effecti"eness. As seen earlier$ the leader occupies a pro#inentposition in the i#ago of e"ery #e#ber. Also$ learning as a group is effecti"e only 'hen #e#berstrust each other and the leader and share their e7periences and proble#s in the group. To effect this$indi"idual;s i#ago has to be differentiated. This is possible only if the group #e#bers co#e to &no'#ore about each other. As a leader$ it is #y responsibility to ensure that the progra#s ha"e enoughbrea&s and group acti"ities that 'ill encourage interrelationship 'ithin #e#bers and 'ith the leader.A one-'ay #onotonous session 'ithout brea&s 'ill ne"er allo' the indi"iduals to shift to the higherle"els of group i#ago ad:ust#ents. This is a challenge especially 'hile conducting short courses of

duration less than a day. I effect this by allo'ing ti#e for the# to #o"e 'ith each other andintroduce self or others at the beginning of the sessions.

4eadership is highly influenced by these steps in the e"olution of the group i#ago(3lar&son$1991).As the ad:ust#ent process proceeds$ the #e#bers tend to relate #ore acti"e 'ith the leader. Ifind that after the initial inaction$ all #e#bers respond enthusiastically to #e and so#e 'ish toestablish closer ties and lin&s 'ith #e. Their race to be closer to the leadership is %uiet e"ident 'henthe operati"e group i#ago is for#ing. As a leader$ #y role is to clarify the internal and e7ternalboundaries. I do not beco#e too close to participants since that 'ill seriously dilute #y i#pact as atrainer. It #ay also create an unnatural euphoria in the classroo#. o#e #e#bers tend to for#coteries and coalitions 'ith the trainer and plan to collecti"ely attac& the organisation. This is also

li&ely to turn the training sessions into passti#e. Beco#ing too close to the# influences the trainer tosee the situation in the sa#e 'ay as they do and thus could not effect any change in their fra#e ofreference. I gi"e #uch i#portance to this$ because indi"idual;s perception of the leader and the groupaffect the 'hole functioning of the group and its outco#e. This #ay be in the for# of ga#e-playing.As a leader$ #y co#petence and potency is in test during those ti#es. I inter"ene and set things ontrac& 'hen the group is de"iating fro# the goal$ #ay be because of one #e#ber or #any. I alsoclarify #y boundaries and be a'are of the#.ReferenceBerne$ E. (Ed) teiner$ 3.$ >er$ 3. (192).#eyond games and scripts.


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"ossible abuses of TA in educational or organisational wor/

The possible abuses of TAand 'ays of pre"enting the# are gi"en in table 6.

Table. 6. Abuses of TA and pre"entions.

A'!E $ TA "&E=E)T+)

>eeping the client continuously dependent

on the consultant.

*or#ing a ti#e bound contract for 'or&

and re"ie'ing perfor#ance beforee7tension of contract.


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=ngoing nature of TA based a'areness is ac&no'ledged and i#bibed in the participants.

Encouraging people$ be responsible for the#sel"es and their de"elop#ent. 8articipants arepartners in the learning process and not follo'ers or "icti#s of the trainer. The innate s&ills of theparticipants is encouraged fro# an I;# =.>.$ @ou;re =.>. position.

tro&ing changed beha"iours.

3elebrating success.

Reference

!ay$ /. (199). -or%ing it out at wor%. !erts+ her'ood.!ay$ /. (1995).Transactional analysis for trainers: Your guide to potent and competent application of TA in

organisations. Minneapolis+ her'ood.T..3.$ B.=.3. (199) The ITAA state#ent of ethics. Training and Certification Manual for t$e

Training and Certification Council of Transactional Analysts) 'nc. 115.

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