MRD_Hamilton_Halvorson_2007.pdf

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occuring in Pakistan in 75 years. Quetta(1935) and Makran (1945) also suffered

large (M=7.5+) earthquakes. The zilzila(Urdu for earth movement) that shookAzad Jammu and Kashmirs regional capi-tal of Muzaffarabad and the surroundingarea resulted in a landscape of physicaldestruction and humanitarian crisis. Pak-istan did not have a national disaster pre-paredness plan in place when the earth-quake struck. Critical infrastructurehos-pitals, mosques, markets, power lines, andgovernment officeswas severely affected.Children attending class in poorly con-structed buildings proved to be especiallyvulnerable when over 7000 schools col-

lapsed. Approximately 3.2 million peoplewere rendered homeless. Damage esti -mates quickly reached US$ 5.2 billion.News of the earthquake spread beyondthe mountains, and motivated an outpour-ing of response from individuals and civilsociety organizations in Pakistan andaround the world.

According to official s tatistics releasedin mid-November 2005, 73,318 peopleperished as a result of the earthquake;however, estimates of fatalities provided byother sources are as high as 87,000. Basedon our findings and those of other stud-ies, women made up a larger proportionof the injury and mortality figures. Severalinter-related factors contributed to womenbeing at risk. First, the earthquakeoccurred when many women were insidecleaning up after the morning meal. Sec-ond, cheaply and shoddily constructedcement block houses and apartments col-lapsed, trapping or killing women insidewhile they worked. The practice ofpurdah(ie gender segregation and female seclu-sion from public space) was another factorthat further contributed to the location ofmost women inside the private spaces ofthe home. In areas wherepurdahwas notas strictly enforced, women were morelikely to flee their homes at the first indi-cation of the earthquake.

The reality of families and villagesbeing partially or completely buried byrubble and landslide debris overwhelmedthe physical and psychological capacity oftraditional social-support systems. The sur-viving women and their families experi-enced dramatic reductions in food, fuel,

clothing, and other basic necessities,thereby leading to cases of exposure,infant and child mortality, cold stress, andother medical emergencies. In the midstof this chaos, women became a fundamen-tal force in the struggle for survival and as

Useful online resources on women, gender, and disaster manageme

Chew L, Ramdas KN. 2005. Caught in the Storm: The Impact of Natural Disasters on

Women. San Francisco, CA: The Global Fund for Women. http://www.

globalfundforwomen.org/cms/images/stories/downloads/disaster-report.pdf

Overview of post-disaster impacts faced by women and suggestions for gender-base

considerations in preparedness, relief, and recovery.

Enarson E. 2006. The Gender and Disaster Sourcebook. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK:

Gender and Disaster Network, University of Northumbria. http://www.gdnonline.org/

sourcebook/index.htm

Compilation of resources focused on the link between gender equality and disaster

risk reduction.

Enarson E, Meyreles L, Gonzalez M, Hearn Morrow B, Mullings A, Soares J. 2004.

Working With Women at Risk: Practical Guidelines for Assessing Local Disaster Risk.

Miami, FL: International Hurricane Center, Florida International University.

http://www.ihc.fiu.edu/lssr/workingwithwomen.pdf

Action oriented step-by-step approaches to carrying out risk assessments among vul-

nerable women and to applying related outcomes to disaster planning and preparatio

Gender and Disaster Network. 2007. Practical Guides and Checklists. Newcastle upo

Tyne, UK: Gender and Disaster Network, University of Northumbria. http://www.

gdnonline.org/wot_practical.htm

Listing of various gender and disaster-related materials promoting gender sensitivity

in post-disaster assessments and reconstruction efforts.

Yonder A, Akcar S, Gopalan P. 2005. Womens Participation in Disaster Relief and

Recovery. SEEDS Pamphlet 22. New York: The Population Council. http://www.

popcouncil.org/pdfs/seeds/Seeds22.pdfSummarizes information about the situation of women in post-disaster contexts and

provides a number of innovative methods for enhancing womens roles in relief and

recovery.

FIGURE 2 An emergency tent village on the outskirts of Balakot provides little privacy and

personal space for women. (Photo by J.P. Hamilton, November 2005)


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Jennifer Parker Hamilton and Sarah J. Halvorson

Mountain Research and Development Vol 27 No 4 Nov 2007

298

first responders caring for the injured andthe dying (Figure 3).

Relief and response

As the shock consumed the region daysand weeks following the earthquake,women played a critical role in sponta -neous and organized relief efforts, dig-ging out survivors, feeding those in need,and building and maintaining temporaryshelters. In the spirit of self-reliance,womens kinship and friendship networksprovided earthquake victims a means ofmoral support, security, comfort, andaccess to resources. A major coping strat-egy employed by earthquake survivorsand displaced families was to take refugewith relat ives in areas that either sufferedminimal damage or were quickly stabi-lized. However, the scale of damage andtrauma left many mountain women andtheir families without access to even thebasic security that social networks typical-ly provide. Thousands were forced toreside in tent camps for extended peri-ods of time.

As the relief effort was unfolding, thehighly patriarchal social structure and pur-dahmade it extremely difficult for womento evacuate mountain villages and toaccess aid materials, healthcare, and com-pensation for their losses. Some familiesliving in remote areas at higher elevations

were reluctant to travel down to reliefcamps set up in Muzaffarabad, partly out

of fear for the safety and security ofwomen. NGO field teams based in thearea estimated that 17,000 women wereexpected to give birth within two monthsof the earthquake and 50% of the marriedwomen in Kashmir were pregnant at thetime of the earthquake. These womenfaced an overall lack of obstetrical careand squalid conditions for delivery. Med-ical and relief teams noted a critical lackof female medical personnel to evaluateand attend to womens health needs.

The United Nations High Commis-sion for Refugees (UNHCR) attempted to

incorporate womens perspectives into therelief and response phase early on byestablishing a womens committee inMuzaffarabad. Nevertheless, women con-fined to tent camps faced tremendoushardship. A needs assessment conductedin November 2005 by the Shirkat GahWomens Resource Center, a womensrights organization based in Lahore, iden-tified a number of critical issues facingearthquake-impacted women including:

Accentuated gender barriers; An increase in personal insecurity; Unmet reproductive needs; Inadequate bathing and latrine facili-

ties; Insufficient accommodation for

hygiene needs; and Problems in obtaining compensation

because of lost identification cards andrelocation.

Stories circulated about physical violenceand abuse in tent villages and about younggirls and infants being abducted and ille-gally put up for adoption. Others spoke ofgirls, who at the time were separated fromtheir families, being naively handed overto men posing as male relatives.

Rebuilding lives and communities

The reconstruction process has been criti-cal for determining how and when fami-lies have been able to regain a sense ofnormalcy. In May 2006, inconsistentprogress on the rebuilding of homes,shops, and government buildings was evi-dent. A general sense of confusion mixed

FIGURE 3 Women in tent camps, such

as the elderly woman pictured here,

took on the roles of surrogate mothers

and childcare providers for mothers who

had been injured or died as a result ofthe earthquake. (Photo by J.P. Hamilton,

June 2006)


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with disdain regarding the rebuildingeffort was conveyed in conversations and

interviews conducted with women residingin tent camps and taking shelter in partial-ly destroyed homes:

We have to make a decision between shel-

ter and food right now. It could take 1000

years [for the community to recover].

(G.J., a mother caring for her family in their

partially destroyed home in Patika, May 2006)

We didnt receive any money or a fan for

our tent. The government has informed us

that we must leave the tent village.

(S.S., a resident of Muzaffarabad living with

her family in a local tent camp, May 2006)

For women still caring for their fami-lies in the tent camps, scabies, inadequatesanitation, poor hygiene conditions, andconstant fears of waterborne disease out-breaks persisted (Figure 4). Women inter-viewed during our f ield research seemedespecially responsive to the suggestionsand recommendations of the governmentand NGOs about the manner in whichbuildings should be reconstructed (forexample, lightweight wood and metalsheeting shelters as opposed to un-rein-forced concrete structures). The recom-mended shelters are potentially safer dur-ing seismic events than cinderblock andconcrete structures; however, they lackproper insulation against the cold foundin the mountains. One and a half yearsafter the earthquake (March 2007), over30,000 people were still living in 44 tentcamps slated to be closed at the end ofMay 2007. Those choosing to stay in thetent villages past the deadline wereinstructed that they would receive no fur-ther relief aid.

Positive outcomes

As the quotation from a local woman indi-cates (see margin), people have demon-strated an amazing amount of resilienceand optimism despite the devastation andpersonal tragedy. Local examples of theways in which womens status and genderinequality have been challenged stand outas small victories for some. New centerswere established to give women the

opportunity to learn a variety of handi-craft skills and income-generating activi-ties. The media attention drawn to thearea prompted donors to revitalize ailingschool systems and to open a number ofnew girls schools throughout the region.Though gender and vulnerability studiesare not new to hazards research, theevent has opened a door for an increasein discussions among government agen-cies, non-governmental organizations,and social activists in Pakistan about theneed to bring womens ideas, concerns,and perspectives to the forefront of disas-ter risk planning and mitigation as well asto relief, recovery and reconstructionefforts.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this Kashmirearthquake situation analysis as well assuggestions by local women that havebeen recorded by other action researchinitiatives, we recommend the followingstrategies to local communities and disas-ter relief agencies and organizations. Theintent of these recommendations is toensure that the specific needs and contri-butions of mountain women are institu-tionalized in earthquake disaster riskreduction plans:

God took everything

away, but God helped us

and gave us all of these

things. We even get miner-

al water. (H.J., a localwoman from Balakot

residing in a Balakot tent

camp, May 2006)

FIGURE 4 Limited access to potabl

water, inadequate sanitation facilitie

and dismal environmental health

conditions are challenges women fa

in caring for their families in the ten

villages. (Photograph by J.P. Hamil to

November 2005)


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1. Conduct pre-disaster vulnerability andneeds assessmentsThe socioeconomic and cultural con-text of vulnerability and gender-basedneeds in pre-disaster settings shouldbe evaluated and incorporated intodisaster preparedness plans.

2. Support womens access to health andlivelihood resourcesWomen should be entitled to emer-

gency medical training, land rights,essential health services, income-gen-erating activities, vocational training,and micro-credit programs. Infrastruc-ture, responsive institutions, andaccess to markets are vital to expand-ing disaster-resistant livelihoodoptions for women.

3. Utilize womens indigenous knowledgeWomens traditional knowledge-based

FIGURE 5 The physical processes that cause ear thquakes and the actions that will keep household members safe are the topics of this

educational poster distributed in Urdu. (Courtesy of Dr Rebecca Bendick, Department of Geosciences, The University of Montana)


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insights should be considered andintegrated into early warning plans.

Given their intimate connections tothe environment, women are well-placed for identifying and monitoringpotential disaster precursors such asbehavioral changes among animalpopulations and changes in weatherand water levels. Elderly women mayhave memories of past disasters and,given the opportunity, could pass life-saving information on to younger gen-erations.

4. Provide science-based earthquake educationExtending formal and informalearthquake education initiatives to

Pakistani women is imperative. Astarting point should be promotingliteracy, developing appropriate cur-riculum materials, and trainingteachers and women leaders. Train-ing should address life-saving earth-quake drills, basic earthquake sci-ence, risk awareness, and informa-tion about building seismicallyappropriate dwellings (Figure 5).Women should be respected as ablecommunity defenders and disastermanagement professionals.

5. Give women active roles in relief, rehabili-tation, and rebuildingFemale liaisons need to be identifiedearly to act as representatives for vil-lages or neighborhoods. Aid distribu-tion methods should be culturally sen-sitive and recognize households head-ed by women, the number ofmembers, and the special dietaryneeds of pregnant women. Moretraining courses similar to the Pak-istan Red Crescent Society trainingcourse on disaster preparedness that

was offered the month before theKashmir Earthquake are needed.

6. Provide physical and legal protectionAccountability for the safety and theprotection of women and their landand inheritance rights must beupheld by all organizations and agen-cies. Tent village residents must beaccurately registered, and detailedrecords of arrivals and departuresmust be maintained. Widows and girlsare particularly at risk of being mar-ried off by force and social pressurein post-disaster situations. Provisionsmust be made for women who are illit-erate and/or lack personal identifica-

tion documents.7. Ensure psychological care

Research suggests that depression andanxiety-related disorders after a disas-ter are more prevalent in women thanin men. Standards for treating traumain earthquake-related crises should beculture-, gender-, and age-sensitive.Male members of the populationshould also be recipients of psycho-logical care and appropriate therapyin order to reduce the risk of gender-based violence and exploitation.

8. Provide gender training to military anddisaster relief organizationsWhile the majority of displaced adultsduring earthquakes are women, mostaid and relief operations workthrough channels that are biasedtowards if not dominated by men.Gender awareness training should beroutine for all military and relieforganizations and is critical for secur-ing the full protection of mountainwomen and their access to aid andrelief.

AUTHORS


Department of Geography, Social Science Building 203,

The University of Montana, Missoula, MT, 59812-5040,USA.

jenni fer.parker.hamilton@gmai l.com;

[email protected]

Jennifer Hamilton has served as a research assistant

with the Mountain Geography Research Group at The Univer-

sity of Montana since 2005. Her interests include hazards

and disasters, indigenous knowledge, and gender studies.

Sarah Halvorson is an associate professor of geogra-

phy, specializing in environmental hazards, water

resources, development studies, and gender geography.

She has carried out research in the mountainous regions

of Central and South Asia since 1994.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge financial support from

The University of Montana and the National Science

Foundation Small Grant for Exploratory Research Pro-

gram (EAR #0602675) awarded to Lewis Owen, Universi-

ty of Cincinnati, and Ulrich Kamp, The University of Mon-

tana. The insights and suggestions of Susanne Wymann,

Anne Zimmermann, Jeffrey Gritzner, and Ulrich Kamp are

also greatly appreciated.

FURTHER READING

Halvorson SJ. 2005. Growing up i

Gilgit: An exploration of girls life-

worlds in northern Pakistan. In: NC, Falah GW, editors. Geographies

Muslim Women: Gender, Religion,

Space. New York: Guilford Press,

pp 1944.

Hicks E, Pappas G. 2006. Coordin

ing disaster relief after the South

Asia Earthquake. Society43(5):

4250.

International Federation of Red C

(IFRC). 2006. Gender issues in e

gencies. In: Walter J, editor. World

aster Report: Focus on Neglected

Crises. Geneva, Switzerland: Inter

tional Federation of Red Cross an

Red Crescent Societies, pp 140

IUCN [The World Conservation Un

2006. Hearing Their Voices: The

Women and Children in the Earth-

quake Affected Areas of Pakistan.http://www.duryognivaran.org/dury

images/newsindex/Rport%20on%

20women%20&%20Childeren%20

20IUCN.pdf; accessed on 28 Aug

2007.

Mehta M. 2007. Gender Matters:

Lessons for Disaster Risk Reductio

South Asia. Kathmandu, Nepal:

ICIMOD [International Centre for

Integrated Mountain Developmen

Shirkat Gah Womens Resource C

ter. 2006. Rising From the Rubble

Special Bulletin on the 2005 Earth

quake in Pakistan. Lahore, Pakist

Shirkat Gah.

Documents

MRD_Hamilton_Halvorson_2007.pdf