Munster Rebellion 1534-1535

Liberty Theological Seminary

16

Liberty Theological Seminary

The Anabaptist Munster Rebellion of 1534-1535

A Paper

Submitted to Dr. Russell Woodbridge

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Course

History of Baptists

CHHI 694

By

David Tack

17 October 2009

Introduction For centuries writers have been analyzing the 1534-1535 Anabaptist rebellion in Munster Germany. No other topic of the Reformation and particularly the Anabaptists has received as much attention throughout the centuries as the Anabaptists of Munster. What is it that caused such an abnormality seemingly uncharacteristic of the Anabaptist pacifistic manner of life?

Anabaptism had a right wing radical group of militant millenary eccentrics, who believed they were justly bearing the sword in preparation for the imminent return and chiliastic reign of Christ. The Anabaptists of the sixteenth century believed more strongly than any group today that the time was imminent for the apocalyptic final battle between God and Satan. This radical segment of Anabaptism; resulting from social unrest, economical prejudices and religious disillusionment, would later become known as the Munsterites. They regarded their suffering and martyrdom as the tribulation preceding the second coming. We find a Biblical text in Matthew 24:23, which remind us that these types of eschatological groups, such as William Miller and the Millerites, have existed throughout the centuries. As we study the Munster rebellion we would do well to absorb Christs cautionary words, Then if any man shall say unto you, Lo, here is Christ, or there; believe it not. The Anabaptist, and their surviving descended denominations, are extraordinary people. The rebellion of Munster is a historical actuality; we would do well to seek, absorb, discern and learn from this historical calamity.

Anabaptist and the Second Coming In Norman Cohns The Pursuit of the Millennium, Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages, he spends a great deal of effort establishing a persisting theme of Middle Age thinking as one that showed a constant expectation for the immediate return of Christ. As 1535 drew to a close, it was estimated that as many as one third of the population of Munster consisted of people who were sure that the apocalypse and the Second Coming were at hand. In the case of the Munsterites, apocalyptical chiliastic expectancy is thought to have been introduced as early as 1528 by Hans Hut, a South German Anabaptist. Hans Hut, the disciple of Thomas Muntzer, contributed the first detailed calculations, identifying Pentecost, 1528, as the date of the second coming. The notion that the tribulation was already in progress was very absolute to the sixteenth century Anabaptist mind. In fact, the Munsterites were convinced it had already begun with the reign of Jan Van Leyden.

We will be looking at length at two decisive divisions within the Anabaptist ranks. One branch, included: John Mathis, Bernard Rothmann, and John Bockelson; contrasted, by a second branch: Obbe Philips, Dirk Philips, and Menno Simons. Presently, it will suffice to mention the two branches birthed two: opposing, distinctive, and descending denominational lineages: Mathias violent Munsterites and Mennos pacifistic Mennonites. The divergences flow from one key luminary: Melchior Hoffman. Concluding our thoughts regarding Anabaptist apocalyptical chiliastic suppositions, lets scrutinize some key statements made by chief Anabaptist leaders of that day. Melchior Hoffman during his interrogation stated, In Munster they have a prophet by the name of John Mathias who claims that he is one of the witnesses of God. A second recorded statement of Hoffman during his interrogation states: Secondly God says, that they should supply themselves with food and other necessities, for the city would suffer hunger and need. Weapons also should be stocked. In the third year of his, Melchior Hoffmans imprisonment, God would come. Reiteration is necessary at this point, though Hans Hut and Melchior Hoffman may have been mouthpieces of fervent expectation for an imminent second coming; it was prevailing in many forms, fashions and social groups throughout this particular time frame. Additionally, another Anabaptist Theologian, Bernhard Rothmann, stated, Observe, therefore, that which was begun by Erasmus, Luther, and Zwingli has now been gloriously established in the first by Melchior and Jan Matthijs and now in our brother Jan van Leyden, who are quite unlearned as the world thinks. Lastly, even Menno Simons believed loosely towards the imminent return of Christ as he stated, Yes, dear brethren, the desirable day of your release is at hand; the day in which you shall stand with great constancy against those who have afflicted you, and have taken away your sweat and your toil, yes, your blood and your life Yes, the urgency of the second coming was universally accepted in the sixteenth century. This belief was significantly reinforced through contributing factors of persecution followed by calamitous executions involving: beheading, burning, quartering, stretching, drowning and every imaginable torturous invention in which mans depraved mind was able to conceive. We have focused on the apocalyptical chiliastic mindset that some of these spirited Anabaptist leaders possessed; but, lets look at the distinctive characteristics of these men in a more meticulous tack.

Anabaptist Key Figures The Anabaptist branches did not just begin to emerge without any actuating force; fundamental figures were instrumental in the development of what evolved into the Munsterites and the Mennonites. We know Swiss Anabaptist are grass root founders of Anabaptism so we will pick up the transitional line of succession with Melchior Hoffman. Hoffman, born in Germany in 1495, attracted towards Martin Luthers teachings; eventually, became a Lutheran lay preacher. Ultimately, Hoffman was banished because of his differing views involving the Eucharist. Hoffman, while traveling in Germany and Sweden, began to have strong chiliastic premonitions. Hoffman was likely influenced by a few of his Strasbourg followers, Leinhard and Ursula Jolst, who claimed to have experienced revelations and visions. In fact, he became so enamored with his own interpretation of the Bible that he decided that no one else in Germany preached the truth. Hoffman actually thought himself to be a prophet, like Elijah, who would prophesy the return of Christ to Strasbourg in 1533, followed by the establishment of the millennial kingdom. He was confirmed in this idea by the prophecy of an old Frisian Anabaptist that he would lie in prison half a year, and would then at the head of his adherents lead Anabaptism to victory over all the world. Consequently, Hoffman was imprisoned, confined to a cage located inside a tower of the Strasbourg prison, where he would eventually die in 1543. One thing that would notably differentiate Hoffman from his radical followers, Jan Mathias and Jan Bockelson, was Hoffmans customary Anabaptist pacifist tendencies. Though rejecting the bearing of arms, he recognized the legitimacy of the state and the necessity of obedience to continued authority. It is extremely important that we denote that from Hoffmans teachings two branches will blossom: radical and peaceful. Hoffmans disciples, referred to as Hoffmanites or Melchiorites, would establish their own places in history; Munsterites and Mennonites.

Munsterite Branch

The radical Anabaptist branch, the Munsterites, was led by Jan Mathias, Bernard Rothmann and Jan Bockelson. Jan Mathias was a baker from Amsterdam who rose to prominent Anabaptist leadership while Hoffman was imprisoned in Strasbourg. Mathias was a self proclaimed prophet who departed from the path of peacefulness practiced by his mentor, Melchior Hoffman. Mathias had a large following outside of Munster and was able to attract multitudinous scores of socially and economically deprived people, not necessarily just Anabaptist, to Munster. Mathias declared Munster as the New Jerusalem and promised equal shares, through a common Moravian Anabaptist practice called communal goods, to all who would come. Ultimately, Mathias met his death during the besieging of Munster when he prophesied that he should go as David before Goliath with a few chosen men, and charge the Bishops overwhelming forces. Kessenbruck relates with smug satisfaction that every limb and part of the new Samson was run through with countless swordthrusts until he was entirely in pieces. The Prophets severed head was paraded in front of the watching Anabaptists by a galloping black knight, then stuck on a pole and planted before the city.

Jan Mathias was quickly succeeded by Jan Bockelson, also known as John of Leyden. Bockelson was born in 1509 in Leiden, Holland, a jack of many trades; but, most historically known as a tailor. Bockelson had a charismatic personality with superb talents in theatrics. Endowed with extraordinary good looks and an irresistible eloquence, he had from youth onwards reveled in writing, producing and acting plays. It was under Bockelsons leadership, with his unparalleled fanaticism and immorality, the Anabaptist image was permanently blemished. Bockelson, already married to a previous wife, took Mathias beautiful widow, Queen Divara, as his own in marriage. Later in his reign, Bockelson would make it mandatory for Munsterites to participate in polygamy. Bockelson seems to have been a megalomaniac, whose behavior cannot be adequately interpreted either simply as sincere fanaticism or simply as calculating hypocrisy. Ultimately, Bockelson was captured and tortured by the Bishop at the fall of Bockelsons Davidic New Jerusalem, the Anabaptist theocratic Munster. As for Bockelson, at the Bishops command he was for some time led about on a chain and exhibited like a performing bear. In January 1536 he was brought to Munster; and there he, Knipperdollinck and another leading Anabaptist were publically tortured to death with red hot irons.

The last Munsterite we will briefly mention is Bernard Rothmann. Rothmann was a Munsterite theologian, born in a bishopric of Munster in 1495. In Munster, Bishop Franz van Waldeck allowed Lutheran influence; but, would not likewise allow Anabaptism in his bishopric. Rothmann, a friend of Lutheran theological giant Philip Melanchthon and an acquaintance of Luther, developed his already original Lutheran tendencies. In 1534, Rothmann, while providing writing services, came into contact with Mathias and Bockelson. Rothmann, like Menno, began to question the doctrine of infant baptism. Rothmann split with Lutheran friend Martin Bucer, another leading German Protestant Reformer, and began to embrace the fanatical apocalyptical chiliastic doctrine being heralded by some Melchiorites. Rothmann, key in the infancy phases of the Munster Rebellion, eventually lost prominent leadership with the arrival of Jan Mathias. Though no longer leading, yet quite active, Rothmann remained true to the cause until the end. No one knows for sure what happened to Rothmann during the fall of Munster; we can only speculate that he either died valiantly in battle of managed to escape.

Mennonite Branch

The second branch of Anabaptists, the pacifistic line, in which the Obbenites and Mennonites would evolve, was to begin through Obbe and Dirk Philips. These Dutch brothers were born in Leeuwarden; Obbe in 1500 and Dirk in 1504, both are described as a son of a Priest. Obbe was trained in medicine and Dirk was a superb theologian comparable to Menno Simons competencies; but, lacked the charisma and leadership skills Simons possessed. Obbes importance for Dutch Anabaptists lay in the fact that he was the first to champion the nonviolent, anti-Munsterite Anabaptist party in the Netherlands. What makes Obbes conversion to Anabaptism fascinating is that he gravitated to Anabaptism through the efforts of Jan Mathias two self proclaiming prophets. When Bartholomeus (Boeckbinder) van Halle and Dirck Cuper, emissaries of Jan Matthijsz van Haarlem, arrived in Leeuwarden, Obbe did not hesitate, emerged from his seclusion and was baptized with many others by these emissaries. This happened in November or December 1533. Later, after the fall of the Anabaptist Munsterite kingdom and the damning effects of Jan Mathias' perversities, Obbe would be uncertain of his conversion and fall away from the Anabaptist faith. Interestingly, Obbe baptized Dirk Philips and Menno Simons; neither one displayed the earmarks of doubt regarding the authoritativeness of their baptisms.

We have already elaborated quite a bit on Menno Simons; but, further amplification is necessary before we look at the rebellion itself. Menno Simons was born in 1496, in the small Dutch village of Witmarsum. Menno was ordained into the Priesthood in 1524; he became convinced that infant baptism was non-scriptural and was baptized an Anabaptist in 1536. Menno is best know for his leadership skills during a time of unsurpassed anti-Anabaptist malice, emerging from the failed attempt of the Anabaptist Munsterites to establish a theocratic government in Munster. Catholics, Lutherans and heathens animosity for Anabaptist was caused by the abhorrent and unchristian acts of Munster; such as, senseless executions, loss of private properties, polygamy, murder, seditions, anarchy, etc.

It was in the wake of these monstrosities that Menno Simons would reconstruct the customary, pacifistic, Anabaptist following. In any event, official Lutheran policy after 1536 made it obligatory for princes to impose physical punishment on all Anabaptists, and the death sentence upon those who remained obstinate. Menno, along with Obbe and Dirk Philips, had publically denounced the revolt involving John Mathias, Jan Bockelson and the Munsterite disciples. In his refutation of the violence at Munster, Menno recognized the profound danger of mixing zealous Christian convictions with the coercive power of the sword. It was primarily after the fall of the Munsterites theocratic kingdom that Menno Simons became indispensable in the excruciating undertaking to preserve the Dutch Anabaptist orthodoxy from extinction. In the spring of 1535, as the horrors of the Munsterite kingdom unfolded, Menno penned his first surviving tract, a polemic against Jan of Leyden, in which he denounced the private visions and impatient violence of the Munsterites and laid the groundwork for a biblical hermeneutic based firmly on the teachings of Christ.

Munster Munster, in present day Germany, was a very populated town for its time. This small city of slightly more than nine thousand people supported not only the magnificent St. Pauls Cathedral, but also ten churches, five of them grander than those found in much larger cities. During this particular era, North Germany consisted of several interdependent ecclesiastical states, each one was resided over by a prince-bishop which made up the Hanseatic League. Lutheranism was spreading in Germany, birthing an alliance called the Schmalkaldic League. The Schmalkaldic League was designed by that eras most powerful Protestant German rulers, Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse; and John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony; and, consequently, it was a pre-agreed protective alliance in the event of a Catholic or Roman Empire attack. In Munster, Lutherism was acceptable and co-existed with Roman Catholicism. The Munster council supported Lutheranism, but Lutheranism in Munster was shallowly rooted, based on little more than the political necessity for the town to maintain the support of the powerful Schmalkaldic League. One reason why Bernard Rothmann had such a prevailing success, though he did meet stiff resistance at first, was because of the less rigorous anti-sacrificial religious community found within Munster. The more radical Lutherans, who were becoming increasingly strong during the decade after Luthers defiance in Wittenburg, viewed the Anabaptists as eccentric allies rather than dangerous heretics. So we have a climacteric environment that was ripe for radical idealists such as Rothmann, Mathias and Bockelson.

Munster under Anabaptist Rule

By February 27, 1534, amidst substantial political upheavals between the city councils, Lutherans, Catholics, and Bishop Franz Von Waldeck; the Anabaptist radicals successfully expel anyone who is not Anabaptist or are unwilling to proselyte. To achieve this pure and uncontaminated community Matthys advocated the execution of all remaining Lutherans and Roman Catholics; but Kipperdollinck pointed out that this would turn the whole world against the town, it was decided to merely expel them. The wintery expulsion included: elderly, infants, pregnant woman, invalids; all of whom were forced to leave all their personal belongings behind. As promised, a communal system was established in Munster, which was controlled by designated elders. Executions became frequent and included the blacksmith and a small group of men who rebelled against forced polygamy. Jan Bockelson, who sets himself up as Mathias successor, institutes hideous and immoral atrocities including polygamy. At the beginning of September on Dusentchur, a goldsmith from a neighboring town, set up as a new prophet. One day, in the main square, this man declared that the Heavenly Father had revealed to him that Bockelson was to be king of the whole world, holding dominion over all kings, princes and great ones of the earth. Bockelson reigned as sovereign king, remaining opposition punished by death, including two women beheaded for opposing polygamy. After two failed assaults, the Bishops siege begins to effectively quarantine the Munsterites and starvation becomes prevalent; thus, rebellion increases forcing daily executions. Every animal dog, cat, mouse, rat, hedgehog was killed and eaten and the people began to consume grass and moss, old shoes and whitewash on the walls, the bodies of the dead. Finally, on June 22, 1535, the Bishops forces launched a successful attack, aided by two escaped Anabaptist Munsterite guards. The once impregnable Munsterite stronghold falls, most of the surviving men are immediately executed. Three Anabaptist leaders: Bockelson, Knipperdolling, and Krechting are captured and later tortured and executed. The three men were secured to the post with iron collars, which were imbedded with spikes that dug into their necks The executioners were vested in their art and aware that the law required the victim to be kept alive and conscious for a full hour of excruciating pain. The method of these mens torture was the tearing of skin by use of hot tongs. Heavy iron tongs were to be heated until they were red hot. The condemned were then to be led to a public place and their bodies ripped apart with tongs. At a designated moment a dagger would be thrust into their hearts. The whole concept of torture revolved upon the belief that if the body could be tortured enough to get the soul to recant; the temporal earthly torture was justified when balanced against the alternative result of being cast into an eternal hell. After the execution the three bodies were suspended from a church-tower in the middle of the town, in cages which are still to be seen there today. The hanging cages are what really sparked my interest to write about this particular rebellion. What would cause a community to hate enough to leave these cages as a public spectacle for over three centuries now? To think that the corpses of these three rebels were left in the cages to rot is unbelievable. After studying the historical event, I now have a more complete understanding on how this could be possible!

Historical Significances The most palpable signification comes through the restoration efforts of Menno Simons, Dirk Philips and many other less known Anabaptist leaders from the peaceful Hoffmanite branch. The Mennonites of North America are a religious group with about 310,000 baptized members divided into fifteen separate organized bodies and numerous unaffiliated fragments. Together with their cousins, the Amish and Hutterites, Mennonites have more than 900,000 members worldwide. Sadly, though these men did a tremendous job in restoration, the Munster rebellion has left a long lasting stigma that still exists today. The Munster incident was used by the Catholics to defeat not only Anabaptism, but also Protestantism in general, while the

reformers used the Munsterite label for all Anabaptists, including the peaceful wing. Even modern Protestant scholarship has not fully overcome the effects of this prejudice.

From a socialistic standpoint, many of the Munsterite characteristics are still part of todays cultured society. Revolutionary millenarianism drew its strength from a population living on the margin of society peasants without land or too little land even for subsistence; journeyman and unskilled workers living under the continuous threat of unemployment; beggars and vagabonds - in fact from the amorphous mass of people who were not simply poor but who could find no assured and recognized place in society at all. Most recently, America has seen one of the worst social economical recessions of our time; thousands have lost jobs and foreclosures have abounded to record numbers. What is true of America can also been seen world wide!

From a spiritual standpoint, Munsterite followers, typically lower class and less educated, experienced religious unrest resulting from ecclesiastical abuses, immoralities, perks and prejudices. Time has rolled on but the present ages still produce clerical abuses, perversions, failures and extortions. Again and again during the second half of the middle Ages worldliness amongst the clergy resulted in disaffection [the absence or alienation of affection or goodwill; estrangement; disloyalty: Disaffection often leads to outright treason.] amongst the laity and that disaffection naturally extended to the poor.

Introduction to this almost mystical type of historical event, inflames the mind of skepticism, reinforcing that something of this fashion is found only in imaginary novels. The problem with this type of fragmentary thinking is that this event has been historically recorded and is realistically factual. Today, we still experience these same difficulties: social unrest and religious laxity; thus, it is reasonable to assume that a similar catastrophic event could occur during our life time. We have seen smaller scale, modern Munsterite type rebellions, in the tragedies of David Koreshs Branch Davidians, where seventy six followers died. Interestingly, David Koreshs real name was Vernon Wayne Howell. Koresh, like the Munsterite leader Jan Bockelson, who thought he was heir to the Davidic lineage, thought he was a special prophet. Koresh believed himself to be a modern-day Cyrus the Great, who had delivered the Jews from Babylon. Koresh is the Hebrew word for "Cyrus the Great". Likewise we have the tragic result of another modern day Messianic type character, Jim Jones. In Johnstown Guyana, the Peoples Temple founder, Jim Jones, indirectly led over nine hundred people to their deaths. Most recently, another second coming prediction has been made by, a popular radio evangelist, Harold Camping. Camping predicts that Christ will return to the Earth on May 21, 2011. The times and seasons have consistently reflected the possibilities of Christs return. From the time of Christs twelve disciples to present day era, the potentiality of Christs return has seemed expedient to many sincere Christians.

Conclusion We see why the Anabaptist rebellion has intrigued many for centuries. Unfairly, we have looked at the Anabaptist in a very narrow scope. These two segments only represent a fragment of Anabaptist of the sixteenth century. Meticulously, we have isolated one particular concept of Anabaptist Doctrine, that of radical millennialism. The imminent, apocalyptical return of Christ preoccupied the early Anabaptist mind. Are we really much different then the sixteenth century Anabaptist? Signs that existed in the Middle Ages are still evident, and will continue to be manifested, in our so called advanced era. The possibility of a similar Munsterite takeover in todays society is still very reasonable.

David Koresh, Jim Jones, Harold Camping; they all hold true to modern day chiliastic proclamations. William Miller, an American Baptist preacher who is credited with starting the Adventist movement, predicted Christ was returning between March 21, 1843 and March 21, 1844; and then again on April 18, 1844. Surprisingly, in spite of these false predictions groups like: Seventh Day Adventists, Advent Church, and Jehovahs Witnesses have all germinated from William Miller. We must be careful to equate other world religions; such as, radical Islam into our equation as well!

Todays advanced society still mirrors many of the same rudimentary: social, economical and spiritual earmarks. Todays problems of: poverty, prejudices, disillusionment, desperation, moral decomposition was all predominant in middle century culture! Repetitiously, we accentuate the plausibility that we could see another Muster Rebellion during our lifetime? Stronger yet, is it probable? Based on the study of the Munsterite people and the climatic conditions still existent today, I believe it is possible. Perhaps, not identically representative of Munster; but, similar to it!

Matthew 24:23 states, Then if any man shall say unto you, Lo, here is Christ, or there; believe it not. Jesus Christ, He is incontrovertibly coming back; it could be today, tomorrow, a thousand years from now. Christian believers must live, concentrating, not upon when He is coming back; but, stressing this thought: why is He coming back. Have we learned from the numerous false predictions of Christs return? We would do well to: seek, absorb, discern and learn from the historical calamity of the Munster Rebellion of 1534-1535. Are you ready?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arthur, Anthony. The Tailor King: The Rise and Fall of the Anabaptist Kingdom of Munster. New York, NY: St. Martins, 1999. Cohn, Norman. The Pursuit of the Millennium, Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1970.Elwell, Walter. Ed: Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academics, 2001.

Estep, William. The Anabaptist Story; An Introduction to Sixteenth-Century Anabaptism. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996.

Klaassen, Walter. Ed: Anabaptism in Outline. Waterloo, Canada: Herald Press: 1981.

Krahn, Cornelius. Nanne van der Zijpp and James M. Stayer. "Munster Anabaptists." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. 1987. Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 13 October 2009

Melanchthon, Philip."Whether Christian princes are obligated to apply physical punishment and the sword against the unchristian sect of the Anabaptists (1536). (Critical essay)."Mennonite Quarterly Review76.3(July 2002):315(21).Academic OneFile.Gale.Liberty University.10 Oct. 2009.Roth, John."The Mennonites' dirty little secret: what Christians could learn from Menno Simons and how he rescued the Anabaptist movement."Christianity Today40.n11(Oct 7, 1996):44(5).Academic OneFile.Gale.Liberty University.10 Oct. 2009

. Wikipedia Encyclopedia. David Koresh, The Free Dictionary, http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/David+Koresh

The dead bodies of three Anabaptist leaders: Bockelson, Knipperdolling, and Krechting were exhibited in cages, which hung from the steeple of St. Lambert's Church; the cages still hang there, though the bones were removed later. Krahn, Cornelius, Nanne van der Zijpp and James M. Stayer. "Mnster Anabaptists." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. 1987. Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 13 October 2009

Anthony Arthur, The Tailor King; The Rise and Fall of the Anabaptist Kingdom of Munster (New York NY: St. Martins: 1999) 3.

Walter Klaassen, Ed: Anabaptism in Outline (Waterloo, ONT: Herald Press: 1981) 318.

Anthony Arthur, The Tailor King, 25.

Walter Klaassen, Ed: Anabaptism in Outline (Waterloo, ONT: Herald Press: 1981) 317.

Walter Klassen, Ed: Anabaptism in Outline; Interrogation of Melchior Hoffman, 1535, Quellen: Elsass II, 395 17.14, 317.

Walter Klassen, Ed: Anabaptism in Outline; 17.14 Interrogation of Melchior Hoffman, 1535, Quellen: Elsass II, 395, 329.

Walter Klassen, Ed: Anabaptism in Outline; 17.15 Interrogation of Melchior Hoffman, 1535, Quellen: Elsass II, 444-445, 329.

Walter Klassen, Ed: Anabaptism in Outline; 17.16: Bernhard Rothmann, Restitution, 1534, SBR, 216-219: 333.

Walter Klassen, ed: Anabaptism in Outline; 17.28: Menno Simons,Cross of the Saints, ca. 1554, CWMS, 613: 343

William Estep, The Anabaptist Story; An Introduction to Sixteenth-Century Anabaptism (Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans: 1996) 154.

Krahn, Cornelius, Nanne van der Zijpp and James M. Stayer. "Mnster Anabaptists." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. 1987. Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 13 October 2009

William Estep, The Anabaptist Story, 154.

Anthony Arthur, The Tailor King, 65, 66.

Norman Cohn: The Pursuit of the Millennium, Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages (New York NY: Oxford University Press: 1970) 267, 268.

Norman Cohn: The Pursuit of the Millennium, 268.

Ibid, 279, 280.

William Estep, The Anabaptist Story,158.


Philip Melanchthon."Whether Christian princes are obligated to apply physical punishment and the sword against the unchristian sect of the Anabaptists (1536). (Critical essay)."Mennonite Quarterly Review76.3(July 2002):315(21).Academic OneFile.Gale.Liberty University.10 Oct. 2009.

John D. Roth."The Mennonites' dirty little secret: what Christians could learn from Menno Simons and how he rescued the Anabaptist movement."Christianity Today40.n11(Oct 7, 1996):44(5).Academic OneFile.Gale.Liberty University.10 Oct. 2009.

John D. Roth."The Mennonites' dirty little secret: what Christians could learn from Menno Simons and how he rescued the Anabaptist movement."Christianity Today40.n11




Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium, 262.

Ibid, 271.




Ibid, 176

Ibid, 280

See Appendix A for depicting Photograph of these cages.

Walter J. Elwell, Ed: Evangelical Dictionary of Theology (Grand Rapids MI: Baker Academics: 2001) 758.



Ibid, 283.

Wikipedia Encyclopedia. David Koresh, The Free Dictionary, http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/David+Koresh

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Munster Rebellion 1534-1535