NITROGEN CYCLING AND COMPOSTING TECHNOLOGIES IN

78

NITROGEN CYCLING AND COMPOSTING TECHNOLOGIES IN LIVESTOCK MANURE

MANAGEMENT

(Siklus Nitrogen dan Teknologi Pengomposan pada Manajemen Pupuk Asal Ternak)

Ladiyani Retno Widowati, Rochayati S, Saraswati R

Indonesian Soil Research Institute Jl. Tentara Pelajar No. 12, Bogor 16114, Indonesia

[email protected]

ABSTRAK

Pada sistem produksi ternak, produksi limbah berlangsung dalam jumlah yang signifikan sejalan dengan pertumbuhan populasi. Limbah ternak memiliki fraksi biokimia, dengan level N dan C total yang relatif tinggi yang memungkinkan untuk digunakan sebagai sumber pupuk organik, tetapi memerlukan penanganan lebih karena limbah berpotensi untuk menghasilkan green house gas (GHG) dalam bentuk N2O. Telah diprediksi bahwa kontribusi dari sistem produksi ternak sekitar 19,2% dari jumlah totalnya. Emisi tersebut harus direduksi sesuai dengan sejumlah prosedur yang tertera pada Keputusan Presiden No. 61/2011 pada rencana aksi nasional untuk pengurangan emisi GHG. Dari usaha ini, tujuan utamanya adalah memodifikasi pemineralan nitrogen untuk mereduksi limbah N2O. Disamping itu, limbah peternakan akan sangat menguntungkan jika dikelola dengan baik (contohnya pengomposan) dan secara tidak langsung menekan dampak lingkungan secara luas seperti emisi N2O dan NO3 dengan membersihkannya ke dalam air. Ada beberapa cara pengkomposan yang dapat dipilih sesuai dengan tujuan pengkomposan. Metode pengkomposan aerob adalah alternatif terbaik dibandingkan dengan yang anaerob. Tetapi jika CH4 yang dihasilkan akan digunakan sebagai biogas, maka yang digunakan adalah proses anaerob. Parameter dari kematangan kompos biasanya tergantung pada rasio C/N dan temperatur, akan tetapi ada beberapa pertimbangan parameter untuk mengenali kualitas kompos.

Kata Kunci: Siklus Nitrogen, Limbah Peternakan, Dekomposisi, Pengkomposan, Kualitas Kompos

Nitrogen Cycling and Composting Technologies

79

ABSTRACT

In livestock production systems, waste production continues in significant amounts in line with population growth. Livestock waste has each specific bio-chemical fraction, with relatively high levels of N and C-total where it able to be used as a source of organic fertilizer, but require proper handling since the waste has potency to contribute to green house gas (GHG) in the form of N2O. It is predicted contribution of emissions from livestock production system about 19.2% of the total. The emission has to be reduced through several procedures listed in Presidential Decree No. 61/2011 on the National Action Plan for GHG emission reduction. Of these efforts, the main goal is to modify nitrogen mineralization to reduce N2O byproduct. Beside that, livestock waste will be very beneficial to the plants when properly managed (e.g. Composting) and indirectly suppress considerably environmental impacts such as N2O emissions and NO3 leaching into water bodies. There are several composting procedures that can be chosen according to the purpose of composting. Aerobic composting method is the best alternative compares to anaerobic, but if the CH4 production will be harvested as biogas then anaerobic process is used. Parameter for compost maturity usually depends on C/N ratio and temperature, however there are some parameters list considering to compost quality recognition.

Key Words: Nitrogen Cycle, Livestock Waste, Decomposition, Composting, Compost Quality

INTRODUCTION

The population of livestock in Indonesia tent to increase in

line with the increasing protein demand. In addition to increasing

the farmers’ income, livestocks have potential to contribute to

the greenhouse gas (GHG) in the form of N2O, since it plays a

significant role in the N cycling. Manure from different type of

livestock varied in the N content, but most of them are relatively

high in N content, so that if managed properly it will able to serve

a significant contributor to N for plants and indirectly reduce N2O

release. When manure is produced, then the decomposition

process begins to take place. There are several processes that

are related to each other (nitrogen cycling). The intermediate

Data Inventory and Mitigation on Carbon and Nitrogen

80

product (N2O) present when decomposition conditions lack of

oxygen. N2O gases emitted mainly as a byproduct of nitrification

and denitrification processes. Indirect emissions also occur from

leaching or runoff that carry nitrogen compound from the soil

and then is converted into N2O through denitrification processes

(IPCC 2006).

According to the IPCC 2006, the source of GHG from

agricultural activities are grouped as follows: (1) enteric

fermentation, (2) livestock waste management, (3) burning as an

agricultural activity (burning grassland), (4) burning pastures, (5)

use of agricultural lime, (6) urea fertilization, (7) direct and

indirect emissions of N2O from the soil, and (8) irrigated paddy

field. The main sources of emissions from the agricultural sector

are: lowland rice, soil N2O, and livestock industries which are

approximately 46.2%, 28.1%, and 19.2%, respectively (General

Guidelines 2011). Animal production systems have a relatively

large share in the emissions of ammonia (NH3), nitrous oxide

(N2O) and methane (CH4) into the atmosphere. The estimated

mean amount of NH3–N volatilized ranges from 5% to 15% of N

excreted in pastures and from 5% to 30% of N excreted by

confined animals in animal manure management systems

(AMMSs) (Oenema 2006).

Mitigating the gas emission from livestock production system

could be implemented through the improvement of feed quality,

utilisation of supplements block (FBS), a long-term breeding

program, and composting and biogas production from livestock

waste management. These four scenarios expected to reduce

emissions by 12.5% by 2030.

This mitigation programs in animal husbandry sector is part

of the implementation of Presidential Decree No. 61/2011 on the

National Action Plan for GHG emission reduction including: (1)

The use of bioenergy and agricultural waste for composting, (2)

Development of organic fertilizer to increase carbon storage in

the soil, (3) Development of biogas technology and feed to


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reduce GHG emissions from livestock, and (4) Development of

ICEF (Indonesian Carbon Efficient Farming), ISPO (Indonesian

Sustainable Palm Oil), and KRPL (Region Home Sustainable

Food).

This paper will discuss on nitrogen cycling from livestock

waste and describe the waste composting process and

technology.

Nitrogen Cycling from Livestock Waste

Type and characteristics of Livestock Waste

The scope of this paper are the livestock waste production

and the N cycling and composting technologies in relation to

GHG emission. Animal wastes contain a variable amount of

organic N. Its behavior in soil depends on the biodegradation of

organic pools characterized by different mineralization rates and

C/N ratios.

Chicken manure contains of 2.61% N, 0.80% P, 0.40% K,

and moisture of 55% (Lingga 1991; Widowati et al. 2012).

Nutrient content of cow dunk is about 30% organic matters,

1.14-4.38% N, and 0.3% P2O5 and 0.65% K2O (Widowati et al.

2012). Cattle account for 56% of the estimated total N excretion

followed by dairy cattle (16%), sheep (12%), pigs (11%) and

poultry (9%) (Oenema 2006). Manure composition is varies

depending on the physiological properties of animals, feed

quality, the environment including temperature and humidity.

Chicken manure is one of the organic materials that have good

effects on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties, as

well as on plant growth.

Bio-chemical fractions characteristic of manure is influenced

by feed type. For example chicken feed beeing rich in protein

produce manure that is high in water soluble fractions and N

content. Cattle and goats feed grass containing more


82

hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin. To decompose those three

fractions an adequate nitrogen is required. Therefore the

decomposition rate of chicken manure is fastest followed by

goats and cows manure (Table 1).

Table 10. Dry matter (DM), Organic C (Corg), total N (Ntot) and mineral N

contents (all expressed on dry matter basis), C/N ratio and

structural composition using the modified Stevenson

fractionation

Organic sources DM (%)

C (%)

Ntot (%)

Mineral N g/kg

C/N

Goat manure 68 14.3 1.25 0.010 11.4

Cattle manure 45 17.8 1.14 1.986 15.6

Chicken manure 74 27.5 2.61 0.056 10.6

Widowati et al. (2012)

Livestock waste production

Based on the statistical data of 2000 the total population of

large livestock (cattle, buffalo, and horse) was about 14 million

heads, and increased to 18 million head in 2012. The estimation

of total manure production (temporary data) of each livestock

dominated by beef and chicken (Table 11).

A beef cow weighing 500 kg on average produce feces as

much as 40 kg head-1 day-1 (Foth 1980). Range beef cattle feces

production in Indonesia on average 25 kg per day (Sihombing

2000) or the average of the distribution of the population as

much as 10 kg head-1 day-1. With this assumption, the livestock

manure production in Indonesia is about 10.975 to 11 thousand

tons day-1 for year 2000, and rise to 457 thousand tons day-1 for

year 2012. Chicken manure mostly produces by both laying

hens and broiler chickens which have great potential as an

organic fertilizer. Each chicken produces approximately excreta

per day amounted to 6.6% of live weight (Taiganides 1977).

83

Table 11. Livestock population in Indonesia (000 head)

Livestock Year

Increament %

Manure production day

-1 head

-1

Total manure Production kg day

-1

2011 2012 (kg) 2012

Dairy cattle 597.21 621.98 3.98 10 6,220

Beef cattle 14,824.37 16,034.34 7.55 10 160,343

Buffalo 1,305.08 1,378.15 5.30 10 13,782

Goat 16,946.19 17,862.20 5.13 3 53,587

Sheep 11,790.61 12,768.24 7.66 3 38,305

Pig 7,524.79 7,830.92 3.91 1.5 11,746

Horse 8.67 21.65 3.08 15 325

Free-range chicken

264,339.63 285,227.45 7.32 0.1 28,523

Chicken (egg) 124,635.79 130,539.44 4.52 0.1 13,054

Chicken (meat) 1,177,990.87 1,266,902.72 7.02 0.1 126,690

Duck 43,487.52 46,989.52 7.45 0.1 4,699

457,273

Source: Modified from ISA (2012)

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Nitrogen cycle from livestock waste

Nitrogen Transformations

Nitrogen is very easily transformed from one chemical form to

another in soil, such as organic nitrogen to ammonium nitrogen

(mineralization); ammonium nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen

(nitrification); nitrate or ammonium nitrogen to organic nitrogen

(immobilization); nitrate nitrogen to gaseous nitrogen

(denitrification); and ammonium nitrogen to ammonia gas (ammonia

volatilization) (Barbarick 2004). The schematic tranformation of

these nitrogen is illustrated in Figure 29.

Figure 29. Nitrogen cycle

Source: Mikkelsen and Hartz (2008)


85

Nitrogen present in manures is converted to the inorganic form

by the process of mineralization (Figure 1). Initially, larger organic

matter molecules are broken down into smaller ones by specific

enzymes produced by soil micoorganisms. The transformation of

organic nitrogen to the ammonia (NH3) and the ammonium (NH4+)

forms is referred to as ammonification. The ammonia produced

can then be transformed to the nitrate form (NO3-) by a process

called nitrification. Since the decomposition process is carried out

by living organisms, it is affected by several environmental

variables including material moisture, temperature, pH, the C/N

ratio and the type of organic materials in the residue e.g. cattle

manure are relatively high in carbon and low in nitrogen.

Mineralization and Nitrification

The first step in the N mineralization process of organic

material and SOM is ammonification, or the formation of NH4+ from

organic N. This process involves a large diversity of microorganisms

and occurs under a wide range of temperatures, pH levels and

moisture contents (Hansen et al. 1995). The reactions involve in

the of N-organic to N-inorganic forms can be simplified as follows:

Protein → R-NH2 + CO2 + energy + other components materials

R-NH2 + H2O → NH3 + R-OH + energy

NH3 + H+ → NH4+

Amines and amino acids are then decomposed by

heterotrophic bacteria, releasing NH4+. The ammonium nitrogen

can then be transformed into NO3--N by nitrification according to

following reactions:

2NH4+ + 3 O2 → 2 NO2

- + 2 H2O + 4 H+

2NO2- + O2 → 2 NO3

-

The first reaction is carried out by Nitrosomonas sp., while the

second reaction is performed by Nitrobacter sp. These two


86

microorganism species are active in a narrow range of

temperature, pH and moisture content. Nitrogen in the form of

NH4+-N or NO3

--N is available for plants and microorganisms.

The amount of mineral N released varies due to differences in

the organic material characteristics as a result of the quantity and

type of the microbial population. The NO3--N is taken up by plants,

used directly by heterotrophic microbes for the decomposition of

C-organic, fixed by clay minerals in the inner space, or changed

into N2 (Havlin et al. 1999).

The N contribution depends on the type and quality of

materials. Easily degraded organic material often have a high

nitrogen (N) content and can therefore release large amounts of N

through mineralization. In contrast, as with straw, having a high

cellulose content, less N was released by the straw and

immobilization occurred (Shindo and Nishio 2005). Nitrogen will

mineralize until the C/N ratio is less than 20, which typically occurs

after 4 weeks of decomposition.

Denitrification

Denitrification occurs through a form of respiration conducted

by microorganisms, primarily bacteria. These microorganisms have

the ability to use nitrate instead of oxygen to perform their metabolic

functions. In this microbial reduction process, nitrate is reduced to

NO2- and then to gaseous forms, including N2O and N2. Because the

bacteria responsible for denitrification are facultative anaerobes,

denitrification is more likely to occur in situations with high water

tables where anaerobic conditions are more likely to be present.

Whether denitrification or nitrification dominates depends on

many different factors. Nitrification is a relatively constant

ecosystem process, whereas denitrification rates are temporally

and spatially variable. In most condition, the availability of NH4+ and

oxygen are the most important factors controlling nitrification. The


87

primary controls on biological denitrification include the availability

of organic carbon, oxygen and nitrate (NO3-) or other N oxides.

Various studies have found high denitrification activity in hot

spots created by decomposing organic matter, which generates

anaerobic microsites. This phenomenon may explain some of the

high spatial variability of soil denitrification commonly observed.

N2/N2O ratios observed under different conditions in laboratory

experiments were found to be extremely variable and dependent

on available C and NO3- contents and on the moisture content of

the soil. The NO/N2O emission ratio has been proposed as an

indicator of the importance of nitrification and denitrification (IFA

and FAO 2001).

Denitrification varies widely across locations and the time of

year, but it normally represents only a small percentage of total N

loss (Zhu et al. 2005). Few data are available on the emission

rates of these N trace gases from agricultural soil amended with

animal manure (Oenema et al. 2005; He et al. 2007). Among

organic material sources, the application of easily mineralizable C

with manure might increase the denitrification potential of the soil

and enhance N2O production (Paul and Beauchamp 1989; Velthof

et al. 2003; Kamedawa 2007) when conditions that favor

denitrification are optimum. This process is controlled by mineral

N and available C, O2 partial pressure, water content, pH and

temperature (Granly and Bøckman 1994).

NH3 Volatilization

Ammonia is formed constantly in soil due to the biological

degradation of organic compounds and NH4+-yielding mineral and

organic fertilizers. As it is a gas, any NH3 present in soils, water or

fertilizer can volatilize into the atmosphere. However, NH3 reacts

with protons, metals and acidic compounds to form ions,

compounds or complexes of varying stability. Ammonia has a


88

strong affinity for water, and its reactions in water are fundamental

in regulating the rate of loss.

After its application to the soil, NH4+ from manure can remain

on the exchange sites, nitrify to NO3, or form NH3, depending on

soil and environmental conditions:

NH4+ (absorbed) → NH4

+ (solution) → NH3 (solution) → NH3 (Soil)

→ NH3 (atmosphere)

In fertilized fields, the input of NH4+ depends on many factors:

manure type, the rate and mode of manure storage, moisture

content. Ammonia emission from manure is dependent on pH of

media, with the greatest losses at pH 7.5, and a lower pH

decrease ammonia volatilization (Freney et al. 1983; He et al.

1999. reported that ammonia volatilization from surface applied

ammonium sulfate increased with increasing pH from 4.5 to 8.5,

and the N losses were much greater during the first 7 days.

The estimation of the NH3 volatilization rate is between 10%

and 26% from urea and between 19% and 29% from animal

manure (Table 12). For example, NH3 volatilization loss estimates

from urea and animal manure application on intensively used

upland crops (1995) in Southeast Asia was 147,000 tones NH3-N

(Kreileman et al. 1998). This loss was based on an estimation of

application of 544,000 tones N. The application of organic fertilizer

to soil can stimulate N2O and NO production (Akiyama and

Tsuruta 2003a, b; Velthof et al. 2003; Jones et al. 2007).

Table 12. NH3 volatilization estimated from urea and animal manure

Type

IFA-FAO (1995)

Bouwman et al. (1997)

ECETOC (1994)

%

Urea 18-26 15-25 10-20

Animal manure 19-29 20 20


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Nitrogen Loss From Animal Production

Animal manure as source of organic fertilizer is often applied

by the farmer for crop production, mainly in horticulture production.

Central vegetable farmer in Indonesia used to applied manure

(mostly chicken and followed by cattle manure and goat manure)

in the range of 15-40 t season-1 containing 154-579 kg N, such as

at Wonosobo, Karang Anyar, Kopeng, and Lembang (Widowati et

al. 2012). Farmers in Australia and New Zealand relied almost

exclusively on fixation by clover to supply nitrogen to pastures,

and the main source of atmospheric ammonia was the excreta of

grazing animals. Then farmers were using organic wastes (e.g.

dairy shed effluent, pig slurry) at < 200 kg N ha-1 y-1 to supply

nitrogen to pastures and crops (Cameron et al. 1997), and were

applying up to 400 kg synthetic fertilizer nitrogen ha-1 y-1 to

pastures to provide feed for dairy cows (Cameron et al. 2002).

Application of effluent or slurry increases the dry matter yield of the

pasture so that the stocking rate can be increased. Fertilization

also increases the concentration of nitrogen in the pasture which

results in increased intake of nitrogen by the grazing animals. The

combined result is increased excretion of urinary nitrogen and

increased ammonia volatilization (Bussink 1992).

Animals do not utilize the nitrogen they ingest efficiently; very

little of the nitrogen ingested is converted into milk, meat, eggs or

wool and the remainder is excreted in dung and urine (Table 13).

Because of the inefficiency of use, large quantities of nitrogen are

deposited on pasture. The greater part (55-95%) is voided by the

animals. The ratio of N in urine to N in dung depends on animal

species, the protein content of the animal feed and the production

level of the animal.

Animals supplied with high-protein diets excrete a large

proportion (<50%) of the excreted N via urine, whereas low-

protein diets yield a larger proportion of the N via dung. The total

amount of N excreted depends on animal species, animal feeding


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and production level. Nitrogen excretion per animal head ranges

from less than 1 kg year-1 for small fowl to more than 100 kg year-1

for high-yielding dairy cattle. Reutilization of manure N is the key

to high O/I ratios and low N surpluses of livestock farming systems

(Oenema 2006).

Table 13. Efficiency of nitrogen use in global animal production

Animal Animal intake

(Tg N) Product (Tg N)

Efficiency of nitrogen use (%)

Goats 5.726 0.207 3.6

Sheep 11.617 0.719 6.2

Cattle 64.417 4.959 7.7

Pigs 12.230 2.513 20.5

Chickens 9.495 3.211 33.8

Total 114.355 12.004 10.5

Van der Hoek (1998)

The amount of nitrogen contained in urine patches (equivalent

to 500 kg N ha-1 for sheep and 1000 kg N ha-1 for cattle) is much

greater than the capacity of pasture plants to assimilate (Jarvis et

al. 1995; Silva et al. 1999; Cameron et al. 2002), therefore the

nitrogen can be readily lost by ammonia volatilization, nitrification-

denitrification, or leaching.

Mitigating Nitrogen Loss from Animal Production

Several methods proposed to mitigate nitrogen loss from

animal production (Oenema 2006) including: (1) improving N

management at the farm level; (2) improving the efficiency of N

utilization at the animal level; (3) improving utilization of animal

manure as fertilizer; (4) application of anaerobic digestion of

animal manure; (5) clustering of production functions to “agro


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production parks”. The nitrogen management in the following

discussion will only be emphasized on point 3, 4 and 5.

Improving the Utilization of Animal Manure as Fertilizer

N from animal manure could be utilized as a means for

decreasing N losses from animal production systems. The other

potential benefit is to replace fertilizer N and thereby decreasing N

losses associated with N fertilizer production and use. Attempt to

maximize the N efficiency of animal manure could be approached

from the N availability. The application should be closed to the

time when the plant requires the nutrients. Calculations suggested

that the improvement of animal manure management in

combination with the implementation of techniques for low-

emission stables, animal storage systems and application of

animal manure can potentially decrease N losses from globally

housed-animal production by some 10 to 20 Tg N (Oenema

2005).

Some approach by decreasing the water content of the slurry,

and delaying application until a substantial canopy has developed

(to reduce wind speeds) would also appear to have a large impact

on ammonia loss (Sommer et al. 1997; Sommer and Olesen,

2000). Other techniques proposed for reducing loss of ammonia

include applying during rainfall, incorporation or injection of the

waste into the soil, application with trail hoses, applying in bands

instead of broadcasting, acidification before application and

matching nitrogen supply to the demand of the crop (Sommer et

al. 1997; Stevens and Laughlin 1997).

Anaerobic digestion of animal manure

When manure is collected immediately following deposition

and stored anaerobically in closed tanks, the emissions of

gaseous N compounds can be lowered. The process occurs is


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anaerobic digestion of the animal manure during storage has the

additional advantage of producing CH4 to be used as biofuel. It

encompasses the perspectives of minimizing emissions of odors,

NH3, N2O and CH4 during storage, and minimizing emissions of

N2O following application to land (Velthof et al. 2003). It has been

estimate that anaerobic digestion of the manure can be an option

for about one-quarter of the global animal manure produced (from

pigs, poultry, and housed cattle) (Rotz 2004). The effectiveness of

the manure as N fertilizer is also increased following application of

the digested manure to land, but the digested manure has to be

injected in the soil to minimize NH3 losses following application.

Clustering of Production Functions

Clustering of confined animal production systems with other

intensive agricultural production systems based on novel concepts

from industrial ecology may contribute to improving the

management and especially the N management of these systems.

These novel systems are based on optimizing resource use

through exchange of products between sub systems and on

recycling of manure products. This clustering of production

functions combines the economics of scale with the efficiency of

specialization and the recycling and control in (industrial) ecology.

Such systems also include end-of-pipe technologies such as liquid

manure treatment and scrubbing exhaust air to minimize N

emissions to the environment. Various designs and prototypes

have been made and model calculations indicate that these novel

systems may improve resource use efficiency, including N use

efficiency (Oenema 2005). This kind of model has been

implemented in a model named Indonesian Carbon Efficient

Farming (ICEF), by integrating animals, crops and environments.


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Composting Process and Technology

Composting Process

Composting is a decomposition process in which the substrate

is progressively broken down by a succession of populations of

living organisms. The products of degradation of one

microorganism population serve as the substrate for the

succeeding microorganism population. The succession is initiated

by breaking down the complex molecules in the raw substrate to

simpler forms by microbes indigenous to the substrate.

Decomposition of organic materials occur in a way of bio-

physico-chemical processes, involve biological activity of microbial

and mesofauna. Primary decomposer is mesofauna like

Colembolla, Acarina which serves friable organic material became

smaller. The secondary decomposer is microbial decomposer

such as T. reesei, T. harzianum, T. koningii, Phanerochaeta

crysosporium, Cellulomonas, Pseudomonas, Thermospora,

Aspergillus niger, A. terreus and Penicillium sp. Earthworms eat

the remains of the last crumb then released as feces after

digestion in the intestines.

The followings are reactions that occur during aerobically

decomposition system:

Sugar (CH2O)x + O2 xCO2 + H2O+ E

(Cellulose, hemicellulose)

N organic (Protein) NH4+ NO2

- NO3

- + E

Sulfur organic (S) + xO2 SO4-2

+ E

Phosphor organic H3PO3 Ca(HPO4) (Phytin, lecithin)

Simplification of all reactions:

Organic material CO2+H2O+nutrient+humus+ E

Microorganism activities (484-674 kcal mole-1

glucose)


94

Endo-b-1,4 glucanase (endo-b-1,4-D- glukan 4-selobiohidrolase)

Exo-b-1,4 glukanase or selobiohidrolase (Exo-b-1,4-D-

glukanselobiohidrolase)

B-glukosidase. Laccase, peroxidase, and oxidase

Reaction which occur during anaerobically decomposition system:

(CH2O)x xCH3COOH CH4 + CO2

Acid production bacteria Methanomonas

N-organic NH3

2H2S + CO2 (CH2O)x + S + H2O

(26 kcal mole-1

glucose)

Decomposition process can occur naturally, but not in a short

period time (gradually). Through a natural process, manure over

time will rot due to microorganisms and the weather. The duration

of the decaying process ranges between 5 to 8 weeks. The

process could proceeds in shorter period of time (2-3 weeks), by

using bio-activator, such as Trichoderma sp.

The main component of manure is cellulose after water.

Cellulose is a compound that is naturally difficult to decompose (4-

5 months). Compare to cellulose, lignin is a complex material which

is more difficult to degrade. Lignin is structural polymer phenyl

propane. Lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose bonded to form a

physical seal between the two, which is a barrier that prevents the

penetration of the solution and enzymes (Howard et al. 2003).

Lignin is an access barrier to cellulolytic enzymes in degrading

material containing high level of lignocellulose, and often causes

the build up of organic matter. Lignin degradation is the limiting

step for the decomposition of cellulose (Thorn et al. 1996).

Strategy to accelerate the process of decomposition of organic

matter is to utilize lignin decomposer microbes (lignolitic) and

cellulose (cellulolytic). The decomposer are known as fungi group

and have significant bio-decompose activity. The lignin is then

degraded by microbes into humus, water and carbon dioxide.


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Maturity Standard

To be used in agriculture, compost should be completely

stable (mature). Some methods and parameters determining the

degree of stability of compost are: (1) carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio,

(2) stability against heating; (3) reduction in organic matter; and

(4) humification parameters. Several indicators of compost

qualities are presented in Table 14.

Table 14. Compost maturity indicator

Parameter Indicator Source

Temperature Stable Stickelberger (1975)

pH Alkaline Jaun et al. (1959)

COD Stable Yang et al. (1993)

BOD Stable Yang et al. (1993)

C/N ratio < 20 Juste (1980)

Respiration rate < 10 mg g-1 Morel et al. (1979)

Color Dark brown Sugahara et al. (1982)

Odor Earthy Chanyasak et al. (1982)

CEC > 60 me 100 g-1 Harada et al. (1971)

Source: Yang (1996)

Cellulose is a compound that is naturally difficult to decompose

(4-5 months), especially on lignin rich material. Lignin is a

structural polymer phenilpropane on vascular plants that makes

rigor plant cell walls and binds fibers together, to lower the water

permeation through the walls of the xylem tissue and makes the

wood resistant to attack by microbe.

Several methods of composting commonly used are (Setyorini

et al. 2006):

1. Indore Method. Composting manure in a long hole with a depth

of 1 m and 1.5-2.0 m wide and long holes depending on the

availability of land. Manure incorporated into the hole of 10-15


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cm thick evenly then sprinkled with cattle urine, then mixed

with the soil, and incubated for 3 months.

2. Heap Method. Composting is done on the surface soil with 2 m

wide, 1.5 m height and 2 m length. Compacted around the

edges, shaded and covered. As first layer is carbon-rich

material that is as thick as 15 cm, and the following layer is

material rich nitrogen (manure) and continuously as alternating

layer until it reaches 1.5 m height.

3. Bangalore Method. This method is suitable for areas with less

rainfall. Principally the manure fills into the hole and then

covered with mud and incubated for 3 months without a

reversal. This method is less popular.

4. Berkeley Method. This categorized as relatively rapid

composting method is about 2 weeks by applying a mixture of

two parts of the basic ingredients of organic matter-rich

cellulose and one part nitrogen-rich organic material with a

value of C/N ratio around 30:1. Materials are prepared plated

2.4 × 2.2 × 1.5 m3 and composted within 2 weeks.

5. Vermicompost. The principle of this method is using worms as

decomposer of organic matter. Earthworms are able to eat all

types of organic materials with the ability to eat is equivalent of

its body weight per day.

The selection of composting method depends on the ability

and condition of material and composting site.

Composting technology which has been introduced by the

Indonesian Soil Research Institute is modified aforementioned

method and improves with decomposition factors i.e.

1. Composting straw stack and inversion methods. The pile is

reversed every day, three days and every week.

2. Composting by means stacked with ventilation. The straw is

crushed and moistened overnight (humidity ranging from 60-

80%). By using a bamboo nest-box is placed in the bottom of

the stack (the bamboo nest 30 cm above ground level) to

provide aeration in the bottom of the pile. Haystack inoculated


97

with decomposer in layers, and create holes by putting a

hollow bamboo into piles of organic materials horizontally,

fermented for a week, and maintain 60-80% moisture so that

the decomposition process occur maximally.

Table 15. Effect of aeration to C/N ratio

Treatment (aeration)

C/N ratio (days of incubation)

0 3 7

Site 1 Site 2 Site 1 Site 2 Site 1 Site 2

Daily* 40.86 46.67 23.67 40.86 19.96 25.27

3 days* 37.21 47.44 20.11 37.21 19.25 24.04

7 days* 33.61 52.65 - 29.71 23.07 25.27

Horizontal aeration

39.63 51.94 23.79 39.63 20.47 24.87

Bottom aeration

34.56 47.35 20.81 34.56 21.36 23.36

* inverse frequency a quality of manure compost

Composting can improve the availability of nutrients such as N,

P and K, as well as increase the concentrations due to volume

loss (Table 16). However, reports of Japanese research composting

of animal waste showed that 10-25% of the N in the compost

materials will be lost as NH3 gas during the composting process.

In addition it also produced approximately 5% CH4 and 30% N2O

potentially pollute the environment. The opposite condition will

occur where shrinkage the material volume and lower C/N ratio,

and the temperature at the end composting process is 60-65C.


98

Table 16. Nutrient content of fresh and compos manure

Organic material type

Nutrient content

C N C/N

P K

------%------ ------%------

Fresh manure

Cattle manure 63.44 1.53 41.46 0.67 0.70

Goat manure 46.51 1.41 32.98 0.54 0.75

Chicken manure 42.18 1.50 28.12 1.97 0.68

Compost

Cattle manure 2.34 16.8 1.08 0.69

Goat manure 1.85 11.3 1.14 2.49

Chicken manure 1.70 10.8 2.12 1.49

Source: Setyorini et al. (2006)

N Mineralization Rate from Manure

The N mineralization rate from livestock waste into NH4 and

NO3 are influenced by the type of manure and its biochemical

fractions. Chicken manure having high N is able to mineralize N in

a shorter time. The observation result of total N mineralize from

equivalent 30 t fresh weight is in the range of 154-579 kg N within

3 months. The relative net N mineralization found here (47% of

total added N) (Table 17) is in accordance with earlier research on

the N release from chicken manure showing between 40% and

60% N release in a period of 3 to 4 months (Sims 1995), and

Chae and Tabatabai (1986) gathered 61% in the same period.

Cattle manure have relative N release (17% of total N) is much

lower than chicken manure, and it should thus be viewed as a

slow release organic fertilizer. The N release from cattle manure is

of the same magnitude as reported by e.g. Eghball (2000), namely

a N mineralization during the first growing season after application

of about 21% of organic N in fresh manure and 11% of organic N

in composted manure. The use of goat manure in vegetable


99

production in Indonesia is much less frequent than the chicken

manure and cattle manure. The N mineralization found here was

similar to that of cattle manure, but is lower than reported

elsewhere in literature. Sørensen et al. (1994a, b) found that 30%

labeled goat manure N was mineralized within the first 4 months

on a sandy loam and sandy soil incubated at 23C.

Table 17. Average net N mineralized over the entire incubation period,

and relative net N mineralization

Organic sources Total N Average N min. Average % N min.

(kg/ha) ^ (kg N/ha) (% of total N)

Goat manure 255 42 16.6 b

Cattle manure 154 26 17.1 b

Chicken manure 579 274 47.3 cd

^ 30 T fresh organic material added

* mean values of % N min followed by the same letter are not significantly different based on Tukey’s multiple comparison test (P>0.05)

CONCLUSION

Proper livestock waste management is able to reduce the

potentially N2O released from manure which constitute GHG. This

is important since the current high livestock population will rise

continuously in line with the protein demand. The livestock waste

management starting from the manure production, storage and

stockpiling, processing into compost and applications. The best

efforts to mitigate N2O production are to suppress denitrification

process or to use nitrification inhibitors.

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