OB Perceptions

7/27/2019 OB Perceptions

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PERCEPTIONS

“You become what you thinketh”

“If everyone perceived everything the

same way, things would be a lotsimpler”

-Moorhead & Griffin





DEFINITIONS

•

STEPHEN ROBBINS “ Perception is a process by whichindividual‟s organize and interpret thesensory impressions in order to give

meaning to their environment.”

• FRED LUTHANS

“Perception is an important mediating

cognitive process through which personsmake interpretations of the stimulus orsituation they are forced with.”



DEFINITIONS…

• UDAI PAREEK & OTHERS “Perception can be defined as the processof receiving, selecting, organizing,checking and reacting to sensory stimuli ordata” .

In general, it can be defined as “ a process

that involves seeing, receiving, selecting,organizing, interpreting and givingmeaning to the environment” .



MEANING

• Perceptions differ from person to person.

• Each individual perceives the samesituation differently.

• Group perceptions can influence one‟s

perception.• Individuals organize and interpret things

based on their past experiences and theimportant values they consider important.

• Employees tend to behave and act oncertain things on the basis of theirperception.



NATURE OF PERCEPTION• Perception is the process by which an

individual gives meaning to theenvironment.

• It is a cognitive and psychological process.

The manner in which a person perceives theenvironment affects his behavior. There canbe no behavior without perception andperception lies at the base of every humanaction.

• People‟s action, emotions, thoughts andfeelings are triggered by their perceptions of their surroundings.



• Since perception refers to the acquisition of specific knowledge about objects or events

at any particular moment, it occurswhenever stimuli activate the sense organs.

• Though perception has been defined in a

variety of ways, it basically refers to themanner in which a person experiences theworld.

• Perception is an almost automatic processand works in much the same way withineach individual, yet typically yields different

perceptions.



• A stimulus that is not perceived has no

effect on behaviour.

• Perception is a process that operates

constantly between us and reality.

• Since perception is subjective process,different people may perceive the sameenvironment differently. So perception islike beauty, that lies in the eyes of thebeholder.



• Perception involves the creation of gestalts.

• Perception is a unique interpretation of

the situation, not an exact recording of thesituation.

•

Perception is more complex and muchbroader than sensation.



IMPORTANCE OF PERCEPTION• Perception plays a very important role in

shaping the personality of an individual.

• Perception is central in interpreting theworld around us.

•Perception affects the outcome of ourbehaviour because we act on the basis of what we see.

• Managers should be able to distinguish

between a perceived world and the reality.

• An understanding of perception is importantto understand and control the human

behaviour .



• The importance of perception in managerialbehaviour are :

Attitude formation: Perceiving events andpeople is critical in attitude formation.Perception creates a basis for our attitudes,opinions, feelings, beliefs and values.

Relationship base :a) The manager‟s relationship with othersare based on perceptions of their basic

natures and motivations.b) Managers identify the perceptualstructures and implicit personality of employees before making work relations.



Effective communication : Any message

must be received and interpreted beforethe communication attempt is complete.Communication remains ineffective if itdoes not accomplish what the source

intends.

Employment interview : Interviewers make

perceptual judgments, draw impressionsand arrive at conclusions about theapplicants. Thus perception is a majorinput in their decision.



Performance evaluation :An employee‟s performance appraisal is very muchdependent on the perceptual outlook. Theevaluator forms a general impression of anemployee‟s work. Thus, the perceptionprocess significantly influences theappraisal outcome.

Employee effort : In many organisations,assessment of an employee‟s effort is asubjective judgment which is susceptible toperceptual distortions and bias.



Employees loyalty :When evaluating an

employee‟s loyalty, a manager is involvedwith person‟s perception. This is animportant judgement that managers makeabout employees.

Organisational goals :The interpretation andaccomplishment of organisational goals

again depend on the philosophies andideologies of those who are expected topursue them.



Workers‟ rights : The interpretation of workers‟ rights and responsibilities is alsodependent on the ideological motives andbeliefs of managers.

Employees unions :Perception plays a vitalrole in creating a better understanding of unions by management and vice-versa.



PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

• Perception is an intellectual process.

• Perception is the basic cognitive orpsychological process.

• Perception is subjective process.

• Perception consists of several sub-processes.



PERCEPTUAL PROCESS…

Simplified process of perception

Perceptualinputs

Stimuli

Perceptual throughputs

Receiving->Selecting->Organising->Interpreting

PerceptualOutputs

Actions



• Perceptual inputs – Objects, Events and

people.

All those things in the setting where eventsoccur or contribute to the occurrence of events can be termed as Perceptual inputs.

• Perceptual Mechanism -involves threeelements viz. selection of stimuli,organisation of stimuli and interpretation of stimuli.

• Perceptual outputs – Attitudes, Opinions,Feelings & Values.

•

The result is the “ BEHAVIOUR”



BASIC ELEMENTS IN THEPERCEPTUAL STIMULI

ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULIObjects, events or people

PERCEPTUAL SELECTIONExternal Factors Internal Factors

Size, intensity, PersonalityContrast, Motion, LearningRepetition, Novelty MotivationFamiliarity Self concept,

beliefs etc

INTERPRETATIONPerceptual defense, Stereotyping,Halo effect, Projection, ExpectancyEffects, Internal versus ExternalCauses, Caused for success andfailures

OBSERVATION (SENSES)Taste, Hearing, Touch,

Smell, Sight

PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATIONPerceptual Grouping, ContinuitProximity, Closure, Similarity

RESPONSEConvert, Attitudes, Overt,Motivations, Feelings etc.



FACTORS INFLUENCINGPERCEPTION

• Perception is influenced by a variety of individuals and situational factors. Anyperceptual event has three components viz. – a perceiver, the person perceived and the

situational context in which the perceptionis occurring. Let‟s explore each of theseunder following headings :

• 1. Attributes of the person perceived• 2. Attributes of the perceiver and

• 3. Attributes of the situation.



ATTRIBUTES OF THE PERSON PERCEIVED

• The first major influence on perception isof the target, that is the person perceived.In particular, the following attributes of target can be identified:

• i) Physical appearance

• ii) Verbal and non verbal communication

• iii) Status• iv) Occupation

• v) Personal characteristics



ATTRIBUTES OF THE PERCEIVER

•

Several attributes unique to ourpersonalities can affect how we seeothers. These include the following :

• i) Self concept

• ii) Cognitive structure

• iii) Response salience

•iv) Previous experiences



ATTRIBUTES OF THE SITUATION

• Elements in the surroundingenvironment also influenceperception process. Some of theseare as follows :

• i) Social context

• ii) Organisational role

• iii) Location of event



INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION

• In order to function effectively in acomplex human society, we need toperceive the behaviour, current moods andtraits of the persons around us. This is

known as social perception. It is alsocalled as interpersonal perception. It isconcerned with how one individualperceives other individuals.

• • Zalking and Castello has conducted

research for better understanding of

interpersonal perception.



INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION….

•

The specific characteristics of the perceiver,according to them are :

• 1. Knowing oneself makes it easier to seeothers accurately.

• 2. One‟s own characteristics affect thecharacteristics one is likely to see inothers.

• 3. People who accept themselves are more

likely to be able to see favourableaspects of other people.

• 4. Accuracy in perceiving others is not asingle skill.



INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION….

• Similarly the characteristics of the person

who is being perceived are:• 1. The status of the person perceived will

greatly influence others‟ perception of him.

• 2. The person being perceived is usuallyplaced into categories to simplify theviewer‟s perceptual activities. Two

common categories are status and role.• 3. The visible traits of the person

perceived will greatly influence theperception of him.



•

The above characteristics suggest that theorganisational members must realise thattheir perceptions of others are greatlyinfluenced by characteristics of

themselves and characteristics of theother person.

• Further is necessary to develop perceptualskills of oneself and others.



DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS

• Following attempts can be made toenhance perceptual skills.

• 1. Perceiving oneself accurately:One should increase awareness about

self. For this, he should obtain informationon how others perceive us from as manysources as possible. By knowing.Perceiving and understanding ourselves

accurately, we should remove blind spotsabout self.



DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS….

• 2. Being empathic :

Empathy means being able to see asituation as it is experienced by others. Amanager should be sensitive to the needsof others and perceive situations fromtheir point of view as well.

• 3. Having positive attitudes : A manger should see things from a

positive angle, should be aware of

personal biases ad should try to get rid of any negative feeling he may have of others. This will help to put things inproper perspective.




• 4. Enhancing self – concept :Self-concept or a good self image is a

function of how successfully we accomplishthe things we attempt to do. When peopleperform roles where they exhibit theircompetence and get success, they develop abasic sense of self esteem and have positiveself regard.

• 5. Communication more openly :Managers should be able to effectively

communicate to employees so thatmisconceptions can be dispelled.




• 6. Avoiding common biases in perceptions :

Managers should try to considerablyminimise their perceptual biases. Theyshould consciously raise their level of awareness in their interactions with

situations.

• 7. Avoiding attributions :Mangers should try to avoid making

inappropriate attributions and should obtainas accurate as assessment of the situationas possible so that dysfunctionalconsequences can be avoided.



LEARNING

• “ You cannot teach a man anything. You can only help him discover it

within himself.” - Galileo

•

“ You cannot give fish to a maneveryday. But if you teach how tofish, he will have fish everyday.”



MEANING / DEFINITIONS

• Learning is the single most important

concept in the study of human behaviour.

• It is involved in almost everything we do.

Every aspect of human behaviour isresponsive to learning experiences – knowledge, skills, attitudes, language, valuesystems and personality traits.

• So we see that everything can be learnedthrough reasoning, thinking, information

processing ad perception.



MEANING / DEFINITIONS…

• “Learning can be defined as relatively

permanent change in behaviour thepotentiality that results from reinforcedpractice or experience. - Steers & Porter.

• “Learning is any relatively permanentchange in behaviour that occurs as a resultof experience. - Stephen Robbins.

• In simple words, learning is a change inbehaviour acquired through experience.



MEANING / DEFINITIONS…

• Learning can be defined as a “relativelypermanent change in behaviour or potentialbehaviour as a result of direct or indirect

experience”.

• There are two primary elements in this

definition that must both be present in orderto identify the process of learning.



MEANING / DEFINITIONS….

• First is the element that the change mustbe relatively permanent. This means thatafter “learning” our behaviour must bedifferent, either better or worse as

compared to our behaviour prior to thisexperience of learning.

•The second aspect of the definition is thatthis change must occur due to some kindof experience or practice. This learning isnot caused by biological maturation.



CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING

• 1) Learning is an inferred process that is

believed to influence behaviour.• 2) Learning results in a relatively

permanent change in behaviour.Behaviour that is learnt, therefore, isrelatively constant over time.

• 3) Learning involves change, it may begood or bad.

• 4) Learning comes from some form of experience. Experience may be acquireddirectly through practice or observationor through reading.



CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING…

• 5) Learning is source of change in

behaviour and performance.• 6) Learning is continuous process. It has

the ability to respond adequately to asituation that may or may not have beenencountered. It is not restricted to theschooldays but it is a lifelong process.

• 7) Learning is the outcome of various

related factors. The important factors thatdetermine learning are motive, stimuli,response, reinforcement and retention.



THEORIES OF LEARNING

• There are five general approaches tolearning that are identified.

• They are : –

• i) Classical Conditioning Theory,

• ii) Instrumental or Operant ConditioningTheory,

• iii) Cognitive Learning Theory,• iv) Selective Learning Theory and

• v) Social Learning theory.



i) Classical Conditioning Theory

•

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist owescredit for developing this theory. Heconducted an experiment on dogs anddeveloped a stimulus- response

connection. This means that certainresponses can be predicted whichcontinuously result from certain inducedstimuli. Classical conditioning introduces a

simple cause-and-effect relationshipbetween one stimulus and one response.



• It also makes the response reflexive orinvoluntary after the stimulus-responserelationship has been established. Thisleaves no ground for making choices,

which differentiates human beings fromdogs. Under certain situations classicalconditioning does explain humanbehaviour.

I l O



ii) Instrumental or OperantConditioning Theory

• Operant conditioning is concerned withlearning that occurs as a consequence of

behaviour. It focuses on the effects of reinforcements or rewards on desiredbehaviours. This learning is based on thesimple fact that “the actions we perform

often result in some consequences”.



• This theory was developed by Watson, acontemporary of Pavlov. He argued thatbehaviour was largely influenced by therewards one received as result of actions.In other words, we now know that people

change their behaviour by repeating actsthat are rewarded and not repeating actsthat the environment fails to reward.



iii) Cognitive Learning Theory

•

Learning is considered as the outcome of deliberate thinking about the problem orsituation both intuitively and based uponknown facts and responding in an

objective and goal oriented manner.Cognition, in fact, is the act of knowing anitem of information and this knowledgeaffects the behaviour of the person so that

the information provides cognitive cuestowards the expected goal.



iv) Selective Learning Theory

•Selective learning theory is alsocognitively based but it is more directlyaimed at learning. In selective learning theperson must not only associate stimulus

and response and consequenceexperiences but must also determinewhich things to connect in the mind. Underthis approach, a person chooses from awide variety of possible leaningmechanisms.



• It involves a complex interaction amongthinking, emotions, perception andmotivation. Thus, there are manycognitions that come into play in selective

learning. This theory is also named as “insightful learning and perceptuallearning”. This is applied in relation tocomplicated learning tasks.



v) Social Learning theory

• It is recognized that learning does not take place

only because of environmental stimuli (classicaland operant conditioning) or of individualdeterminism (cognitive approach) but is a blendof both views. It also emphasizes that peopleacquire new behaviour by observing or imitatingothers in a social setting. In addition learningcan also be gained by discipline and self-controland an inner desire to acquire knowledge orskills irrespective of the external rewards or

consequences. This process of self-control isalso partially a reflection of societal and culturalinfluences on the development and growth of human beings.

C S O G



PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING• There are many widely recognised principles

of learning that can assist the managerattempting to influence behaviour. Some of these are principles are :

– i) Reinforcements

– ii) Punishments – iii) Avoidance Learning

– iv) Extinction

– v) Knowledge of results

– vi) Schedules of Positive Reinforcement

– vii) Acquisition - Learning curves

– viii) Spontaneous Recovery



P nishments



Punishments• Punishment is defined presenting an

uncomfortable consequence for aparticular behavioural response. It is usedto decrease the frequency of undesiredbehaviour. The difference betweenpunishment and negative reinforcement isthat in the former case, a noxiousconsequence is applied to decrease thefrequency of undesired behaviour,whereas in the latter, a noxious

consequence is withheld when a desiredbehaviour is exhibited.



E ti ti



Extinction• Extinction is non-reinforcement that leads

to an „extinction‟ of undesired behaviour.When the positive reinforcement for alearned response is withheld, theundesired behaviour decreases and willeventually disappear. Thus, the decline in

response rate as a result of a lack of positive reinforcement is called extinction.

• For example, if an employee is consistently

late, the supervisor may withhold praise.Thus , the employee may realise that beinglate is not leading to desired outcomes andmay try to be punctual.



Knowledge of results

• Human behaviour is always a goal-directedbehaviour. Knowing goals and their results leads tolearning and behaviour modification. Employeeswho have no idea o whether they are doing an

acceptable job have little chance to improve theirperformances. The knowledge of correct behaviouris reinforcing and strengthens the precedingbehaviour.

• Edwin Locke found in his research studies that

feedback affects performance only to the extent towhich employees set higher performance goals inresponse to such feedback. Thus, goals can beachieved when employees are provided withaccurate feedback on performance.



Schedules of Positive Reinforcement

• There are number of ways in which

reinforcements can be scheduled. Acontinuous schedule is one in whichreinforcement occurs after everyacceptable behaviour. But this is notfeasible.

• Bass and Vaughn have concluded that “learning is more permanent when correctbehaviour is rewarded only part of thetime”.

•Fester and Skinner have presented fourtypes of reinforcements schedules foroperant learning situations.

A i iti L i



Acquisition - Learning curves

• These curves apply mainly to classicalconditioning. This principle shows thatthere is a gradually increasing strength of response for each repeated trial.

Psychologist have shown the practicalsignificance of these curves to the learningin the following ways :

• a) The more unfamiliar the task to be

learned, the more likely it is that progresswill be slow at the start and will thenincrease.



• b) In most learning of complicated skills,there is at least one period, short or long.

In which each new trial produces animprovement o equal size.

• c) As we approach the ultimate limit of learning, progress slows down and it takesmany trials to produce even a smallamount of improvement..



LEARNING PRINCIPLES



LEARNING PRINCIPLES

• i) All human beings can learn.

• ii) An individual must be motivated tolearn.

• iii) Learning is active but not passive.

• iv) Learners acquire knowledge morerapidly with guidance.

• v) Time must be provided to practice

learning.• vi) Learning methods should be varied.

• vii) Standards of performance should be

set for the learners.

G C S



LEARNING PRINCIPLES…

• viii) Different levels of learning exist.

• ix) Learning is a cumulative process.• x) Learning is closely related to

attention and concentration.

• xi) Trainees learn better when theylearn at their own place.

• xii) Make the learning meaningful byusing familiar examples and

summaries.

• xiii) When the learner has made thecorrect responses to the learningprocess, he has learned.-G.S.Sudha.

DETERMINANTS OF LEARNING



DETERMINANTS OF LEARNING

• The important factors that determinelearning are:

• i) Motive or drive

• ii) Stimuli :- a) Generalisation• b) Discrimination

• iii) Responses

• iv) Reinforcements• v) Retention.

M ti d i



Motive or drive

• Motives refer to certain goals that the

individual attempts to achieve. They areprimary energisers of behaviour. Motivesprompt people to action. They are largelysubjective and represent the mental

feelings of human beings. They are theways o behaviour and main springs of action. Motive arises continuously anddetermines the general direction of an

individual‟s behaviour.

Stimuli



Stimuli

• Stimuli exists in the environment in whicha person lives. Stimuli increase theprobability of extracting a specificresponse from a person. Stimuli may betwo types :

• a) Generalisation

• b) Discrimination.



• GENERALISATION takes place when thesimilar stimulus repeats in theenvironment. When two stimuli are

exactly the same, they will have theprobability to extract a specific response.

• DISCRIMINATION has wide applications in

organisational behaviour in view of individuals differences. In discrimination,responses of the individuals varyaccording to different stimuli.

• For example. A supervisor may respond toa high producing worker in a positivemanner, but in a different manner to oneproducing very less.

R



Responses

• The stimulus generates response. Theresponse may be in the physical form or interms of attitudes or perception. However,

the responses need to be operationallydefined and preferably physicallyobservable.

• The response of the individuals is termedas „ behaviour „. The response may beeither positive or negative.

R i f t



Reinforcements

• Reinforcement is a primary condition of

learning. Reinforcement is, anything thatincreases the strength of response andtends to induce repetitions of thebehaviour that precede the reinforcement.

Without reinforcement no quantifiablealteration of behaviour will take place.Reinforcement helps in the repetition of any behaviour.

• For example. If an employee is rewardedfor his hard work, he repeats hisbehaviour, i.e. he works harder to get thereward again.

R t ti



Retention

•The learned behaviour should be retrievedaccording to the needs. Retention meansremembrance of learned behaviour overtime.

• Learning which is forgotten over time iscalled „extinction‟.

• When response behaviour returns without

any intervening reinforcement, it is called “spontaneous recovery”.

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OB Perceptions