A TEXTBOOK OF

BIOTECHNOLOGY

A TEXTBOOK OF

BIOTECHNOLOGY

A TEXTBOOK OF

BIOTECHNOLOGY

Dr. Rashmi TyagiAssistant Professor

Dept. of Applied Sciences & HumanitiesInstitute of Technology & Management

Gurgaon, Haryana

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CONTENTS

Pages

Preface ... (ix)

1. Introduction to Cell Structure and Viruses ... 1

Cell structure ... 1

Viruses ... 32

2. Carbohydrates ... 39

Monosaccharides ... 40

Oligosaccharides ... 53

Polysaccharides ... 57

3. Proteins ... 63

Introduction ... 63

Amino acids ... 64

4. Lipids ... 78

5. Cell Division ... 85

Mitosis ... 85

Meiosis ... 89

6. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance ... 98

Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance ... 100

Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance ... 107

7. Nucleic Acids ... 111

DNA ... 112

RNA ... 113

8. Protein Synthesis ... 135Protein Synthesis Apparatus ... 137Mechanism of Protein Synthesis ... 139

Difference in Protein Synthesis in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes ... 1529. Genetic Code ... 154

10. Mutations ... 160Spontaneous Mutations ... 162

Induced Mutations ... 166

Differentiation and Developmental Mutations ... 170

(v)

11. Regulation of Gene Expression ... 173

Gene Regulation in Prokaryotes ... 174

Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes ... 182

12. Genetic Engineering ... 186

Tools for Genetic Engineering ... 191

Recombinant DNA Technology ... 197

Cloning ... 202

DNA Libraries ... 204

Transgenics ... 213

DNA Fingerprinting ... 217

Genomics ... 221

13. Nature and Scope of Biotechnology ... 229

14. Cell Culture ... 233

15. Food and Beverage Biotechnology ... 240

Alcoholic Beverages ... 240

Vinegar ... 242

Dairy Products ... 243

Leavened Bread ... 244

Other Fermented Foods ... 244

Non-Alcoholic Fermented Beverages ... 244

Organic Acids ... 244

Sweetners ... 245

16. Enzyme Technology ... 251

17. Environmental Biotechnology ... 255

Wastewater and Sewage Treatment ... 255

Suspended Cell Sewage Treatment Systems ... 258

Fixed Film Sewage Treatment Systems ... 260

18. Biological Fuel Generation ... 274

19. Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry ... 281

Tissue Culture Technology ... 281

Genetic Engineering (Transgenic Plants) ... 283

Biological Control ... 285

Biofertilizers ... 286

20. Biotechnology and Medicine ... 290

Recombinant Drugs ... 291

Recombinant Vaccines ... 292

(vi)

Monoclonal Antibodies ... 293

Probes ... 297

Antisense Nucleotides ... 298

Artificial Tissues ... 300

Gene Therapy ... 300

Babies of Specified Sex ... 300

Index ... 303

Appendix ... (i)–(xii)

(vii)

PREFACE

Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary subject and needs the knowledge of many areas, like,Botany, Zoology, Cytology, Genetics, Biochemistry, Microbiology, etc., where the microbial cells orcultured plant or animal cells or their products, like antibiotics, enzymes, various organic acids, etc.,are produced industrially to be used practically for the welfare of human beings. Actually, the termBiotechnology, though, is of recent use, but it is a quite ancient technology and the man is exploitingunknowingly the services of various microorganisms, like yeast for alcoholic beverages, lactobacillifor curdling of milk, Acetobacter for vinegar production, etc. Nowadays, the technique is more effi-ciently used by modifying the genetic constitution of naturally occurring commercial strains of micro-organisms, plants and animals, which are being used in the diverse fields of agriculture, medicine,pollution management, biofuels, food and other industries, etc.

The book includes 20 chapters and the various topics are written illustratively in a very simpleway to make all the undergraduate B. E., B. Tech. and B. Sc. students understand the rather difficultsubject easily and comfortably. The valuable suggestions and corrections in this first edition arehighly appreciated from the readers.

I am especially thankful to my Head of the Department, Prof. A. P. Gupta, for encouraging meto write this book, without which the completion of this work was impossible. I also thank toMr. Inderpal Singh for his help in operation of computer for various diagrams.

—AUTHOR

(ix)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my gratitude towards Prof. A.P. Gupta, Head of Department of Applied Science &Humanities, Institute of Technology and Management, Gurgaon, for inspiring me to write this book. Iam also thankful to my colleague, Mr. Inderpal Singh, Senior in Physics, for his sincere assistancefor diagrams in this book. Thanks are also due to Institute of Technology & Management, Gurgaon,where I am working as Assistant Professor, for providing all kinds of facilities, like library, laptop,internet, printing, scanning, photocopying, etc., for writing this book.

As it is the first edition of this book, I will appreciate all kinds of valuable suggestions from the

readers for its improvement.

—AUTHOR

(x)

obert Hook (1655) was the first person who observed cells of cork (dead cells) under themicroscope, which appeared like honey comb. Leeuwenhock (1674) observed white bloodcells with the help of a microscope with some organization inside. Schleiden and Schwann

(1838–39) proposed the cell theory, according to which the cell is the unit of structure of livingsystem (cell is the unit of life), i.e., all living organisms are made up of cells (except for viruses,which are living but have acellular organization and are composed of only proteins and DNA/RNA,some viruses also contain membranes) and the cell arises from the pre-existing cells.

CELL STRUCTURE

The cellular organisms have been divided into two categories, prokaryotes (e.g.,archaebacteria, eubacteria, cyanobacteria, prochlorophytes) that are primitive and evolved around3 billion years ago (Fig. 1.2); and more advanced eukaryotes that appeared around 1 billion yearsago, e.g., algae (except for the algae belonging to classes Cyanophyta and Prochlorophyta), fungi,bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms, unicellular and multicellular animals(Fig. 1.1).

1

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Fig. 1.1 The eukaryotic cells.

The cell size and shape varies from organism to organism. Some cells are visible to nakedeyes whereas most of the cells can be observed through microscope. Generally, eukaryotic cells are1–2 µm to 1 mm and prokaryoyic cells 0.15–2.0 µm in size. The largest cell found is the ostrich egghaving 15–20 cm diameter. Regarding the shape, the cells may be spherical, cylindrical, irregular,etc. Some plant (e.g., Euglena, Dunaliella, etc.) and animal (e.g., amoeba, leucocytes, etc.) cellskeep on changing their shape.

Fig. 1.2 The bacterial cells.

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Various parts of a cell are:

The Cell Wall

The plant cells contain the outermost boundary, the cell wall (some unicellular phytoplankton

lack a cell wall in their vegetative cells, e.g., Dunaliella, Euglena, etc., but during their life cycle at

sometime they form a cell wall, e.g., during spore formation) that is lacking in animals. The rigid,

porous (pores, called plasmodesmata, allow movement of substances between the adjacent cells in

multicellular plants) cell wall providing shape and protection to the cell and prevents the cell from

bursting. Some cells have a capsule (glycocalyx) around the cell wall that is made up of polysaccharides

(e.g., Diplococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pneumoniae), polypeptide (e.g., Bacillus

anthracis), mixture of both polysaccharides and proteins or waxy material (e.g., laprosy bacterium).

The compositions of the cell wall of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are as fallows.

1. Prokaryotic Cell Wall. In some prokaryotes the vegetative cells are devoid of any cell wall,

e.g., mycoplasma. In most of the prokaryotic cells, the cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan,

a combination of proteins and carbohydrates. The peptidoglycan consists of alternating N-

acetyl glucosamine (NAG) and N-acetyl muramic acid (NAM) sugars linked by β-1,4-glycosidic

bonds (repeated disaccharides). NAM molecules are attached with a tetrapeptide chain of

L-alanine, D-glutamic acid, L-lysine and D-alanine amino acids (Fig. 1.7). In G+ bacteria the

peptidoglycan is quite thick and the two adjacent, parallel tetrapeptides are linked through a

pentaglycine at the points of L-lysine and D-alanine (Fig. 1.3 and 1.6). In G– bacteria the

peptidoglycan is thinner, having an outer membrane above it and the pentaglycene is absent,

so that the terminal D-Ala is attached directly to the neighbouring tetrapeptide through L-Lys

(or L-Lys in some cases may be replaced by diaminopimelic acid that is lysine like amino acid)

(Fig. 1.4 and 1.5).

Fig. 1.3 Peptidoglycan of Gram positive bacteria (e.g., Staphylococcus).

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Fig. 1.4 Peptidoglycan of Gram negative bacteria.

Fig. 1.5 Gram negative bacterial cell wall.

Fig. 1.6 Gram positive bacterial cell wall.

A Textbook of Biotechnology

Publisher : Laxmi Publications ISBN : 9788131807002 Author : Dr Rashmi Tyagi

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