OKORO ROSELINE C.

PG/M.ED/11/58795

EEFFFFEECCTT OOFF PPRROOJJEECCTT--BBAASSEEDD LLEEAARRNNIINNGG OONN SSEECCOONNDDAARRYY SSCCHHOOOOLL

SSTTUUDDEENNTTSS’’ AACCAADDEEMMIICC AACCHHIIEEVVEEMMEENNTT,, IINNTTEERREESSTT AANNDD RREETTEENNTTIIOONN IINN

Education

Content manager’s Name

Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name

DN : CN = Webmaster’s name

O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

ii

EEFFFFEECCTT OOFF PPRROOJJEECCTT--BBAASSEEDD LLEEAARRNNIINNGG OONN SSEECCOONNDDAARRYY

SSCCHHOOOOLL SSTTUUDDEENNTTSS’’ AACCAADDEEMMIICC AACCHHIIEEVVEEMMEENNTT,,

IINNTTEERREESSTT AANNDD RREETTEENNTTIIOONN IINN

HHOOMMEE EECCOONNOOMMIICCSS

BY

OO KK OO RR OO RR OO SS EE LL II NN EE CC ..

PG/M.Ed/10/52508

DEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION

(CURRICULUM STUDIES).

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

AUGUST, 2013

TITLE PAGE

EEFFFFEECCTT OOFF PPRROOJJEECCTT--BBAASSEEDD LLEEAARRNNIINNGG OONN SSEECCOONNDDAARRYY SSCCHHOOOOLL

SSTTUUDDEENNTTSS’’ AACCAADDEEMMIICC AACCHHIIEEVVEEMMEENNTT,, IINNTTEERREESSTT AANNDD

RREETTEENNTTIIOONN IINN HHOOMMEE EECCOONNOOMMIICCSS

BY

OO KK OO RR OO RR OO SS EE LL II NN EE CC ..

PG/M.Ed/10/52508

AN M.Ed PROJECT PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS

EDUCATION (CURRICULUM STUDIES).

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTERS IN CURRICULUM STUDIES

IN THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

SUPERVISOR: DR. UCHE IGBOKWE

AUGUST, 2013

APPROVAL PAGE

This project has been approved for the Department of Arts Education,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

By

----------------------------- --------------------------

Dr. Uche Igbokwe Prof. U.C. Umoh Supervisor Head of Department

------------------------------- ----------------------------

Prof. P.E. Eya Internal Examiner

External Examiner

--------------------------------

Prof. I. Ifeluni Dean of Faculty

CERTIFICATION

Okoro Roseline C., a post graduate in the Department of Arts

Education with registration number PG/M.Ed/10/52508 has satisfactorily

completed the requirement for the degree of master in curriculum studies.

The work embodied in this report is original and has not been submitted in

part or full for any other Diploma or Degree in this or any other university.

---------------------------------- ----------------------------

Dr. Uche Igbokwe Okoro Roseline .C. Supervisor Candidate

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to God Almighty and my children.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the Almighty God for the grace, mercy and protection granted me

to complete this programme and those who in one way or the other contributed

to the success of this work.

My special gratitude and appreciation go to my able supervisor Dr. (Mrs)

Uche Igbokwe for the guidance, patience, ever ready attention and words of

encouragement that helped me to complete this study.

My special appreciation and regards go to my lovely children Rev. Fr.

Charles Okoro, Engr. Eric Chimaoge Okoro, Dr. Hillary Ifeanyichukwu Okoro,

Ernest and Cornelius Okoro for their prayers, moral and financial support during

the course of my studies.

With special regards and thanks I appreciate the immeasurable

constructive criticisms and guidance of Prof. Uju .C. Umo, Dr. Edna Ogwu, Dr.

Tessy Ofoegbu, Dr. J.U. Akabogu and Dr. U. Asogwa.

I appreciate equally in a special way the efforts of miss Celestina Ugwoke

for type-setting this work. I thank all the staff in Arts Education Department and

my course mates Okeke Christiana, Chikwendu, Obiora, Lola, Callistus, Uche,

Ogechukwu for their special assistance and co-operation during the course of our

study.

To all the authors whose materials and ideas were used and all those who

in one way or the other contributed to the completion of this work, I appreciate

you all. May God’s abundant blessings ever remain with you. Amen.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page i

Approval Page ii

Certification iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgement v

Table of Contents vii

List of Tables xi

Abstract xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background of study 1

Statement of the Problem 11

Purpose of the Study 12

Significance of the Study 12

Scope of the study: 15

Research Questions 15

Hypothesis of the Study 16

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Conceptual Framework 18

Concept of Home Economics 18

Project-Based Learning (PBL) 24

Academic Achievement 28

Interest 29

Retention 31

Location 32

Gender as a factor in Achievement in Home Economics 33

Theoretical Framework 34

Learning Theories and the Constructivists Views 34

Constructivists’ View on Learning 36

John Dewey’s Cognitive Theory 38

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Learning Theory 39

L.S Vygotsky’s Learning Theory 40

Review of Empirical Studies on achievement, Interest and

Retention in Home Economics 42

Summary of Literature Reviewed 47

Schema on–Project Based Learning Achievement, Interest

and Retention in Home Economics 47

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS

Design of the Study 48

Area of Study 49

Population of the Study 49

Sample and Sampling Technique 50

Experimental Procedure 50

Control of Extraneous Variables 51

Instrument for Data Collection 52

Administration of the Instrument 54

Content Validity 55

Reliability of the Instrument 55

Validation of Instruments 56

Training Progrmme for the Teachers 57

Method of Data Collection 58

Method of Data Analysis 58

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

Research Questions 1 60

Research Questions 2 61

Research Questions 3 62

Research Questions 4 63

Research Questions 5 64

Hypothesis 1 65

Hypothesis 2 67

Hypothesis 3 68

Hypothesis 4 69

Hypothesis 5 69

Summary of Findings 70

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS,

CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS OF

THE STUDY, RECOMMENDATIONS

AND SUMMARY OF THE STUDY

Discussion of the Results 72

Teaching methods and students’ achievement 72

Teaching Methods and Students’ Interest 73

Teaching Methods and Students Retention 73

Interaction Effect of Project Based Learning on Location 74

Gender and Students Achievement 74

Conclusion 75

Educational Implications 76

Recommendations 77

Limitation of the Study 78

Suggestion for Further Research 78

Summary of the Study 79

REFERENCES 81

Appendix A: Validation of Instrument 88

Appendix B: Home Economics Achievement Test (HEAT) 89

Appendix C1: Lesson Notes for the experimental group based on

project-based method 95

Appendix C2: Lesson notes for the 2 week project-base method 98

Appendix D1: Lesson Notes for the control group based on

Lecture method 101

Appendix D2: Lesson notes for the control group based on lecture

method 103

Appendix E: Sample of JSS 2 Students used for the study 107

Appendix F: Scoring guide for pre-test and post test 108

Appendix G: Home Economics Achievement Test (HEAT) 109

Appendix H: Home Economics Interest Test (HEIT) 115

Appendix I: Home Economics Retention Test (HERT) 117

Appendix J1 Reliability coefficient with (HEIT) 118

Appendix J2 Reliability coefficient with (HEAT) 119

Appendix K: Test blue print for the (HEAT) 121

Appendix L: Number of secondary schools in Nsukka Local

Government Area where Home Economic is taught 122

LIST OF TABLES

Tables Pages

1: Achievement mean and standard deviation scores of

students taught with project base learning and lecture

method. 60

2: Interest mean and standard deviation scores of students

taught with PBL and lecture method. 61

3: Retention mean and standard deviation of students’ taught

with PBL and those taught using lecture method of teaching. 62

4: The interaction effect of method and location on

achievement of students in Home Economics 63

5: Achievement mean and standard deviation of male and

female students’ taught with project base learning. 64

7: Summary of ANCOVA Table of students’ scores in the

project based learning method of teaching and those taught

with lecture method. Hypothesis 1, 4 and 5 will be answered 66

8: Summary of ANCOVA Table of student means interest

scores in the project based learning method of teaching and

those taught with lecture method. 67

9: Summary of ANCOVA Table of students mean retention

scores in the project based learning method of teaching and

those taught with lecture method 68

Abstract

The problem of poor achievement of students in Home Economics in external

examinations has been a matter of concern to the nation. As part of the

contribution to arrest the situation, this study was designed to determine the

effect of project-based learning on junior secondary school students’

academic achievement, interest and retention in Home Economics. To carry

out the study, five research questions and five null hypotheses were

formulated. Design for the study is a quasi-experimental non-equivalent

control group pre-test and post-test design. The study was carried out in four

co-education secondary schools in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State.

Sample for the study consisted of 160 (JSS 2) students from four randomly

selected intact classes in the sampled schools. Data for the study were

collected through three research developed instruments: Home Economics

Achievement Test (HEAT), Home Economics Interest Test (HEIT) and Home

Economics Retention Test (HERT). The four intact classes of 40 students

each were assigned to experimental group (I) and (II) respectively. The

experimental group (I) and (II) were exposed to project-based learning and

lecture method of teaching respectively. Data for the study were analyzed

using mean, standard deviation and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)

statistics. The null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of probability.

Findings of the study revealed that project-based learning method of teaching

enhanced students’ achievement in Home Economics more than lecture

method. However there was no significant difference between the effect of

project-based learning and lecture method of teaching on students’ interest in

Home Economics. The study also revealed that there was no significant

difference in the achievement and interest of male and female students in

Home Economics. Recommendations and suggestions for further study were

made based on the findings.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of Study

Home Economics as an applied science subject; draws knowledge from

many other subjects such as Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics,

Economics, Sociology, History, Geography, Psychology, Agriculture, Fine

and Applied Arts. It unifies the knowledge drawn and uses it to form its own

body of knowledge (Anyakoha, 2007)

Home Economics is the study of activities that relates to the home and

the family, it is a field of study that is concerned with improving and

strengthening family life, (Olaitan & Agusiobo, 1984). The Nigerian

Education Research and Development Council (NERDC) (2007) noted that

Home Economics affords students the opportunity of developing

manipulative skills thereby improving their dexterity as they tackle problems

associated with life and living. Anyakoha (2007) described Home Economics

as a field of study that is concerned with improving family life. It does this by

finding out the needs of individuals and families, finding ways of meeting

these needs, improving the goods and services which families use, preparing

people for employment and family life. The Canadian Home Economics

Association (CHEA) (1996), agrees with this fact that Home Economics

clearly focuses on the individuals and family well being. Home Economics is

concerned mostly with foods and nutrition, clothing and textile, home

1

management, consumer education, housing and interior decoration, child

development and family living.

In recognition of the merits of Home Economics as a subject and the

relevance of the subject to life in the 21st century, the Chief Inspector of the

Department of Education & Science Inspectorate (DES) (2008, P. 3)

described Home Economics “as an applied, multidisciplinary subject that

provides students with a wide range of learning experiences, knowledge,

understanding and skills necessary for living as individuals and as members

of a family. He noted that the integration and application of theoretical

knowledge combined with the development of practical skills are at the core

of Home Economics.

Nigerian Education Research and Development Council (NERDC)

(2007) recognized Home Economics as one of the vocational subjects in the

junior secondary school curriculum. This is aimed at providing students with

basic knowledge, skills and attitudes in the various aspects of family life. It is

designed to enable students integrate basic knowledge learnt with skills and

expose them to the numerous opportunities for successful home making.

According to NERDC (2007), objectives to be achieved by the students of

Home Economics at junior secondary level include to:

• Contribute to healthy family

• Develop manipulative skills that will enable the students function

effectively in the society within the limit of their capacity.

• Develop healthy and aesthetic values, attitudes and skills,

• Develop the ability to adapt to their changing environment.

• Develop a sense of inquiry and scientific approach to daily living and

appreciate the dignity of labour.

By the end of the secondary school education, it is expected that

students should have acquired the above stated objectives to enable them

function effectively at home and in the society.

The achievement of the objectives of Home Economics depends

largely on what the teacher does in the classroom during the implementation

stage. The teacher should adopt the most appropriate teaching method, skills

and materials in promoting learning. The method adopted should be one that

can enable the teacher present the lesson effectively and at the same time give

students maximum opportunity of participating actively in the learning

process (Offorma, 2006). In recent times, emphasis on teaching methodology

has shifted from the teacher-know-all to students’ centred approach. Hence

educational activities should be centred on the learner for maximum self

development and fulfillment (Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (2004 p 8).

Teaching is an art of creation and the product of this creation is the human

personality. Teaching is defined as a systematic activity deliberately engaged

in by the teacher to facilitate the learning of the intended knowledge, skills

and values by the student and getting the necessary feed back (Offorma,

2006).

Academic achievement has been described by Adeyemo, (2005) as the

scholastic standing of a student at a given moment, which states individual

abilities. Students academic performance can be explained inform of grades,

obtained from tests or examinations on courses taken. In Nigeria, the level of

students academic achievement in Junior secondary schools is determined

through external examination like junior secondary school certificate

examination JSSCE conducted by the Exam development centre EDC of the

state. The poor academic achievement of students basically has largely been

attributed to poor teaching methods adopted by the teachers as seen in several

research on achievement (Adeyemo, 2005).

All over the country, there is a consensus of opinion about the fallen

standard of education in Nigeria (Adebule, 2004). Parents and government

are in total agreement that their huge investment on education is not yielding

the desired dividend, teachers also complain of students’ low performance at

both internal and external examinations in most subjects including Home

Economics. The Junior Secondary School Certificate Examination result

(JSSCE) conducted by Exam Development Centre (EDC) (2012) of Enugu

testifies the poor academic performance of students in Home Economics.

The data collected from Post Primary School Management Board, (PPSMB)

Nsukka from 2007 to 2011 showed a high rate of failure. The result stood at

28%, 23%, 30%, 25% and 35% respectively. It has been discovered from the

above figures that students’ academic achievement in Home Economic is

poor and unstable. This may be due to various factors such as- Poor teaching

method, Poor retention and lack of interest in the subject, School location and

insufficient basic amenities.

The conventional method is an old teaching method used by teachers to

impart knowledge to students, it includes lecture method, descriptive method

of teaching, story telling and dictation method of teaching. The conventional

method used in this work is lecture method of teaching. According to Blair,

(2007) lecture method is the commonest method in use by teachers, it does

not foster critical thinking, creative thinking and problem solving. It allows a

great deal of information to be passed to the learner. Lecture method does

not stimulate students innovative, inquiry and scientific attitudes. It

encourages students to cram facts which are easily forgotten (Blair, 2007).

This can lead to poor retention and low achievement especially in science

related subjects like Home Economics.

This calls for the introduction of a constructivist teaching method like

project-based learning (PBL). Constructivist teaching is based on the belief

that learning occurs as learners are actively involved in a process of meaning

and knowledge construction rather than passively receiving information.

Project-based learning (PBL) is practical oriented and student-centred

approach to teaching. It fosters critical thinking, problem solving and

philosophy of learning by doing, which helps to motivate interest and

enhance retention in subjects like Home Economics which is practical

oriented.

According to Johnson and Johnson, (2001), in the classrooms where

problem-based learning model is used, learners take much responsibility for

their own learning progressively. They become more independent from their

teachers gradually, continue to learn in their whole lifetime which is needed

in Home Economics since it deals with family life and health. Project-based

learning is one of the constructivist teaching method in which the learner,

individually or in groups undertake independent study or take home exercise.

Project-based learning (PBL) is practical oriented and student centred

approach to teaching, it fosters critical thinking, problem solving and

philosophy of learning by doing, which helps to motivate interest, and

enhance retention in subjects like Home Economics.

Studies have shown that Project-based learning (PBL) is very effective

in sciences like mathematics, chemistry, Biology etc which are practical and

technical oriented hence the researcher wishes to introduce PBL to teaching

foods and nutrition, clothing and Home management which are practical and

skill oriented for better achievement. (Johnson & Johnson, 2001). The

“Project-based learning has been used in several areas. It was first

implemented in medical science in the 1950s specifically in the medical

school of Case W. University in USA. It was implemented in the medical

school of McMaster University in Canada at the end of the 1960s (Harris,

2001). This teaching model is put into practice in medical faculties of many

universities in mexico, Ankara, and Turkey . In addition to medical faculties,

the problem-based learning model is also implemented in other educational

institutions comprised of fields like natural sciences, engineering and law.

There are other factors that could also affect student achievement in

Home Economics as in other subjects. These are retention, interest, and

location. Retention is the ability to posses, use, keep information and ability

to reproduce past experiences or previously familiar materials, much of the

experiences one thinks are not retained were never stored in the long term

memory system. A lot of forgetting of school experiences according to

(Ngwoke, 2010) is the direct result of poor learning environment condition.

Conditions that relate to poor retention include such factors like poor

teaching methods, lack of relevant experiences, low ability, poor study habit,

emotional state or poor health. These factors could also lead to lack of

interest and poor achievement. Retention is one of the factors that could

affect student’s academic achievement. It is the process by which a student

stores the modeled information in his memory for use at a later time.

Ngwoke and Eze (2010) observed that retention is one of the processes

involved in observational learning. A student’s retention rate in Home

Economics depends on his or her ability to code or organize information in a

manner that will ensure easy recall. E.g. in a practical lesson, the content of

the topic is cake making. If the students are grouped into two, one group

adopts creaming method of cake making while the second group uses

rubbing-in method, any student who participated in the work will be

interested in cake making and will always remember the processes involved

in cake making. The teacher should make his/her teaching meaningful

because meaningful activities create interest and motivation and aids

retention of what is learnt. The information above formed the basis for the

present study which sought to determine the effect of PBL on secondary

school achievement, interest and retention in Home Economics.

Interest simply means the state of wanting to know or to learn

something. It is a state of curiosity or concern about something. Interest is a

motivating factor in teaching-learning process. The interest of a student can

be determined by carrying out a survey of him or her through discussion,

interest of a student can also be identified by observing some of his or her

activities. Interest is a very crucial factor in teaching and learning. In

selecting learning experiences, it is natural for students not to engage in what

they are not interested in. A teacher has to consider the interest of the

students to enable him or her organize and select activities for the attainment

of the objectives of the lesson. Offorma, (2006), noted that when learning

experiences are based on the interest of the learner, learning becomes more

significant, meaningful and enjoyable. Project-based learning when used in

teaching Home Economics could help to motivate students interest and

enable them retain what is learnt. The experiences which the child has

already acquired should form the basis of teaching. What ever content and

learning experience offered to the student by the school especially in area of

foods and nutrition must be rooted in the student’s life experiences so as to

make learning interesting and meaningful to the learner (Offorma, 2006).

Hence the study sort to determine the effect of PBL on secondary school

student academic achievement and interest in Home Economics.

Another factor very close to interest and retention in enhancing the

academic achievement of students in Home Economics is location. Location

simply means a particular place or position, it is an actual place or setting for

sitting a school. School location refers to a particular place or position where

a school is sited. The location of a school according to (Igbokwe, 2009) may

have consequences on how well students learn at school, a school could be

located in a rural area or in an urban area, location of a school and the socio-

economic environment of the school determines how well both teachers and

learners realize their goals of education. Any school that is properly equipped

with the right kind of classrooms, adequate teaching resources and highly

qualified teachers is more likely to achieve the curriculum plan more than a

school with poor economic environment where basic amenities are in very

short supply. Igbokwe, (2009) observes that students in such schools with

better location adequate teaching resources and highly qualified teachers

could achieve better hence the study seek to determine the effect of location

and project-based learning method on students academic achievement, on

Home Economics.

Gender is another determinant factor in academic achievement of

Home Economics. Gender refers to the socially, culturally constructed

characteristic roles which are ascribed to male and female in any society

(Erinosho, 2005). Gender results from cultural learning and socialization in

the society which continues through out one’s life. It is a social construct and

is not biologically determined. Gender is a concept equivalent to class and

race, it has many social construct in different societies as class and race,

(Robert, 1996). Gender is not enforced through laws but it is imposed through

social institution and self perception Chang (2003). In Nigeria, the

circumstances of gender has strongly interacted with culture to produce sex

role-stereotype, which is the socio-cultural classification of human activities

by sex in line with what the society considers as appropriate for one sex or

the other (Chang, 2004).

This has also accounted for the differences in enrolment of male in

science subjects like law, pharmacy and Medicine while subjects like Home

Economics, languages, teaching are reserved for females. This study sort to

determine the influence of gender on the academic achievement of students

taught Home Economics with Project-based learning.

Statement of the Problem

Home Economics has to do with the study of activities that relate to the

home and the family. It is an applied science and a vocational subject offered

at the junior secondary school level. Despite, its rich content as stated in the

curriculum, the subject still records some set backs in students’ achievement

in foods and nutrition.

The result of students of JSS Home Economics as shown by the Enugu

State Examination Development Center, (EDC) (2012), reveals that the

academic achievement of students especially in foods and nutrition has

reduced drastically. This may be due to the nature of teaching method

adopted by teachers in teaching the subject such as lecture method, dictation

method or story telling which do not foster critical thinking, creative thinking

and problem solving skills as well as interest.

Basically, teaching – learning process in Home Economics should be

learner–centred because it is a practically oriented subject mandatory for

students to engage in active practical activities. Home Economics is

susceptible to change, and as society is changing rapidly in the 21st century

new ways of thinking are required, especially problem solving skills, critical

and reflective thinking skills and metacognition. Research has shown that

PBL encourages critical and reflective thinking, which helps to motivate

interest, enhance retention and promote academic achievement of students.

Hence project – based learning could be used in this study to determine its

effect on JSS students’ academic achievement, interest and retention in Home

Economics.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study was to determine the effect of project-

based learning on junior secondary school students’ academic achievement,

interest and retention in Home Economics. Specifically the study sought to

determine:

1. The effect of project-based learning on students’ academic

achievement in Home Economics.

2. The effect of project-based learning on students’ interest in Home

Economics.

3. The effect of project-based learning on students’ retention in Home

Economics.

4. The interaction effect of location and project based learning method

on JSS students’ academic achievement in Home Economics.

5. The influence of gender on the academic achievement of JSS students

taught Home Economics with project-based learning method.

Significance of the Study

The result of this study will have both theoretical and practical

significance. Findings of this study will also be useful to curriculum planners,

government, teachers and students. It will also be useful to future

researchers. This study will be used to explore the validity of some major

tenets of the constructivist theory. This is based on the fact that the

constructivist theory posits that active construction of new knowledge takes

place based on the learners’ recall of prior knowledge; knowledge is

presented in a social experience and through multiple perspectives.

Constructivist teaching is based on the belief that learning occurs as learners

are actively involved in a process of meaning and knowledge construction

rather than passively receiving information. Learners are the makers of

meaning and knowledge. Constructivists teaching fosters critical thinking and

creates motivated and independent learners. This is what is needed in Home

Economics since it is technically and practically informed. Learners should

be able to construct and create in order to solve problems in nutrition,

clothing etc. This means that the learner will benefit immensely as he or she

is not treated as a passive object of instruction but has his or her needs,

experiences and ideas adequately catered for in the teaching learning process.

The constructivism learning theory of Piaget and Vygotsky in Cameron

(1972) maintains that the learner should play a central role in mediating and

controlling learning. Activities, opportunities, tools and environments are

provided to encourage meta-cognition, self-analysis –regulation, -reflection

and awareness. This has a close relationship with project based learning in

teaching which is student centered. The result of this study will therefore help

in authenticating the tenets of the constructivists’ theory.

Curriculum planners will benefit from the study because they will

gather from the findings information that may be used in recommending

effective innovative strategies for teaching Home Economics. The use of

conventional method of teaching will be jettisoned or removed as curriculum

planners will find the need to improve on it. This means that those teaching

methods found not effective will be dropped or replaced or improved on by

curriculum planners.

The findings will also provide necessary information that will be used

to sensitize the government on the need for workshops, seminars and

conference on new teaching techniques like project–based learning as an

effective strategy for teaching Home Economics. The government will also

benefit by using the knowledge gained to retrain teachers by organizing

symposia, workshops and training on the use of project–based learning

method.

This study will be of help to teachers because they will find the study

useful, since it will suggest a better method of teaching and learning Home

Economics with less stress. Students will find the study helpful because it

will help them to work together in groups so as to achieve a common goal

and learn from each other. It will enable them to work as a team and work

together in harmony with one another irrespective of their ethnic or cultural

backgrounds. It will expose students to the most effective practical method of

learning Home Economics. The findings of this study will also add body to

the literature for use by other researchers.

Scope of the Study

The study was restricted to the junior secondary school (JSSII)

students in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State. The content scope of this

study will covered food nutrients, functions, their classifications, sources and

their deficiency diseases. These topics have been selected because they are

among the topics that students find difficult, the topics also run across all the

JS classes from JSS I to JSS 3. The study looked into students’ performance

in Home Economics with respect to their interest, retention, gender and

location when project-based learning is used as teaching method.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study;

1. What is the effect of PBL in achievement scores of students in Home

Economics?

2. What is the difference in the mean interest of students taught Home

Economic using PBL and those taught using conventional method?

3. What is the difference in the mean retention rate of students taught

Home Economic using PBL and those taught using conventional

method?

4. What is the interaction effect of location on students’ taught Home

Economics using PBL and those taught using conventional method?

5. What is the mean achievement score of male and female students

taught Home Economics using project-based learning method?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05

level of significance:

HO1: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

students taught Home Economics with project-based learning and

those taught with conventional method.

HO2: There is no significant difference in the mean rating interest scores of

students taught Home Economics with project-based learning and

those taught with conventional method.

HO3: There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of

students taught Home Economics using project-based learning and

those taught with conventional method.

HO4: There is no significant difference in the interaction effect of location on

students taught Home Economics with project-based learning and

those taught with conventional method.

HO5: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

male and female students taught Home Economics with project-based

learning method.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The review of this study has been organized under the following sub-themes.

A. Conceptual Framework

Concept of Home Economics

Project – based learning

Retention

Interest

Location

Gender as a factor in achievement of Home Economics

B. Theoretical Framework

Learning theories and the constructivists views: constructivists’

view on learning

John Dewey’s cognitive theory

L.S. Vygotsky’s learning theory

Jean Piaget’s cognitive learning theory

C. Review of Empirical studies

Studies on effect of project-based learning on students’

achievement, interest and retention

D. Summary of Literature Review

E. Schema on: Project-based learning on achievement, retention,

interest in Home Economics.

17

Conceptual Framework

Concept of Home Economics

The word “Home” originated from the old English, meaning a village

or town. It has come to mean a dwelling place which shelters a family, or an

institution which houses many people related only by their reason for being

there, (Blackenship & Moerchen, 1981). The person that manages the affairs

of a home is the home economist. He further defined Home Economics as

“Home” meaning the place of shelter and nurture of children or for

development of self sacrificing qualities and of strength, while the word

‘economics means the management of this home on economics as to time and

energy as well as money (Blackenship & Moerchen, 1981).

Home Economics also known as family and consumer sciences and

some cases human Ecology is the profession and field of study that deals with

the economics and management of the home and the community (Olaitan &

Agusiobi, 1984). Home Economics is a field of formal study including such

areas like consumer Education, Institutional Management, Interior Design,

Home Furnishing, Cleaning, Handicraft, Sewing, clothing and Textile,

Commercial cooking, Nutrition, Food preservation, Hygiene, child

Development, managing money and family relationship. These teaches

students how to properly function in a family environment and make the

world a better place for generations to come. Home Economics embraces the

study and application of liberal arts, natural and social sciences, and their

application to everyday life. Olaitan & Agusiobi, 1984) stated that Home

Economics applies the findings of the physical biological and social sciences

to the solving of problems arising in the operation of a home and in the care

and welfare of the family.

Home Economics makes use of the knowledge of the arts by making

living more creative. The design and construction of a garment or craft

product in Home Economics promotes creativity and help in developing

essential manipulative skills. International Federation for Home Economics

(IFHE) (2008) suggests that Home Economics is a field of study that draws

knowledge from a range of disciplines to achieve optimal and sustainable

living for individuals, families and communities. According to International

Federation for Home Economics (IFHE), the core emphasis of Home

Economics is addressing the practical, real world problems of everyday life in

socially responsible ways.

Home Economics integrates the social, physical and the human

sciences in the study of problems arising from daily lives in homes, families

and communities. Home Economics institute of Australia (HEIA) (2002). It

contributes to empowering people to become active and informed members

of the society. The above definition calls for the use of PBL since one of the

objectives of PBL is that it prepares children for work place, it exposes

children to a wide range of skills and competences that will enable them to

solve family problems and the problems in the society.

The aims of Home Economics education are summarized as follows:

• To educate youth for family living

• To educate youth for the role of future home makers, intelligent

consumers and producers of goods.

• To prepare young people for living a full well-rounded life in the

home, community and nation.

• To improve the services and goods used by the families.

• To construct research to discover and meet the changing needs of

individuals and families.

• To advance the community, national and world condition.

The current syllabus for junior certificate Home Economics was

introduced in 1992. As a result of the government declaration for a 9-year

Basic Education Programme, the syllabus was restructured by the Nigerian

Education Research and Development Council (NERDC) in 2007, to suit the

National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategies (NEEDS)

and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGS). The syllabus consists of

major areas which are highlighted as; food and nutrition, clothing and textile

and home management.

Foods and Nutrition is made up of food processing, preservation, food

preparation, meal management and services.

Food is any substance which after consumption, digestion and

absorption by the body nourishes the body, supplies energy, promotes

growth, repairs the worn out tissues and regulates all the body processes.

(Olusanya, 2000). According to the author, food contains nutrients which

must be consumed in the right proportion for good intellectual development,

growth and for the maintenance of good health. Nutrition is the science that

deals with the study of food in relations to their effects on the human body. It

involves the study of the chemical and physical properties of the nutrients,

their food sources, deficiency symptoms and their appropriate proportions in

a balanced diet. It includes the study of food processing, preservation, food

preparation meal management and services.

The knowledge of Nutrition is important for the following reasons.

• Helps one to have basic knowledge and principles of nutrients.

• Promotes good intellectual development

• For maintenance of good health and knowledge of the kind of food

nutrients necessary to reduce the incidence of sickness, it also helps

one to know the kind of food that will meet the dietary requirements of

different age groups.

Careers associated with foods and nutrition includes:

• Teaching, Dietetics, Food Scientists Food Technology, Food engineers

and caterer.

Clothing and Textile is an aspect of Home Economics that deals with

study of textile and designing of clothes which involves the following.

• Personal appearance and grooming

• Selection of clothing for the individuals

• Choice, use and care of sewing tools and equipment

• Scientific, economic and cultural aspects of textiles and clothing

• Pattern and pattern drafting, alteration and adaptation.

• Construction of articles and garments

• Care of clothing.

• Application of arts principles to home furnishing, clothing and textiles,

house hold and personal accessories children’s toys etc

Careers associated with clothing and textiles includes the following

• Designing, pattern illustration, beauty care and hair dressing, Dress

making dry cleaning and laundering, modeling, fashion merchandising

weaving, fabric dyeing, teaching and research.

Home management deals with the processes of using those things

which the family has to obtain the things needed by the family (Anyakoha,

2007). Some of the things which the family possesses include – money,

knowledge, imagination time, energy and house hold equipment. These are

called human resources while those things the family needs includes foods,

clothing, and shelter and these are refered to as material resources.

Careers in Home management includes

• Family living and child development

• Home making, Home Economics Extension, Journalism, Interior

decoration, Institutional House keeping Baby sitting, child care, social

welfare work, Teaching and Research.

From the above areas of Home Economics highlighted, one observes

that Home Economics at junior certificate level students develop knowledge,

skills, and attitudes which can be achieved by the use of a teaching method

like Project based learning (PBL). This method stimulates students interest

and hasten retention in the area of nutrition, clothing and management which

are technically and practically informed. PBL encourages learners to work

together, including cooperative practical work, enquiry/problem based

learning and critical thinking which motivates students interest and retention

in Home Economics.

In the face of pervasive and relentless change, young people need to

learn to become family literate (McGregor, 2009), such literacy is provided

through Home Economics education within the formal school curriculum.

According to National Council for curriculum and Assessment (NCCA)

(2002, P.6) Home Economics has the potential to facilitate and empower

young 21st century learner “to be the next generation of creative problem

solvers” and to become responsible, discerning and healthy citizens of the

future. Home Economics is reactive to change and as society is changing

rapidly, new ways of thinking are required, especially in problem solving. To

encourage critical and reflective thinking and metacognition, as reflected in

the objectives of PBL, an alterative teaching method in Home Economics is

needed.

Project-based learning is a method that is practically oriented. It is

student centred approach to teaching, it fosters critical thinking, problem

solving and philosophy of learning by doing. Project-based learning has been

very effective in sciences like mathematics, physics and biology etc hence the

researcher wish to introduce project based learning method (PBL) in the

teaching of Home Economics which is practically and skill oriented. When

students are exposed to practical lessons, their interest will be motivated,

their attention will be retained and their academic achievement will be

improved.

Project-Based Learning (PBL)

Project-based learning is an educational activity in which a group of

students working together during a period of time, receive instruction and

feed back from an instructor, work an assignment or (practical) problem

acquiring knowledge skills and attitudes, (Baert, Beunens, & Dekeyser,

2002). Project-based learning is an instructional method centered on the

learner. Instead of using a rigid lesson plan that directs a learner down a

specified part of learning outcome or objectives, project-based learning

allows indepth investigation of a topic (Erdem, 2002; Harris & Katz, 2001).

According to Demirhan (2002), project-based learning is a comprehensive

approach to classroom teaching and learning that is designed to engage

students in investigating a complex, authentic problems and carefully

designed products and tasks.

Project – based learning method is based on the concept that students’

learn better when they are not passive recipient of knowledge. Rogus (2000)

assets that students may not be challenged to gain a deeper understating of

what is learnt or to apply the content to real situation with out actively

engaged in activities. By assigning a project or task to students to accomplish,

it empowers them to learn outside the classroom lessons and develop

contextual situation in which they can transfer the knowledge. With the above

principles, project-based learning will be very effective for teaching

acquisition of skills and practical skills as applicable in Home Economics.

According to Omeje, (2004) project-based learning, is an instruction

that comprises four components: Purposing, planning, executing and judging.

This is seen as a means of teaching the students self-discipline; students have

to define the problem, plan their work, find appropriate resources, carry out

the plans and draw conclusion. It involves assigning a particular work to

students or a group of students to work and compare at their spare time and

report to the teacher as when demanded. In the area of food processing and

preservation, in Home Economics, this method could be very effective where

students could be given a project to preserve a particular food items and use it

to prepare a particular food.

Project based learning actively engages in problem solving learning

process through planning, doing and completing projects. The new teaching

paradigm embraces the belief that children learn best by applying concept to

real world scenarios. (Chard, 2001) the Chinese philosopher, Confucius

stated this concept concisely “I hear and I forget, I see and I remember, I do,

and I understand”. It is through this process that the brain gains

understanding and assimilation of the lesson being learned and retains the

understanding of that lesson at a higher rate than traditional classroom, single

– topic instruction. Project – based learning is considered to be revolution in

education, replacing out dated passive learning model of single topic study

with active learning using “multiple – intelligence.”

Project-based learning, according to Biajone (2006), is a systematic

teaching method that engage students in learning knowledge and skills

through an extended inquiry process structured around complex, authentic

questions and carefully designed products and tasks. Gulbahar and Tinmaz,

(2006) in their study asserted that project-based learning can produce positive

attitudes towards students learning process, work routines, abilities in

problem-solving and self-esteem. This implies that project based learning is a

method through which the teacher can promote students positive attitude,

interest, achievement and retention in learning. This is why the researcher

advocates that project based learning will be a suitable instructional method

for JSS Home Economics.

With project based learning children are exposed to a wide range of

skills and competences such as collaborations, project planning, decision

making, and time management (Blank, 1997, Dickinsen 1998). Project-based

learning also increases motivation, teachers often note improvement in

attendance, more class participation and greater willingness to do home work

(Bottoms and Webb, 1998, Monrsund, Dielefeldt, and Underwood, 1997). It

also helps students retain more knowledge and skill when they are engaged in

stimulating projects. With projects; kids use higher order thinking skills

rather than memorizing facts in an isolated context without a connection to

how and where they are used in the real world (Blank, 1997; Bottoms &

Webb, 1998; Reyes; 1998).

Through collaborative learning PBL allows students to bounce ideas of

each other, voice their own opinions, and negotiate solutions and skills that

will be necessary in the work place (Bryson, 1994; Reyes, 1998). It enables

student to make and see connections between disciplines, increase social and

communication skills and provides opportunities to contribute to their school

community. It enables children take pride in accomplishing something that

has value outside the classroom and allow children to use their individual

strengths and diverse approaches to learning (Thomas, 1998). It also provides

a practical, real world way to learn to use technology (Kadel, 1999;

Moursand, Dielefeldt, & Underwood, 1997), and increase problem solving

skills (Moursnrd, Dielefeldt & Underwood, 1997).

These characteristics of PBL highlighted above made PBL an effective

instructional method for teaching sciences like Biology, Chemistry,

Mathematics and Agriculture. The researcher therefore wish to introduce

PBL as a teaching strategy in teaching Home Economics.

Academic Achievement

Achievement is defined as a thing done successfully, typically by

efforts, courage or skill. It is the process of actualizing something.

Achievements can be grouped into standardized achievement test or teacher

made achievement test. Academic Achievement is described by Adeyemi,

(2008) as the scholastic standing of a student at a given moment which states

individual abilities. It refers to a person’s learning ability which could be

positive or negative performance. Academic achievement is used to measure

a students cognitive, affective and psychomotor domain. Students academic

achievement can be explained inform of grades obtained from tests or

examination on courses taken.

Academic Achievement could be positive or negative performance, it

could be used for placement of a student to a class, it is used for formative or

surmative purpose as in external examination like junior secondary certificate

or West African school certificate examinations. It could also be used for

diagnostic assessment. If the learning ability is positive, it means pass, while

it is failure when the learning ability is negative. High or low performance

may depend on the methodology of the teacher. Many researchers and

educators posit that negative attitudes towards a subject affects the way

students react or listen to the teacher, also when many students feel or believe

that they can not pass, they perform poorly, (Aremu, 2003).

In Nigeria, the level of students academic achievement in the junior

secondary school level is determined through internal and external

examination like Junior Sec. School Certificate exam conducted by Exam

development centre Enugu. The pattern of grading candidates scores in

examination is such that distinction grades are represented by A1 to B3 credits

are represented by C4 to C6 while ordinary pass grades are represented by D7

to F9. Aremu, (2003) also stresses that poor academic achievement is not

only frustrating to the student and parents, it affects the society in terms of

death of manpower in all spheres of the economy and politics. Hence this

study seek to determine the effect of project based learning on students’

academic achievement in Home Economics.

Interest

Interest means the state of wanting to know or to learn something, it is

a state of curiosity or concern about something. Interest is a motivating

factor in teaching and learning process. The interest of a student can be

determined by carrying out a survey of the learners through discussion, it can

also be determined by observing some of the learner’s activities. Ngwoke

(2010) observes that direct interest in what is learnt by a student, increases

the strength of ego involvement of the student and does not allow the student

to be distracted by trivial events in the perceptual environment. Okoro,

(2011) states that one of the strongest factors affecting students interest in

sciences including Home Economics is the method of instruction adopted by

the teacher which highly correlate with their perception of the subject

relevant to their future.

Interest of the student is one of the critical element in curriculum

implementation. In selecting learning experiences, it is natural for students

not to engage in what they are not interested in. A teacher has to consider the

interest of the students to enable them base the activities selected for the

attainment of the specific objectives of the lesson. This is because no student

would want to engage in what they are not interested in. Offorma (2006)

noted that when learning, experiences are based on the students interest,

learning becomes more significant, meaningful and enjoyable. It is the duty

of the teacher to identify how ready the learner’s are to learn, reasons for

doing this is to ensure that the learners perform well in school. The interest

of the learner could be taken from where it is and helped to progress. Interest

has a positive effect on academic achievement. High achievement stimulates

high interest in learning while low interest results in poor academic

achievement of students. When the interest of students is motivated they

participate in class activities and active participation promotes learning and

fosters retention of knowledge (Offorma, 2006). The interest of the learner is

mainly established from the norms and values of the society rather than from

the intrinsic qualities of the learner alone. Teachers generally attempt to

provide equal educational opportunity to all students in a class, unconsciously

they direct their teaching and expectations to some students at the expense of

others. This is because there are high ability and low ability learners, fast and

slow learners, thus the different groups will have varying degrees of interest

during teaching and learning process (Offorma, 2006).

School environment, quality of teachers resource materials, teaching

methods adopted by teachers, recreational activities are some of the factors

that arouse the interest of the students to learn and achieve more. (Igbokwe,

2009), especially when PBL method is used.

Retention

Retention is the ability to possess, use or keep information and ability

to reproduce past experiences or previously familiar materials. Retention

according to Ngwoke & Eze (2010) is the process by which a child stores

information in his memory for use at a later period. Retention occurs when

facts or experiences are stored in the long term memory. A student may be

able to memorize facts in the short term, but may not retain those facts over

the long term memory. Ngwoke & Eze (2010) believes that knowledge and

skills are meant to be used not to be stored in the memory, much of the

experiences one thinks are not retained were never stored in the long term

memory system.

A lot of forgetting of school experiences according to (Ngwoke, 2009)

is the direct result of poor learning environment conditions. Conditions that

relate to poor retention include such factors like poor teaching methods, lack

of relevant experiences, poor study habit, disruptive emotional state and poor

health condition. This could lead to poor retention of knowledge in subject

like Home Economics which is practically and technically oriented, the

teacher aught to create opportunities for the learner to practice and participate

actively which could lead to high interest and retention of learned materials,

hence this study seek to determine the effect of project-based learning on

students retention and achievement in Home Economics.

Location

Location simply means a particular place or position, it is an actual

place or setting for sitting a school or institution. School location refers to a

particular place or position where a school is sited. A school can not change

its location. The location of a school according to (Igbokwe, 2010) may have

consequences on how well students learn at school. The location of a school

and socio-economic environment determines how well both teachers and

students realize their goals of education (Igbokwe, 2010). A school could be

located in a rural area or in an urban area, any school that is properly

equipped with the right kind of classrooms, adequate teaching resources and

highly qualified teachers is more likely to achieve the curriculum plan than

school with poor academic environment where basic amenities are in every

short supply. Schools in urban areas, have better teachers, and adequate

instructional materials, this study therefore sort to determine the effect of

PBL on location and achievement of students in Home Economics.

Gender as a factor in Achievement in Home Economics

Gender is a determinant factor in academic achievement of Home

Economics. Gender refers to the socially, culturally constructed

characteristics roles which are ascribed to male and female in any society

(Erinosho, 2005). Gender results from cultural learning and socialization in a

society which continues through out ones life. It is a social construct and is

not biologically determined. Gender is a concept equivalent to class and race,

it has many social constructs in different societies (Robert, 1996). Gender is

not enforced through laws, it is imposed through social institution and self

perception (Chang, 2003).

In Nigeria, and perhaps Africa, gender bias is still very prevalent

(Chang, 2003). This is a view to which Onyeizugbo (2003) has also alluded

in pointing out that ‘sex roles are some what rigid in Africa, particularly in

Nigeria. Gender differences are emphasized”. Certain vocations are reserved

for boys, for example to wash cars, cut grass, fix bulbs or climb ladders to fix

and remove things. On the other hand, chores such as washing dishes,

cooking, cleaning sewing and so on, are reserved for girls. In a nutshell, what

are regarded as complex and difficult task, are allocated to boys, where as

girls are expected to handle the relatively easy and less demanding tasks. As

a result of this way of thinking, the larger society has tended to see girls as

the “weaker sex”. Consequently, an average Nigerian child goes to school

with these fixed stereotypes.

For example, men in Nigeria were reported to be more asserting than

women among courses like law, pharmacy and medicine. Home Economics is

the grass root vocational subject that introduces children into the field of

science, it exposes them with the economics and management of self, the

home and the community, and educates the youth for family living. It has

been discovered that male students show less interest than females in this

very important subject.

Project-based learning when applied in the teaching of Home

Economics could motivate the interest of both male and female students to

achieve better. This study will find out whether gender will influence the

achievement of students in Home Economics if exposed to project-based

learning.

Theoretical Framework

Learning Theories and the Constructivists Views

Project based learning is a comprehensive approach to classroom

teaching and learning that is designed to engage students in investigation of

complex, authentic problems and carefully designed products and tasks

(Demirhan, 2002). It is an instructional method centred on the learner,

instead of using a rigid lesson plan that directs a learner down a specified part

of learning outcome or objectives, project-based learning allows indepth

investigation of a topic. (Harris & Katz, 2001). Project-based learning

increases motivation and helps students retain more knowledge and skill

when they are engaged in stimulating projects. With projects, learners use

higher order thinking skills rather than memorizing facts in an isolated

context. Project-based learning is one of the constructivists theory.

Constructivist believe that learning occurs as learners are actively involved n

a process of making meaning and knowledge construction as opposed to

passively receiving information. Constructivists fosters critical thinking and

creates motivated independent learners.

Constructivism can be perceived as an educational theory, learning

theory, an educational movement or a philosophy of learning. Its common

characteristics include active involvement of learners who is intrinsically

driven, knowledge production by learners, social learning environment and

social contact. The role of the teacher is redefined from that of a giver of

knowledge to that of an organizer of necessary learning experiences or a

coach who provides guidance that gradually decreases as learners become

more proficient. Learning is reflective and builds on learners existing

knowledge. The goal of instruction in a constructivists sense is not the

acquisition of the basic knowledge but conceptual development and deep

understanding

Constructivists’ view on learning

Constructivists according to Education Broadcasting corporation

(2004) is not a teaching theory but rather a theory of learning which argued

that human beings generate knowledge and meaning from interaction

between their experience and ideas. Thus to the constructivists, learning is

simply the experience gained by learner’s interaction with the environment.

The constructivists like the cognitive theories see learners as active creator of

knowledge. To construct knowledge Orlich et al., (1998) noted that learners

must ask questions, explore and assess what are known which are the

elements of PBL methods.

In the constructivist theory, teachers’ role is to guide, monitor, coache,

tutor and facilitate. They are not as almighty springs of knowledge, that

provide the necessary instructions on what learners should do and then allow

the learners to actually do it themselves and learn partially independently.

The student plays a central role in mediating and controlling learning. Hence

activities are interactive and student centred.

The theory has direct implications for the use of projects in Home Economics

instruction. In the first place, the Constructivist theory of learning holds that

learning should be embedded in contexts that are relevant and realistic to the

learners’ social context. This is why the researcher advocates the use of

projects because it is an aid to Home Economics instruction which springs

directly from the learners’ social experience of relaxation and fun. projects

are activity –oriented in which the teacher acts only as a creator of learning

situations and a facilitator guiding the students’ through a series of activities

and problems which will enhance achievement by the learners. The use of

projects in the learning process creates a continuum for the learners’ social

life in the classroom while at the same time imparting the desired knowledge.

Secondly, the constructivist theory emphasises that activities should be real

and challenging and reflect the complexities of a real world which projects

encourage. This is because in projects used for Home Economics instruction,

materials to be learnt are presented as real problems to be solved and through

which learning occurs. The materials to be learnt are sequentially arranged

such that the complexity increases from simple to complex which is a

characteristics of project based learning. Hence this study investigates the

effect of project-based learning (PBL) on students’ academic achievement,

interest and retention in Home Economics.

In view of the application of projects into knowledge construction

(constructivism) projects and constructivism are interrelated and share same

characteristics which are summarized by Orlich et al., 1998 as follows.

• The focus is on students.

• The pace of instruction is flexible not fixed

• Students are encouraged to search for implication through evaluation.

• Students must justify their methods for problem solving.

• None of the methods neither constructivism or PBL sees itself as the

sole learning model for content.

John Dewey’s Cognitive Theory

John Dewey was a philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer

who contributed and influenced education and social reforms especially in

such topics like project base learning and others. Dewey states that

“knowledge emerges only from situations in which learners have to draw

them out of meaningful experience”. Dewey agued that education and

learning are social and interactive processes and that the school as a social

institution provides an environment in which social reforms should take

place. He sees the classroom as a social context where students can take part

in manipulating materials and thus form a community of learners who

construct their knowledge together Dewey believes in one permanent frame

of references namely the organic connection between education and personal

experience.

A practical application of knowledge is at the core of Dewey’s

philosophical teachings. Dewey (1963) advocated placing the learner at the

centre of the learning process. Home Economics is an applied subject which

combines theory with practice. “Home Economics draws knowledge from

uniquely selected and organized disciplines then transforms it to practical

use” Home Economics affords learners multiple opportunities to put theory

into practice encouraging a thematic approach to practical work eg practical

food lessons, textiles and craft lesson. Home Economics practical food and

textile lessons, through a cooperative learning process, support opportunities

for social negotiation and shared responsibility hence encourages high

interest and achievement in any school subject.

The obvious implication of Dewey’s theory in this study is that in the

learning process, students must be engaged in meaningful activities that

induce them to apply the concepts they are trying to learn. The teacher’s role

should be to provide enabling environment for active learning to take place,

such an environment could be the project based method.

Jean Piaget Cognitive Learning Theory

Jean Piaget proposes that the basis of fall learning is the child’s own

activity as the child interacts with the physical and social environment. To

piaget, knowledge does not and can not have the same purpose of

representation of an independent reality but instead has adaptive function.

Piaget recognized that human beings are born as active exploratory

information processing organism and actively construct their own ways of

thinking about things based on their current level of maturation, actual

experience with objects, people and ideas. Piaget believe that the child’s

mental activity is organized into a structure called ‘schema’ or pattern of

behaviour which develops as the child passes through stages of mental

development, through the sensory motor, pre operational concrete and formal

operational stages (from infancy to maturation). Thus as children grow and

develop, they go through stages in which they accept ideas that they may later

discard as wrong. Understanding is therefore built up step by step through

active participation and involvement. Home Economics’ content and teaching

methodologies, especially practical work can nurture learners’ self awareness.

Furthermore, it can develop an understanding that knowledge is constructed,

thus enabling their learning to be embedded in complex, real world and

relevant learning situation (Piaget, 1972).

Piaget theory is in favour of project-based learning. Piaget sees the

teacher as a facilitator or a guide in the teaching and learning process whose

role is to provide a rich environment for spontaneous exploration of the

student. In line with Piagets’ view Okebukola (2002) stated that a science

classroom filled with materials to explore encourage students to become

active constructor of their own knowledge. Piaget like PBL sees learning as

active process in which students should be given freedom to understand and

construct meaningful knowledge at their own pace through personal

experience. This research therefore intend to support these philosophers by

investigating the effect of PBL method on secondary school students

achievement and interest in Home Economics.

L.S. Vygotsky’s Learning Theory

Vygotsky also refered to as social constructivist believe that learning

takes place through social interaction. Vygotsky believed that the zone of

proximal development of a child is the distance between the actual

development level as determined by independent problem solving and the

level of potential development as determined through problem solving under

guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Honebein, 1996).

The constructivist theory proposed by vygotsky and as a summarized

in the work of Honebein (1996) holds that learning should be embedded in

realistic and relevant contexts, in social experience; and learners should be

encouraged in the use of multiple modes of representation. This means that

the basis for the child’s learning should be his ability to interact with and

understand materials and content based on his ability to relate them to other

activities in his environment. The constructivists are of the opinion that

learning situations, environment, skills, content and tasks should be made

relevant, realistic and authentic to represent the natural complexities of ‘real

world’. Other constructivist scholars agree with this and emphasize that

individuals make meaning through the interactions with each other and with

the environment they live in.

The implication of vygotsky’s theory to this study is that it is the

teacher’s role to move the child forward in the academic process. Through

PBL the child’s zone of proximal development can be reached as the teacher

provides assistance and structures the learning objectives.

Review of Empirical Studies

Studies on effect of project-based learning and related teaching

methods and students’ achievement. Available studies; (Adekoye, 2010;

Ezeudu, 1995; Zachariou, 1997; and Boaler 2002 et al indicated that project-

based learning method improves student’s achievement in sciences more than

the traditional teaching methods like lecture, demonstration etc. with regards

to the above statement, Olatoye and Adekoye (2010) carried out a study on

the effect of project based demonstration and lecture teaching strategies on

senior secondary students’ achievement in an aspect of Agricultural Science.

Quasi experimental design was used involving 150 randomly selected senior

secondary school 11 (SSS II) students, as well as four (4) research questions.

Findings revealed a significant effect of treatment on students’ achievement

in an aspect of agricultural science. Students performed significantly at

different levels in the three (3) groups. Additionally there was a significant

interaction effect of treatment and gender on students’ achievement in an

aspect of agricultural science. The study is partially related to the present

study in method used, the difference is in class and subject. The subject was

on Agricultural science in SS 2 class while the present work is on Home

Economics and JSS 2 class.

Further research work carried out by Ezeudu (1995) determined the

effect of concept map on students achievement, interest and retention in

selected units of organic chemistry. Quasi experiment was used involving

411 students consisting of 208 males and 203 females of SS III students with

9 research questions. The result of the study showed that male students taught

with concept mapping had a higher mean interest score than female students.

Furthermore, result showed that males were more conscious of the new

instructional method than females. The difference between this work and the

other is in the subject matter, purpose and class. This work focused on

concept map, SS 3 class chemistry as the subject matter while the current

work focused on project-based learning, JSS 2 Home Economics as the

subject matter.

Another research work conducted by Tretten and Zachariou in (1997),

was on assessment of project-based learning in four elementary schools. The

method used were teacher questionnaires, teacher interviews, and a survey of

parents using a total number of 64 teachers across the four schools surveyed.

The findings showed that students, working both individually and co-

operatively feel empowered when they use effective work habit.

Furthermore, they apply critical thinking to solve problems by finding or

creating solutions in relevant projects. The difference between this work and

the current work lies in the purpose, method and the class.

Another quasi experimental work was conducted by Boaler in (2002),

for the purpose of comparing students’ performance on some criterion

measure, to assess students’ capabilities, achievement and interest for three

years using traditional versus project-based method of instruction in two

schools. A total number of 300 SS 2 students were sampled for the work for

three years. The result of the study revealed that students at the project-based

school passed the national examination administered in three years of the

study more than traditional school students, the better performance was due

to their increased interest and retention in mathematics. The difference

between this work and the current work lies in the class and subject matter,

but they share the same purpose. This work focused on the use of project-

based to assess SS 2 students capabilities achievement and interest in

mathematics while the current work focused on the effect of project-based

learning on JS 2 students achievement interest and retention in Home

Economics.

From the foregoing, the reviewed studies indicated that the innovative

teaching methods and activity oriented teaching methods such as

constructivism, co-operative learning and project based teaching methods

have positive effects on students’ academic achievement and interest,

promote science process skill acquisition, improve the performance of low

achievers in Home Economics and generally improve on students

understanding of Home Economics concepts more than the conventional

teaching method such as lecture and demonstration method, respectively.

From the reviewed studies there is also a clear indication that there is limited

or no significant studies on the effect of PBL teaching methods on students’

achievement and interest in Home Economics. In view of this the researcher

considered it necessary to investigate the effect of project-based learning

method of teaching on students’ academic achievement interest and retention

in Home Economics.

Summary of Literature Reviewed

A number of emphasis have been made in this review to establish the

need for the use of project based learning method in teaching and learning

Home Economics. The review is organized under three sub-headings.

1. Conceptual framework,

2. Theoretical framework and

3. Review of Empirical studies.

The conceptual framework presents Home Economics as a field of

study that draws from a range of disciplines to achieve optimal and

sustainable living for individuals, families and communities. Among many

other definitions, the study reveals five areas of Home Economics as Foods &

Nutrition, clothing and Textiles Home management, child development and

family living. Emphasizing the importance of Home Economics to the

individuals, families and the nation, the study also stressed that the focus of

education has moved from the content acquisition and knowledge to an

education for change which equips learners with essential skills, attitude and

motivation for living and thinking sustainably hence the introduction of

constructive teaching method known as project-based learning.

Project-based learning has been defined as an instructional method

centered on the learner. It is a method of instruction that actively engages

students in problem solving learning process through planning, doing and

completing projects. Project-based learning has numerous advantages. The

theoretical framework highlighted the constructivist teaching which is based

on the belief that learning occurs as learners are actively, involved in a

process of making meaning and knowledge construction rather than passively

receiving information.

The review of empirical studies, shows that project-based learning has

been an effective method of instruction in sciences like mathematics,

chemistry, integrated sciences, physics, Agricultural science, etc that is why

the researcher wish to introduce project-based learning as a method of

instruction in Home Economics since it is technically and practically

informed. Learners should be able to construct, create and solve problems in

nutrition, clothing and textiles, home management to stimulate interest and

hasten retention in Home Economics. When students interest and retention

are stimulated, obviously their academic achievement in the subject will be

very high. Schematically the study is represented as follows.

Figure I: Project-based learning on achievement, retention and interest

in Home Economics

From the schema above, it was suggested that when project-based learning is

applied in teaching Home economics, it could encourage critical and

reflective thinking which helps to motivate interest, enhance retention and

promote academic achievement of students in secondary schools.

Project-based learning

Retention Academic

achievement

Interest

Home Economics

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter discusses the specific method that was used for

investigating the problem of study. It describes the design of the study, the

area of the study, population, sample and sampling technique. Also the

experimental procedure, control of extraneous variables, instruments for data

collection, reliability and validity of the instruments were discussed. Finally,

the method employed in analyzing the data is also presented.

Design of the Study

The design of the study is quasi experimental study. Specifically the

study applied pre-test, post-test non-equivalent control group design. Quasi-

experimental design is considered appropriate for the study because intact

classes was used to avoid disruption of normal class lesson. The pre-test was

used to partial out initial difference in the two groups and to control selection

bias which is a treat to initial validity. The study design is illustrated as

follows

Illustration of the design of the study

Group Pre-test Treatment Post test

Project-based learning Experimental O1 X1 O2

Conventional method of Teaching O1 X2 O2

Group I → O1 x1

Group II → O1 x2

Where O1 = Pre-test

X1 = treatment for Exp. Group I

X2 = treatment for Exp. Group II

O2 = post-test.

48

Area of the Study

The study was carried out in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State.

The zone consists of three Local Government Areas: Namely: Igbo-Etiti,

Nsukka and Uzo-Uwani. There were fifty two (52) public secondary schools

in the zone, out of which only nineteen (19) schools were taught Home

Economics. The study was limited to Nsukka Local Government Area. The

choice for this area was based on the fact that students achievement in Home

Economics in the area was poor, secondly, the researcher was familiar with

the location of the schools within the area, which gave the researcher the

opportunity to monitor and supervise the experiment properly (see Appendix

L)

Population of the Study

The population for this study consisted of all the junior secondary two

(JSS II) students who offered Home Economics in Nsukka education zone.

The number of students was 2761 from the nineteen schools that offered

Home Economics. The choice of JS II was because it is not examination

class and teachers can co-operate with the researcher moreover principals

could allow the researcher to use final year class to avoid disturbances. See

Appendix L collected from post primary school management board PPSMB

Nsukka Education Zone.

Sample and Sampling Procedure

Sample size for this study was 160 students using a multi-stage

sampling technique. Out of the nineteen secondary schools in Nsukka Local

Government Areas where Home Economics was done, four co-education

secondary schools were purposively selected, (2) two schools from Urban

and (2) two schools from rural areas. The choice of co-education schools was

because gender was one of the variables under study, the choice of local and

rural schools was because location was one of the variables under study.

Four (4) intact 40 Home Economics students of JSS II classes were randomly

selected from each of the schools sampled making a total of four intact

classes of 160 Home Economic students from the four co-education schools.

(see Appendix E)

Experimental Procedure

Out of the four intact classes of 160 students from four co-educational

secondary schools in Nsukka Local Government Area, two of the intact

classes consisting of 80 students from two of the sampled schools were

assigned to group I and were treated using project-based teaching method

while the other intact classes from different sampled schools were assigned to

group II and were treated using lecture method respectively. (see Appendix

E)

Control of extraneous variables:

The control of Extraneous variables in this study was done to ensure that

extraneous variables which may influence the finding were controlled, it was

done through the following procedures:

1. Experimental Bias: The researcher did not do the actual teaching of

both the experimental groups and the control groups. The actual

teaching was done by the regular Home Economics teachers of the

participant classes. This was to ensure that extraneous variables which

may influence the findings were controlled.

2. Teacher variables: To control the error that might arise as a result of

teacher difference on the students’ achievement and interest in Home

Economics. The regular teachers of Home Economics in the sampled

schools were used for the study.

3. Inter group variables: To eliminate the error of non-randomization of

the subjects data from the study was analysed using the analysis of

covariance (ANCOVA)

4. Subject Interaction: The researcher made sure that the experimental

groups were drawn from different schools because of any possible

interaction that may arise (inter class discussion) between the two

experimental groups.

5. Effect of pre-test on post test or Hawthorn Effect: The experiment

lasted for four (4) weeks and it was expected that this period may be

long enough as not to permit the pre-test to affect the post-test scores

or to interfere with the experimental treatment. Also the items will be

reshuffled before administering the post-test.

6. Homogeneity of the instructional situation across all groups.

The following steps were taken to ensure homogeneity of the instructional

situation across all groups.

(a) There was a training programme for all the teachers that were

involved. The training was focused on:

i. Exposing the teacher on the meaning of project-based learning and

familiarizing them on the concepts that were focused on the project

based learning.

ii. Also, rehearsal of the lecture teaching methods based on the concept

was made.

Instrument for Data Collection

The researcher constructed three instruments pertinent to the study, and

four different lesson plans were used for the study. The instruments were

Home Economics Achievement Test (HEAT), Home Economics Interest Test

(HEIT) and Home Economics and Retention Test (HERT)

Home Economics Achievement Test (HEAT).

The construction of the HEAT was based on three topics which were

Basic food nutrients, functions of nutrients and deficiency diseases, drawn

from the junior secondary school II scheme of work and taught to students.

The essence of the (HEAT) was to measure students’ achievement in Home

Economics after the application of project based learning to the experimental

group. The HEAT is a 25 item multiple objective test, each question had four

options, in which the students were expected to choose one out of the options

which is the correct answer. (see Appendix B).

The HEAT was developed from the above topics by first constructing a

test blue print for the different content specified above. The objective of the

topics in JSS II served as a guide for developing the questions. The items of

the instrument were developed to cover lower order questions and higher

order questions. (see Appendix K).

Home Economics Interest Test (HEIT)

It is a 20 item interest scale developed by the researcher. It was

constructed by generating a list of statements to show the extents of students

Interest in Home Economics and providing a set of graduated response

options. The questionnaire consist of twenty items on a 4-point rating scale,

ranging from Strongly Agree (SA) to strongly Disagree (SD) (see Appendix

H). The scale and the scoring guide are shown below.

Showing the scale and scoring of HEIT

Note

SA - Strongly Agree = 4

A - Agree = 3

D - Disagree = 2

SD - Strongly Disagree = 1

Home Economics Retention Test (HERT) it was made up of (8) eight item

retention questionnaire structured, by the researcher. It was constructed by

generating a list of statement to determine the extents of students’ retention of

what was learnt in Home Economics when project based method is used in

teaching. The questionnaire consist of eight items on a 4-point rating scale,

ranging from strongly agree (SA) to strongly Disagree (SD) (see Appendix I).

four lesson plans on both experimental (PBL) and control (Lecture method

were used for the study (see Appendix C1 to D2).

Administration of the Instrument

The researcher issued out instructional guides to the regular Home

Economics teachers (research assistants) in sampled schools for both

experimental group I and II in order to ensure that the instructional situation

was the same for the four schools selected for the study. Teaching and

testing were conducted in all the Home Economics classes of JS II in the

various schools selected for the study and not just in the intact classes drawn.

This was done to avoid Hawthorne effect (a situation in which research

subjects’ behaviour is affected not by the treatment but by their knowledge of

participation in the study) and Novelty effect increased interest, motivation or

participation on the part of the subject simply because they did something

different).

Content Validity

The content validity of the instrument, Home Economics Achievement

Test (HEAT) was done by basing the items on the Home Economics content

to be taught. For the HEAT, table of specification was used in constructing

the items. (see Appendix K). The questions were based on low order

cognitive domain (knowledge, comprehension and application) and high

order cognitive domain (analysis, synthesis and evaluation). After the

content validation, 25 out of 30 HEAT statements survived the full

validation. (see Appendix B)

Reliability of the Instrument

The instrument (HEAT, HEIT and HERT) were subjected to trial

testing. The trial testing was carried out at Community Secondary School

Obimo Nsukka which is within the study area. Trial testing was done on a

group of 30 selected JSS II students, the instrument was re-administered to

the 30 students after 7 days (Test Re-test). The school was excluded during

sampling of population. The trial testing enabled the researcher to determine

the clarity of the test items, its readability, appropriateness and adequacy as

well helped to determine the actual time. The time duration for the test was

estimated using the average time taken by the first and last subject to

complete the test. The data obtained from the responses of the students in the

trial testing were used to estimate the reliability of the instrument.

The internal consistency of the Home Economics Interest Test (HEIT)

was estimated using cronbach alpha (α) because it was polytonomously

scored. It has a reliability coefficient of .849, cronbach alpha was used

because the HEIT involved a likert-scale that was polychotomously scored.

The internal consistency of the Home Economics Achievement test (HEAT)

was determined using the Kuder-Richardson formula (K-R=20). An internal

consistency of 0.73 was established for the heat (see Appendix J1 & J2).

Home Economics Retention Test (HERT) will be determined based on

test-re-test.

Validation of Instruments

The research instruments alongside with the purpose of the study,

research questions, research hypotheses and lesson plans were given to a

panel of three (3) experts in measurement and evaluation in the faculty of

Education, of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka and three (3) Home

Economics teachers from schools in Nsukka Education Zone. Their criticisms

and advice were used in modifying the items (see Appendix A)

They were requested to verify the following:

1. Clarity of instrument,

2. Ascertain proper use of words for test items

3. Ascertain appropriateness of items in relation to content and

4. Ensuring that the tests accessed the processes of arriving at answers

to questions.

The four lesson plans (two constructed using project-based method and the

other two using the lecture method) were written by the researcher and

validated by two experts from the faculty of education. The lesson plans was

used by the research assistants to teach the lessons. Two research assistants

used the project based lesson plan (Appendix C1 and C2) to teach the

experimental group, another two research assistants used the other lesson

plans constructed with lecture method (see Appendix D1 and D2) to teach the

control group. The experimental and control groups were taught the same

topics which lasted for four weeks.

Training Programme for the Teachers

Four Home Economics teachers from the schools involved attended the

training workshop at about two weeks to the commencement of the

instruction stage of the research. The researcher instructed them on

1) the objectives, scope and nature of junior secondary school Home

Economics in Nigeria

2) the Home Economics concept to be taught in this study.

3) The purpose of the research as well as the procedure for

administering the different instrument.

4) The use of the lesson plans for the project-based learning and

conventional method of teaching.

During the co-ordination, the researcher emphasised the teaching methods

and strategies to be used in the study as well as the five characteristics of

teaching behaviour as pointed by Ali, 1982). These are

1. interjection of knowledge of Home Economics by the teacher

2. techniques for answering questions.

3. control on interaction.

4. techniques for removing false concepts, and

5. introduction of generalization.

The Home Economics teachers in each group will be allowed to teach for 30

minutes each to test their competence on the different teaching methods

before carrying out the treatment on the subjects.

Method of Data Collection

Data for the study was collected through pre-and post tests using the

HEIT, HEART and HERT. The pre-test was administered to the subjects

before the treatment to measure the students’ group equivalence and to

provide the researcher with baseline data about the subject while post-test

was administered to the students one week after the treatment. Data collected

from the two-test (pre and post) after treatment was used for data analysis.

(see Appendix B and G)

Method of Data Analysis

Mean and standard deviation was used to answer the research

questions while Analysis of co-variance (ANCOVA) was used in testing the

hypotheses at 0.5% level of significance. The ANCOVA served as a

controller for the initial differences across groups as well as increasing the

precision due to the extraneous variables thus reducing error variance

(Ferguson, 1981). The pre-tests was used as co-variates of the post-test.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

In this chapter, the researcher presents the results obtained from the

data in this study. The results are presented based on the research questions

and hypothesis. The research questions were answered using mean, standard

deviation and graph while the hypotheses are tested using analysis of

covariance.

Research Question 1

What are the effects of PBL in achievement scores students in Home

economics?

Table 1: Achievement mean and standard deviation scores of students taught

with project base learning and lecture method.

Methods N Pre-test Post-test Gain

score Mean Std. Dev Mean Std. Dev

Project base

learning

107 9.85 2.94 15.38 5.23 5.53

Lecture 81 11.14 2.96 10.85 4.86 0.29

The summary of result presented in table 1 shows the mean

achievement score of students taught with project base learning and lecture

method of teaching. Students in the project based learning method had a

mean score of 9.85 and standard deviation of 2.94 for pre-test while a mean

score of 15.38 and standard deviation of 5.23 were obtained in their post-test.

On the other hand, students in the lecture method recorded a mean of 11.14

and standard deviation of 2.96 in their pre-test and on the post-test they had a

mean score of 10.85 and standard deviation of 4.86. Comparatively the

60

achievement means score of students taught with project base learning is

higher than those taught with lecture method. The gain score of project

learning group is higher than the lecture group which indicates that the

project group gained more than the lecture group.

Research Question 2 What is the difference in the mean interest of students taught Home

economics using PBL and those taught using conventional method?

Table 2: interest mean and standard deviation scores of students taught with

PBL and lecture method.

Method N Mean Std. dev

Project base method 107 2.97 0.30

Lecture method 81 2.97 0.28

The table above shows the interest of students taught Home Economics

using Problem based learning and conventional method. Project base students

obtained mean achievement of 2.97 with a standard deviation of 0.30 while

students in the lecture method had a mean achievement of 2.97 and a standard

deviation of 0.28. Comparatively students in the project base and lecture

method had the same interest mean score in Home Economics. Therefore,

there is no difference in the interest of students when taught using project

base learning and lecture method.

Research Question 3 What is the difference in the mean retention rate of students taught

Home economics using PBL and those taught using conventional method?

Table 3: retention mean and standard deviation of students’ taught with PBL

and those taught using lecture method of teaching.

Method N Mean Std. dev

Project base method 107 3.25 0.47

Lecture method 81 3.14 0.55

Table 3 shows the retention rate of students taught Home Economics

using PBL and those taught using conventional method. Project base students

obtained mean retention of 3.25 with a standard deviation of 0.47 while their

lecture method counterpart had a mean retention of 3.14 and a standard

deviation of 0.55. Comparatively students in the project base method retained

better than the conventional group although there is a slight mean retention

difference of 0.11. Therefore the difference observed in the mean retention is

an indication that there is difference in the mean retention rate of students

taught Home economics using PBL and those taught using conventional

method?

Research Question 4 What is the interaction effect of location on students’ taught Home

Economics using PBL and those taught using conventional method?

Table 4: the interaction effect of method and location on achievement of

students in Home Economics

Method Location N Pre-test Post-test Gain

score Mean Std.dev Mean Std.dev

Project

base

learning

Urban 67 10.13 3.02 18.19 3.19 8.06

Rural 40 9.38 2.77 10.68 4.57 1.3

Total 107 9.85 2.94 15.38 5.23 5.53

Lecture

method

urban 40 11.83 2.27 14.55 2.39 2.72

Rural 41 10.46 3.40 7.24 3.83 3.22

Total 81 11.14 2.96 10.85 4.86 0.29

The data in table 4 show the interaction effect between method and

location on students’ achievement in Home Economics. Urban students in the

problem based learning group had a mean score of 10.13 and a standard

deviation of 3.02 as against their counterparts in the rural area who recorded a

mean score of 9.38 and standard deviation of 2.77 on their pretest. for lecture

method, urban students obtained a mean score of 11.83 with a corresponding

standard deviation of 2.27 while the rural students had a mean score of 10.46

with a standard deviation of 3.40. On the other hand, it also revealed a

posttest score of 18.19 for urban students who were taught with problem

based learning while their rural counterparts had mean posttest score of

10.68. Urban students who were taught with lecture method had posttest

mean score of 14.55 while their rural counterparts had a posttest mean score

of 7.24. The results suggest ordinal interaction effect between method and

location on students’ achievement in Home Economics.

The graph shows that the cell means connecting method and location

indicates ordinal interaction effect. This is because the lines connecting

method and location do not intersect within the plot but not a parallel line.

Research Question 5 What is the mean achievement score of male and female students’

taught Home Economics using project base learning method?

Table 5: Achievement mean and standard deviation of male and female

students’ taught with project base learning.

Gender N Pre-test Post-test Gain

score Mean Std. Dev Mean Std. Dev

Female 59 10.22 2.83 15.90 5.01 5.68

Male 48 9.40 3.04 14.75 5.48 5.35

The data in table 5 show the effect of project based learning on male

and female students’ achievement in Home Economics. The male students

had pre-test and post-test mean scores of 9.40 and 14.75 respectively and

standard deviation of 3.04 and 5.48 respectively as opposed to their female

counterparts who had pre-test and post-test mean scores of 10.22 and 15.90

with a corresponding standard deviation of 2.83 and 5.01 respectively. The

female students had a higher achievement mean scores than the male students

in their pre-test and post-test. The female students who were taught with

project based learning method had a gain score of 5.68 while their male

students recorded a mean gain score of 5.35 The higher gain score in favour

of female students shows that there is difference in the mean achievement

score of male and female students in Home Economics.

Hypothesis 1 There is no significant difference in the mean achievement score of

students taught Home Economics with project –based learning and those

taught with lecture method

Table 7: Summary of ANCOVA Table of students’ scores in the project

based learning method of teaching and those taught with lecture method.

Hypothesis 1, 4 and 5 will be answered

Source

Type III

Sum of

Squares Df

Mean

Square F Sig.

Corrected

Model

3739.715a 5 747.943 68.118 .000

Intercept 896.942 1 896.942 81.688 .000

Pre test 283.964 1 283.964 25.862 .000

Gender 22.276 1 22.276 2.029 .156

Method 724.339 1 724.339 65.968 .000

Location 2073.699 1 2073.699 188.859 .000

method *

location

6.294 1 6.294 .573 .450

Error 1998.386 182 10.980

Total 39651.000 188

Corrected

Total

5738.101 187

a. R Squared = .652 (Adjusted R Squared = .642)

Table 7 shows the significant difference in the mean achievement score

of students exposed to project based learning and those taught with lecture

method. The obtained value of F(1,182) = 65.968 is significant 0.000 for

method main effect (P< 0.05), thus the null hypothesis is rejected and the

researcher concludes that there is significant difference in the mean

achievement score of students taught Home Economics using project based

learning and those taught with conventional method.

Hypothesis 2 There is no significant difference in the mean ratings interest scores of

students taught Home Economics with project based learning and those

taught with convention

Table 8: Summary of ANCOVA Table of student means interest scores in

the project based learning method of teaching and those taught with lecture

method.

Source

Type III

Sum of

Squares df

Mean

Square F Sig.

Corrected

Model

.000a 2 .000 .001 .999

Intercept 120.054 1 120.054 1439.21

3

.000

Pre test .000 1 .000 .002 .968

Method .000 1 .000 .000 .990

Error 15.432 185 .083

Total 1669.250 188

Corrected

Total

15.432 187

a. R Squared = .000 (Adjusted R Squared = -.011)

Table 8 shows the significant difference in the mean ratings interest

scores of students taught Home Economics with project based learning and

those taught with conventional method. The obtained value of F(1,185) =

0.000 is not significant at 0.990 for the method main effect (P>0.05), the null

hypothesis is accepted and the researcher concludes that there is no

significant difference in the mean ratings interest scores of students taught

Home Economics with project based learning and those taught with

conventional method.

Hypothesis 3 There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of

students taught Home Economics with project based learning and those

taught with conventional method

Table 9: Summary of ANCOVA Table of students mean retention scores in

the project based learning method of teaching and those taught with lecture

method

Source

Type III

Sum of

Squares df

Mean

Square F Sig.

Corrected

Model

.902a 2 .451 1.763 .174

Intercept 125.252 1 125.252 489.643 .000

Pre test .387 1 .387 1.512 .220

Method .694 1 .694 2.713 .101

Error 47.324 185 .256

Total 1975.906 188

Corrected

Total

48.225 187

a. R Squared = .019 (Adjusted R Squared = .008)

Table 9 shows the mean retention scores of students taught Home

Economics using project based method and those taught with conventional

method. The obtained value of F (1, 185) = 2.713 is not significant at 0.101

for method main effect. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted and the

researcher concludes that there is no significant difference in the mean

retention scores of students taught Home Economics with project based

learning and those taught with convention

Hypothesis 4 There is no significant difference in the interaction effect of location on

students taught Home Economics with project based learning and those

taught with conventional method

Table 7 shows the significant interaction between method and location

on students’ achievement in Home Economics. The obtained value of

F(1,182) = 0.573 is not significant at 0.450 for interaction main effect (P>

0.05) the null hypothesis is accepted and the researcher concludes that there

is no significant interaction between method and location on students

achievement in Home Economics.

Hypothesis 5

There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

male and female students taught Home Economics with project –based

learning method.

Table 7 shows the achievement scores of male and female students

exposed to project base learning. The obtained value of F (1, 182) = 2.029 is

not significant at 0.156 for gender main effect (P>0.05), thus the null

hypothesis is accepted and the researcher concludes that there is no

significant difference in the mean achievement score of male and female

students exposed to project based learning method.

Summary of Findings

The following findings were made in this study

1. Students in the project based learning achieved higher than those in the

conventional method

2. There is no difference in the mean interest of students taught Home

Economics using project based learning and those taught using

conventional method

3. Students in the project based learning retained better than those taught

in the conventional method in Home Economics

4. There is interaction effect of location and method on students’

achievement in Home Economics

5. female students performed higher than male students’ in Home

Economics when taught using project based method

6. There is significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

students taught Home Economics with project based learning and those

taught with conventional method

7. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings interest scores of

students taught Home Economics with project based learning and those

taught with conventional method

8. There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of

students taught Home Economics using project based learning and

those taught with conventional method

9. There is no significant interaction of method and location on students’

achievement in Home Economics

10. There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

male and female taught Home Economics with project based learning.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS OF THE

STUDY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY OF THE STUDY

This chapter is presented under the following sub-headings: discussion

of the results, conclusion, implications, recommendations, limitation,

suggestion for further studies and summary of the study.

Discussion of the Results

The discussion of the findings is presented under the following sub-headings:

1. Teaching methods and students’ achievement.

2. Teaching methods and students’ interest

3. Teaching methods and students retention

4. Interaction effect of project based learning on location

5. Gender and students’ achievement.

Teaching methods and students’ achievement

The findings of this study reveal that students in the project based

learning performed better than the students in the conventional group.

However, there is a significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

students taught Home Economics using project based learning method and

conventional method. The trend of the high performance by the project based

learning could be that the method helped the students to actively participate

in the class (to do it themselves) and to discover new things through their

prior knowledge.

72

It could have also encouraged the students to internalize what they

have learnt. The findings of this study is in line with the finding of Adekoye

(2010), Ezeudu (1995), Zachariou (1997) and Boaler et (2002) who in their

studies shows that project based learning method improves students’

achievement in sciences. And also this study agrees with the findings of

Olatoye and Adekoye (2010) who reported significant effect of treatment on

students’ achievement in an aspect of agriculture science.

Teaching Methods and Students’ Interest

The findings of this study shows that there is no significant difference

in the mean interest of students taught Home economics using project based

learning and those taught using conventional method. The findings of this

study is disagreement with the findings of Ezeudu (1995) who carried out a

study to determine the effect of concept map on students achievement ,

interest and retention in selected units of organic chemistry and found that

male students taught with concept mapping had a higher mean interest score

than female students. Also the result of this contradicts the findings of Boaler

(2002) that show project based learning method motivates students’ interest

in mathematics.

Teaching Methods and Students Retention

The result of this study shows that students in the project based

learning method retained better than those in the conventional method.

Further analysis revealed that there is no significant difference in the mean

retention scores of students taught home economics using project based

learning and those with conventional method. Therefore the higher mean

retention score in favour of students in the project based learning method may

be cause by other variable other than the treatment given to them. This

implies that retention levels of student used in this study are the same

irrespective of the group they belong to. The researcher can conclude that

method has no effect on students’ retention in home economics. The findings

of this study contradicts the findings of Boaler (2002) that show project based

learning method improved students’ retention in mathematics .

Interaction Effect of Project Based Learning on Location

The study reveals that there is no significant interaction effect of

method and location on students’ achievement in home economics. The

results this study disagrees with the findings of Olatoye and Adekoye (2010)

who reported a significant interaction effect of treatment and gender on

students’ achievement in an aspect of agriculture science.

Gender and Students Achievement.

The findings of this study revealed that female students performed

better than the male students in home economics although; there is a slight

mean difference in favour of the female students. A further analysis was

carried out using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) which indicates that

gender has no influence on students’ achievement in home economics;

therefore, the observed difference in favour of female students early

identified occurred as a result of chance. The study has proven that gender

does not influence students’ achievement in home economics when taught

with project base learning. This shows that project based learning method is

not gender biased in home economics.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions were made:

1. students in the project based learning achieved higher than those in the

conventional method

2. There is no difference in the mean interest of students taught Home

Economics using project based learning and those taught using

conventional method

3. Students in the project based learning retained better than those taught

in the conventional method in Home Economics

4. There is interaction effect of location and method on students’

achievement in Home Economics

5. female students performed higher than male students’ in Home

Economics when taught using project based method

6. There is significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

students taught Home Economics with project based learning and those

taught with conventional method

7. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings interest scores of

students taught Home Economics with project based learning and those

taught with conventional method

8. There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of

students taught Home Economics using project based learning and

those taught with conventional method

9. There is no significant interaction of method and location on students’

achievement in Home Economics

10. There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

male and female taught Home Economics with project based learning.

Educational implications

The result of this study has some obvious implication to the teachers in

the sense that the teacher will now know that using project based learning to

augment his/her teaching is better than using lecture method in teaching.

Teachers should therefore apply this knowledge from the findings of this

work in their teaching especially now that home economics laboratory is

relatively available in schools. Since the efficacy of the use of project based

learning has been indicated in this study, states and federal ministries of

Education should organize seminars and workshops where teachers, textbook

authors and curriculum planners will be taught various ways of using this

method for effective teaching and learning of home economics. They

textbook authors should work with the ministry as to put activities that is

project oriented as study guild and revision question and exercise at the end

of each chapter of a book. The result of this study also calls for a critical

review of the junior secondary school home economics curriculum with

emphasis and aim of including project based learning and increasing the time

for class lessons so as to accommodate the use of project based method in

learning. It could also provide an alternative instructional strategy that could

be employed by teachers to enhance gender equality in home economics

achievement and retention. Furthermore, other researchers will use these

finding for further studies by using it as a reference point.

Recommendations

On the basis of the findings of this study, the following recommendations are

made:

1. Since project based learning method has been found to improve

students achievement in Home Economics, teachers should be

encouraged to employ it more in the teaching of Home Economics.

2. Home Economics teachers should not introduce gender discrepancies

in the classroom. They should as much as possible eliminate contents,

instructional techniques and materials that may bring about gender

differences in the classroom.

3. The curriculum planners should modify senior secondary school Home

Economics curriculum to include the use of innovative teaching

method like the project based learning method in order to enhance the

participation and achievement of students in Home Economics.

4. The ministry of education in Nigeria should organize seminars,

workshops and conferences for Home Economic teachers on how to

use project based learning method in teaching Home Economics.

Limitation of the Study

The study has some limitations.

• The use of intact classes for the study did not permit random

assignment to treatment and control groups. This may have affected the

findings of this study.

• The classes were taught by the regular classroom teachers. These

teachers may not have strictly followed the lesson plan and guidelines

for the project based learning.

Inspite of the limitations pointed above, the researcher made serious

efforts to overcome them. It is therefore the assertion of the researcher that

the study has been able to make pertinent and reliable findings for

generalizations.

Suggestion for Further Research

1. The present study recommends that similar researches should be

replicated in another area of home economics teaching.

2. The present study made use of junior secondary schools students and

therefore recommend that senior secondary school students should be

used in further research.

3. This type of research can be extended to other geographical locations.

4. Other innovative methods can be introduced.

Summary of the Study

This study compared the effectiveness of project based learning and

conventional method on student achievement, interest and retention in Home

Economics. The study was carried out in Nsukka Educational zone of Enugu

State. A sample of one hundred and sixty (188) students made up of forty

eight males and fifty nine females of junior secondary two (JSS II) students

who offer Home economics in Nsukka education zone. Intact class was used

and two groups were randomly assigned as experimental (project based

learning) and control (conventional method).

The design of this study was quasi-experimental. Five research

questions and five hypotheses guided this study. Instruments used for data

collection was the Achievement Test on Home Economics (HEAT), Home

Economics interest Test (HEIT) and Home Economics retention Test (HERT)

developed by the researcher. They were validated by experts in curriculum

studies, measurement and evaluation. They instruments was a trial testing to

estimate the internal consistency of the instrument. five research questions

guided the study were answered using mean and standard deviation while the

five hypotheses were tested using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) .Data

generated from the test administered to the students were to compare the

effectiveness of project based learning and conventional method on students

achievement, interest and retention in Home economics. Result showed that

students who were taught with project based learning achieved and retained

higher than students who were taught with convention method in both the

post test and retention questionnaire. It equally revealed that students that

were taught with project based learning had the same interest in Home

Economics compare to those taught with conventional method. The result

also show that female students achieved higher than male students, though

the difference was not statically significant.

The result had some implication to teachers, educators, student,

parents, State and Federal Ministries of Education and other researchers. One

of which was to organize seminars and workshops to educate teachers on the

use of project based learning in teaching Home Economics for effective

teaching and learning.

This study recommended among other things that since project based

learning is found to improved students achievement and retention in Home

Economics, teacher should adopt it in teaching.

References

Adebule, S.O. (2004). Gender differences on a locally standardized anxiety

rating scale in mathematics for Nigerian secondary schools in Nigeria

Journal of Counseling and Applied Psychology, 1, 22-29.

Adeyemi, T.O. (2008). Predicting students’ performance in Junior secondary

certificate examination, in Ondo state, Nigeria. Humanity and social

sciences journals, 3(1)” 26-36.

Adeyemo, D.A. (2005). Parental involvement interest in schooling and school

environment: As predictors of academic self-efficacy among fresh

secondary school students in Oyo State, Nigeria. Electronic Journal of

Research in Educational Psychology, 5(1), 163-180.

Anning, A. (1991). The first year at school. Ballmoor: Open University

Press.

Anyakoha, E.U. (2007). Home economics for junior secondary schools.

Cameroon: Press book limited.

Aremu, O.A., & Sokan, B.O. (2003). A multi-casual evaluation of academic

performance of Nigerian learners; issues and implications for national

development department of guidance and counseling, University of

Ibadan, Ibadan.

Baert, H., Beunens, L., & Dekeyser, L., (2002). Project-based education:

Steering and guiding to learn and wor. leuver.

Barron, B.J., Schwartz, D.L., Vye, N.J., Moore, A., Petrosino, A., Zech, L.,

Branford, J.D., & CTGV. (1998). Doing with understanding: lesson

from research on problem and project-based learning. Journal of

Learning Sciences, 7, 271-312.

Barrow, H.S. (2000). Problem-based learning. An approach to medical

education. Southern Illinois University of Medicine. Springfield, 111.

Bas, G., & Beyhan, O. (2010). Effect of multiple intelligences supported

project-based learning on students’ achievement levels and attitude

towards English lesson. International Electronic Journal of Elementary

Education 2(3), 365-386.

Biajone, J. (2006). Promoting positive attitudes towards statistics in

pedagogy students through project work. ICOTS-7. State university of

Campinas. Brazil.

Blackenship, M.C., & Moerchen, B.O. (1981). Home economics education. New

York: Houghton & Miffin co.

Blair, K., Schwartz, D.C., Biswas, G., & Leelewong, K. (2007). Pedagogical

agent for learning by teaching: Teachable agents. Educational Technology,

47(1), 56-61.

Blank, W. (1997). Anthentia instruction. In W.E. Blank & S. Hawall (Eds).

Promising practices for connecting high school to the real world. (pp: 5-

21). Tawpa, F.C. University of South Florida. (ERIC Document

Reproduction Service No ED 407586).

Boaler, J. (2002). Learning from teaching; Exploring the relationship between

reform curriculum and equity. Journal for Research in Mathematics

Education, 33(4), 239-258.

Bottoms, G. & Webb. L.D. (1998). Connecting the curriculum to ‘real life’

Breaking Rank: Making it happen, Reston, VA; National Association of

Secondary School Principals (ERIC Document Reproduction service No.

ED 434413).

Bryson, E. (1994). Will a project approach to learning provide children

opportunities to do purposeful reading and writing, as well as provide

opportunities for authentic learning in other curriculum areas. Unpublished

manuscript. ERIC Document Reproduction Services No ED 392-513.

Cameron, S. (2002). Piaget and Learning. Retrieved on 8th January, 2012 from

http://constructivist-education.blogspot.com/

Canadian Home Economics Association (CHEA, 1996). Home

Economics/Family studies Education in Canadian School: A position

paper. Canadian Home Economic Journal, 46(4), p. 168-170.

Chang, Y. (2003). Gender differences in science achievement, science self

concept and science values. (one line) available

@yuanchristianuniversity@tea.ntue.edutw: pp 1-6.

Chard, S. (2001). Project approach: Foundation theory learning. Retrieved from

http./www.project_appraoch.com/foundation/learning.htm.

Craft Council of Ireland (2009). Creative pathways. A review of craft

education & training in Ireland. Kilkenny. Craft Council of Ireland.

Demirhan, C. (2002). Program gelistir mede proje tabani Orgrenme

yaktasimi. Unpublished master’s Thesis. Hacettepe Universities Sosyal

Bilimler Enstitusu, Ankara.

Department of Education & Science Inspectorate (DES, 2008). Looking at

Home Economics Teaching and learning in Post Primary Schools.

Dublin: Inspectorate DES.

Dewey, J. (1963). Experience and education. A Touch Stone Book, Kappa

Delta P1, New York.

Dickinson, K.P., Soukamnewt, S., YU, H.C., Klwball, M.D. Amico, R.,

Perry, R., et al. (1998). Providing educational services in the summer

youth employment and training programme. (Technical assistance of

labour, office of policy & Research (ERIC Document Reproduction

Service) No. ED. 420756.

Dori, Y. (2003). A framework for project based assessment in Science

education, 2003.

Erdem, M. (2002). Proje labanli Ogrenme. Hacetiepe Universitesi Egilim

Fakultesi Dergisi 22, 172-179.

Erinosho Y.E. (2005), Women and science. 36th Inaugural Lecture-Olabisi

Onabanjo University, Ayo-Iwoye, 1-37.

Ezeudu, (1995). “The Development and preliminary validation of an

Achievement Test in Teacher training college. Selected units of organic

chemistry: Unpublished M.Ed Thesis University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Abuja:

Federal Ministry of Education.

Federal Ministry of Education (2008). The department of education. National

report of Nigeria. Abuja: Federal ministry of education.

Gesinde, A.M. (2000). Causes of poor achievement in WAEC mathematics

examination in River state secondary school Nigeria. International

journal of mathematics education in science and technology, 21(3).

Gulbahar, Y., & Tinmaz, H. (2006). Implementing project-based learning and

e-portfolio assessment in an undergraduate course. Journal of Research

on Technology in Education, 38(3), 309-327.

Harris, J.H., & Katz, L.G. (2001). Young investigators: The project

approach in the early years. New York Teachers College Press.

Home Economics Institute of Australia (HEIA, 2002). Home economics

education in Australia. Retrieved from

Httpi//ww.heia.com.au/heiasa/understanding%20Home%20Economics.p

df.

Honebein, P. (1996). Seven goals for the design of constructivist learning

environments. In B. Wilson,(Ed.) Constructivist learning environments

(pp. 17-24). New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.

Horan, C., Lavaroni, C., & Beldon, P. (1996). Observation of the tinker tech

program students for critical thinking and social participation

behaviours. Novato, CA: Buck Institute for Education.

Howard, J. (2002). Technology-enhanced project-based learning in teacher

education: Addressing the goals of transfer. Journal of Technology and

Teacher Education, 10(3), 343-364.

Huckle, J., & Sterling, S. (1996). Education for sustainability (eds). London:

Earthscan.

Igbokwe, U.L. (2009) Classroom management for curriculum

implementation. Enugu: Timex.

International Federation for Home Economics (IFHE, 2008). IFHE position

statement, Home Economics in the 20th

Century, Retrieved from

www.ifhe.org.

Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R.T., (2001). Instructional structure: cooperative,

competitive or individualistic. Review of educational Research. 44

(spring) 213-240.

Kadel, S. (1999, November 17). Students to complex county’s oral history.

Hood River News. Retrieved July 9, 2002, from

http://www.gorgenenws.com/Archieves/HRarch/HR121.

Kraft, N. (2005). “Criteria for authentic project-based learning

http://www.rmedenver.com/useguide/pbl.htm Accessed on 20/10/2008.

Markham, T., Mergendooler J., Learner, J., & Ravitz, J. (2003). Project-

based learning hand book. Hong kong: Quinn Essential Book and

Printing, Inc.

McGregor, S. (2009). A new construct platform for practice. Journal of

Family and Consumer Science, 101 (1), p. 60-66.

Mohammed, H. (2010). The implementation of project-based learning

approach. (Unpublished Masters Thesis.) University of Nigeria.

Monrsund D. Diele feldt, T. and Underwood, S. (1997). Foundation for the

Road Ahead. Project-based learning and information Technologies.

Washington, D.C: National Foundation for the improvement of

education, Retrieved July 10, 2002 from

http://www.Iste.org/research/roadhead/pbl.htm.

National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) (2002). Home

economics leaving certificate guidelines for teachers. Dublin: The

stationary office.

Ngwoke, D.U., & Eze, U. (2010). School leaving theories and application.

Enugu: Immaculate Publication Limited.

Nigerian Education Research and Development Council (NERDC) (2007).

Nwafor, O.M. (2007). Educational innovation. Process and products. Enugu:

Magnet Business Enterprises.

Offorma, G.C. (2006). Curriculum implementation and instruction. Onitsha:

Uni-world Educational Publishers.

Okebukola, P. (2002). Beyond the stereotype to new trajectories in science

teaching. Text of special lecture presented at the 43rd

annual conference

of the service teachers association of Nigeria (STAN) and common

wealth association of science. Technology and mathematics educators

(CASTME), pp. 9-13.

Okoro, A.U. (2011). Effect of interaction patterns on achievement and

interest in Biology among secondary school students, in Enugu state

Nigeria. Unpublished M.Ed thesis department of science education.

University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Olaitan, S.O., & Agusiobo O.N. (1984). Introduction to the teaching of home

economics. Ibadan: Spectrum Books and O. Wiley.

Olatoye, R.A. & Adekoye, y.m., (2010). “Effect of project-based learning on

Agricultural Science.” In: O.A. Afemikhe and J.G. Adewale (Eds).

Issues in Educational measurement and Evaluation in Nigeria, Published

by Institute of Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.

Olusanya, J.O. (2000). Exam focus foods and Nutrition for WASSCE and

SSCE. Ibadan: University press PLC.

Omeje, H.O. (2004). “Effect of Project method on academic achievement for

low ability students in carpentry and joinery”. An unpublished M.Ed

thesis, department of vocational teacher education. University of

Nigeria, Nsukka.

Onwuka, U. (1996). Curriculum development for Africa. Onitsha: African

FEB Publishers Limited.

Onyeizugbo E.U. (2003). The effects of gender, age, and education, on

assertiveness in Nigeria. sample, psychology of Women Quartely, 27, 1-

16.

Orlich, D.C; Harder, R.J; Collahan, R.C; Trevisen, M.S. & Abbie, H. (1998).

Inquiry teaching and higher level thinking. Botson, New York Houghton

Mifflin company.

Penuel, W.R., & Means, B. (2000), Designing a performance assessment to

measure students’ communication skills in multi-media-supported,

project-based learning. Paper presented at the Annual meeting of the

American Educational Research Association, New Orleans.

Piaget, J. (1972). The psychology of intelligence. Little wood, Adams:

Totowa NJ.

Reyes, R. (1998). Native perspective on the school reform movement: A hot

topic porthland, OR: Northwest Regional Education Laboratory,

comprehensive center Region.

http://www.n.wrac.org/pnd/hot/native.htm.

Roberts, P. (1996). The concept of Gender. Concepts and methods for Gender

and women studies in Nigeria in Pereiro (Ed). (2): 14-18.

Rogus, J.F. (2000). Promoting self discipline: A comprehensive approach.

Theory into Practice, 24(4), p. 70.

Shephard, H.O. (1998). The problem method: A problem-based learning

model’s effect on critical thinking skill of forth-and fifth-grade social

studies students.

Smith. F. (1995). An ideal of persons educated in home economics: A

response to Thomas & Smith. Canadian Home Economics Journal,

45(3), p. 114-115.

Stepien, W.I., Gallagher, S.A., & Workman, D. (1993). Problem-based

learning for traditional and interdisciplinary classrooms. Journal for the

Education of the Gifted, 16, 338-357.

Sterling, S. (2001). Sustainable education, Revisioning learning and change.

Darlington: Green Books.

Thomas, J.N. (1998). Project-based learning overview. Novato, C.A. Buck

Institute for Education, Retrieved July 10 2002.

Tormey, R., Liddy, M. Maguire, H; McCloat, A. (2008). Working in the

action research mexus for ESD. International Journal of Sustainability

in Higher Education,

Tretten, R. & Zacharou, P. (1997). Learning about project based learning:

Assessment of project based learning in Tinker tech schools. San Rafael,

CA: The Auto desk foundation.

Wang, W. (2003). Journal of Guang dong University of foreign studies, The

application of PBL in curriculum of marketing specially. 3, pp. 61-64.

Webb, N.M. (1998). Peer interaction and learning in co-operative small

groups. Review of Educational Research (FACC), 52(3), 70-72.

Woolfolk, A., Hughes, M., & Walkup, V. (2008). Psychology in Education.

pearson Education Ltd,: UK.

APPENDIX A

Department of Arts Education,

University of Nigeria,

Nsukka,

17th

September, 2012.

Dear Sir/Madam,

REQUEST FOR VALIDATION OF INSTRUMENT

The researcher is an M.Ed student in Art Education and is engaged in a

research work titled, “Effect of Project – based learning on Junior Secondary

School Students’ Academic Achievement, Interest and Retention in Home

Economics in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State”.

Please, she would be grateful if you could give specialist comments in

terms of clarity and appropriateness of the questionnaire instrument prepared

for the purpose of the research study.

Yours faithfully,

Okoro, Roseline Chinasa

(Researcher)

APPENDIX B PRE-TEST

HOME ECONOMICS ACHIEVEMENT TEST (HEAT)

Name of students: ----------------------------------------

Name of school: ------------------------------------------

Class: -----------------------------------------------------

Sex: Male ( ) Female ( )

Group A: Project-based learning Group B (conventional method). Each question is

followed by four options, lettered (a) to (d). Find out the correct option to each

question and circle the letter that bears the option you have chosen. Give only one

answer to each question. Time 50 mins.

1. Name the nutrient that supply the body with heat and energy.

(a) carbohydrate and fats

(b) carbohydrate and iron

(c) carbohydrates and vegetable

(d) protein and calcium

2. Which of the following best defines food nutrients.

(a) chemical substances contained in the foods we eat

(b) sugars contained in our foods

(c) starches contained in our foods

(d) vegetables we use in cooking

3. The field of study which deals with the food we eat and how it nourishes the

body is.

(a) home management

(b) clothing and textile

(c) foods and nutrition

(d) housing and interior decoration

4. Identify the small units that make up protein

(a) fatty acid

(b) amino acids

(c) oily acid

(d) monosaccharide.

5. The following list of food (vegetables, mango, oranges, pine-apple), belongs

to

(a) body building food

(b) energy giving food

(c) protective foods

(d) delicious foods

6. Calcium is an example of

(a) proteins

(b) carbohydrates

(c) vitamins

(d) minerals

7. Which food among those listed are sources of vitamins

(a) Egg, milk, meat

(b) Yam, rice, cassava

(c) Vegetables, fruits, oranges

(d) Meat, garri, indome

(8) Vitamins are classified into

(a) water soluble and oil soluble

(b) water soluble and fat soluble

(c) rich vitamins and poor vitamins

(d) small vitamins and soluble vitamins.

9. The basic food nutrients are

(a) body heater, body wamer and protector

(b) body grower, body protector and food warmer

(c) body grower, body protector and energizer

(d) body builder, Energy giver and body protector

10. Which of the following is a good source of protein

(a) oil bean fruit

(b) cocoyam

(c) bread

(d) rice

11. Meat, fish are eggs are examples of food items rich in

(a) complete minerals

(b) incomplete protein

(c) complete protein

(d) incomplete vitamins

12. One of the following is not a good source of carbohydrates

(a) beans

(b) yam

(c) rice

(d) bread

13. Where do you group the following local foods-apple, palm nut, cashew

(a) roughages

(b) carbohydrates

(c) vitamins

(d) protein

14. Which of the following foods contain more energy than others?

(a) bread

(b) beans

(c) meat

(d) fruit

15. Surplus carbohydrates in the body is stored as

(a) starch

(b) acid

(c) water

(d) fat

16. Which of the vitamins are responsible for fertility and blood clothing

(a) A, C

(b) B, D

(c) C, E

(d) E, K

17. Proteins are

(a) energy giving foods

(b) body building foods

(c) healthy foods

(d) complete foods

18. Which of the following is very important for proper development of the

bones?

(a) minerals

(b) proteins

(c) oils

(d) vitamins

19. Which of the following is not a body protector

(a) cassava

(b) fruits

(c) green vegetable

(d) egg yolk

20. Deficiency of iron results to a disease called

(a) night blindness

(b) goiter

(c) anaemia

(d) scurvy

21. Which of the following is a deficiency disease

(a) malaria

(b) fever

(c) kwashiorkor

(d) aids

22. Deficiency of carbohydrates in our meals results in

(a) sickness

(b) weakness

(c) dehydration

(d) dizziness

23. Tooth decay in children is caused by

(a) lack of protein

(b) lack of calcium

(c) lack of vitamins

(d) too much carbohydrates

24. Night blindness is associated with deficiency of

(a) vitamin A

(b) vitamins C

(c) calcium

(d) vitamins K

25. A pregnant woman is lacking blood, what type of mineral does she need

most.

(a) potassium

(b) iron

(c) sodium

(d) calcium.

APPENDIX C1

Lesson Notes for the experimental group based on project-based method

Approach

Week: 1st Week

Subject: Home Economics

Class: JSS 2

Age: 13 yrs and above

Date:

Duration: 40 minutes

Topic: Classes of food Nutrients

Specific Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to

1. Explain the meaning of nutrition and food nutrients.

2. State the classes of food nutrients

3. Identify various sources of food nutrients.

Entry behaviour: students eat various foods in their homes but do not know the

nutrients contained in the foods they eat.

Instructional materials: chalk, chalk board, charts containing food nutrients, real

foods items e.g. yam, Beans, butter, fish eggs, rice, vegetables.

Test on Entry behaviour: The teacher asks the students questions based on their

entry behaviour.

1. Mention different types of food you know.

2. How many of them do you eat in your homes.

Instructional Procedure

Content

Development

Teacher’s Activities Students

Activities

Strategies

Step I

Introduction

From the answers produced

the teacher introduces the

topic which is Basic food

Nutrients.

The teacher asks the students

to define Nutrition and food

Nutrients. The teacher

explains further that nutrition

is the process by which the

food we eat nourish our body,

while food nutrients are the

chemical substances contained

in the food we eat.

The students

answers the

teacher’s

questions

Set Induction

Explanations

questioning

repetition

Step II

Classes of

food.

The teacher displays the food

charts on the board and the

food items on the table and

asks the students to sort the

food items according to their

classes.

The teacher asks the students

to group themselves into 3

they select their leaders by

themselves.

The students

decide the

nutrients they

will work on

thus –

carbohydrates

fats and oil,

vitamins and

minerals,

proteins and

water.

Explanation

the use of

examples

questioning

Step III

Matching the

food items

with the chart

to show their

sources

The teacher asks the students

to pick the food items and

match with the food nutrients

on the chart.

The teacher asks each group

to present their lecture to the

class, such group will be

represented by their leader.

The teacher assess and guide

students.

Each group sorts

out the food

items and match

with the chart.

Discussion

planned

repetition use

of examples.

Step 4

Take home

Assignment

The teacher asks the students

to find out various local food

sources and ways the food can

be prepared to nourish the

body. They do that at home

and submit the next day. The

teacher assess and guide

students.

The students

take home the

assignment and

find out from

their parents and

friends, on how

to prepare each

group of food.

Questioning,

use of

examples and

demonstratio

n.

Step 5

Evaluation.

The teacher evaluates the

lesson with the following

questions

1. Define Nutrition and food

nutrients

2. Name the classes of food

you know

3. Mention 3 sources of the

classes mentioned

The students

answer their

teacher’s

questions

Questioning

and

discussion

APPENDIX C2

Lesson notes for the 2 week

Subject: Home Economics

Class: JSS 2

Age: 13yrs and above

Date:

Duration: 40 minutes

Topic: Functions of food Nutrients and Deficiency diseases.

Specific Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to

1. Enumerate the functions of each class of food nutrient.

2. State the deficiency diseases due to lack of a particular nutrient.

Entry behaviour: Students have studied Basic food nutrients and their sources.

Instructional materials: Chalk, chalk board, charts showing malnourished

children and healthy children.

Test on Entry Behaviour: The teacher asks the students questions based on their

entry behaviour.

1. Mention classes of food nutrients

2. List 4 sources of each.

Instructional Procedure:

Content

Development

Teacher’s Activities Students

Activities

Strategies

Step 1

Introduction

From the students responses

the teacher introduces the

topic functions of the

nutrients. The teacher guides

the students to find out the

Students make

their contributions

in their various

groups

Discussion,

use of

examples

and

questioning

functions of the nutrients in

their various groups. As they

discuss the teacher guides

them.

Step 2

The teacher asks them to

make their presentation in the

class. The teacher guides and

corrects their mistakes.

Students leaders

make their

presentation while

others listen and

ask questions

Discussion,

questioning

and use of

examples

Step 3

Deficiency

diseases

The teacher displays the chart

on the board for students to

identify the deficiency

diseases observed in the

charts. The teacher explains

further and corrects their

mistakes.

Students make

their suggestions

and contributions

in their group.

Discussion,

questioning,

use of

example,

and planned

repetition.

Step 4

Evaluation

The teacher asks students

leaders to make their

presentation according to the

class of food nutrient picked

by the group. The teacher

asks questions based on the

topic discussed.

The group leader

makes his/her

presentation while

others listen and

ask questions.

Discussion,

questioning

and award

of grades.

Step 5

The teacher asks students to

find out the signs and

Students

investigates from

Questioning

Discussion.

symptoms of (3) three

deficiency diseases of their

choice as home work.

parents friends

and from internet

the signs of

deficiency

diseases.

Step 6

Evaluation

The teacher asks students

questions based on the topic

discussed.

Award of

grades

Closure Take home assignment

The teacher asks the students

to find out science and

symptoms of deficiency

diseases discuss.

APPENDIX D1

Lesson Notes for the control group based on lecture method

Week: 3rd

week

Subject: Home Economics

Class: JSS 2

Age: 13yrs and above

Date:

Duration: 40 minutes

Topic: Classes of food Nutrients

Specific Objectives: By the end of the lesson the students should be able to

1. Explain the meaning of nutrition and food nutrients.

2. State the classes of food Nutrients

3. Identify various sources of food nutrient.

Entry behaviour: Students eat various foods in their homes but do not know the

nutrients contained in their food.

Instructional materials: chalk, chalk board, chart and some food items.

Instructional Technique: Questioning, use of examples, planned repetition, set

induction.

Test on Entry behaviour: The teacher asks students questions based on their

entry behaviour

1. Mention different types of food you know.

2. How many of them do you eat?

Content

Development

Teacher’s Activities Students

Activities

Strategies

Step 1

Introduction

The teacher introduces the topic

class of food Nutrients and their

sources. The teacher explains

Students listens

and copy down

notes

Explanation

step

repetition,

the meaning of Nutrition as the

process by which the food we

eat nourishes our body.

Teacher defines food Nutrients

as the chemical substances

contained in the food we eat

test, use of

examples.

Step 2

Classes of

food

The teacher displays the chart

on the board and writes the

classes of food on the board

thus carbohydrates fats and oil

proteins vitamins minerals salts

water.

Students listens

and copy notes.

Questioning,

explanation

and planned

repetition.

Step 3

Sources of the

Nutrients

Sources of Nutrients the teacher

lists out the sources of the

nutrients and shows the students

those sources on the chart.

Students copy

the notes inside

their note books

Explanation,

planned

repletion and

questioning

Step 4

Evaluation

The teacher asks questions

based on the topic.

1. What is food Nutrient and

What is nutrition

2. State the six classes of food

3. Mention 4 sources of each.

Students

answer the

questions in the

assignment

exercise book.

Test

Step 5

Closure

The teacher copy’s the notes for

students to copy from the chalk

board.

Black board

summary.

APPENDIX D2

Lesson Notes for the control group based on lecture method

Week: 2nd

week

Subject: Home Economics

Class: JSS 2

Age: 13yrs and above

Date:

Duration: 40 minutes

Topic: Functions of food nutrients and deficiency diseases

Specific Objectives: By the end of the lesson the students should be able to

1. Functions of various classes of food nutrients.

2. State the deficiency diseases due to lack of a particular nutrient in the body.

Entry behaviour: Students eat various foods in their homes but do not know the

nutrients contained in their food.

Instructional materials: chalk, chalk board, chart and some food items.

Instructional Technique: Questioning, use of examples, planned repetition, set

induction.

Test on Entry behaviour: The teacher asks students questions based on their

entry behaviour

3. Mention different types of food you know.

4. How many of them do you eat?

Content

Development

Teacher’s Activities Students

Activities

Strategies

Step 1

Introduction

The teacher writes the topic on

the board.

Functions of food nutrients and

deficiency diseases, the teacher

Students copy

the notes in

their note

books

Explanation,

questioning

and planned

repetition.

writes and explains the

functions of the six classes of

food on the board thus.

Carbohydrates supplies energy

to the body as well as heat

surplus carbohydrates is stored

as fat.

Fats and oil-provides the body

with heat and energy.

Surplus fat is stored as body fat.

Proteins aid growth in children

and adolescents.

They help to repair worn out

tissues and help to build new

cells or tissues.

Vitamins-protect the body from

diseases helps the body use

food for growth and repair

minerals: Helps in growth

especially the bones and teeth.

They help in proper functioning

of the body.

Step 2

Deficiency

diseases

The teacher explains to the

students that deficiency diseases

occur when, there is insufficient

Students

listens and

copy notes.

Discussion

planned

repetion and

consumption of any of the

nutrients.

When one does not eat enough

of the nutrients, the person

suffers a disease called

deficiency disease. E.g

Lack of carbohydrates leads to

lack of energy or tiredness

Lack of fats and oil leads to

lack of energy and rough skin.

Lack of proteins leads to poor

growth in children and

adolescents weakness and

kwashiok or lack of vitamins.

The body will be easily affected

by diseases, weakness and lost

of appetite.

Lack of mineral salts leads to

poor growth poor functioning of

the body, weak bones and teeth

tiredness and headache

Lack of water leads to poor

digestion of foods.

They ask

questions

when

necessary.

questioning.

Step 3

Evaluation

The teacher evaluates the less

on with the following questions.

Students

answer the

Test

1. State the functions of any 3

nutrients you know.

2. State their deficiency

diseases of the nutrients stated.

questions in

the test

exercise

books.

Step 4

Closure

The teacher summarises the

note for students.

Students

listens and

asks questions

Planned,

repetition

discussion

APPENDIX E

Table 4: Sample of JSS 2 Students used for the study

Schools School Location Gender Treatment

1 Rural Co-education T 40

2 Urban Co-education C 40

3 Rural Co-education C 40

4 Urban Co-education T 40

Total 160

APPENDIX F

Table 5: SCORING GUIDE FOR POST-TEST and PRE-TEST

Scoring guide for HEAT (PRE-TEST)

1. A 12. A 23. B

2. A 13. C 24. A

3. C 14. A

4. A 15. D 25. B

5. C 16. D

6. D 17. A

7. C 18. A

8. B 19. C

9. D 20. C

10. A 21. C

11. C 22. B

SCORING GUIDE FOR HEAT (POST TEST)

1. A 10. A 19. A

2. A 11. D 20. C

3. B 12. B 21. B

4. D 13. B 22. C

5. A 14. D 23. C

6. B 15. C 24. C

7. C 16. A 25. D

8. C 17. C

9. B 18. A

APPENDIX G POST-TEST

HOME ECONOMICS ACHIEVEMENT TEST (HEAT)

Name of students

Name of school

Class

Sex: Male( ) Female ( )

Group A: Project-based learning Group B (conventional method). Each question is

followed by four options, lettered (a) to (d). Find out the correct option to each

question and circle the letter that bears the option you have chosen. Give only one

answer to each question. Time 50 mins.

1. Which of the following is very important for proper development of the

bones?

(a) minerals

(b) proteins

(c) oils

(d) vitamins

2. One of the following is not a good source of carbohydrates

(a) beans

(b) yam

(c) rice

(d) bread

(3) Vitamins are classified into

(a) water soluble and oil soluble

(b) water soluble and fat soluble

(c) rich vitamins and poor vitamins

(d) small vitamins and soluble vitamins.

4. The basic food nutrients are

(a) body heater, body warmer and protector

(b) body grower, body protector and food warmer

(c) body grower, body protector and energizer

(d) body builder, Energy giver and body protector

5. Which of the following best defines food nutrients.

(a) chemical substances contained in the foods we eat

(b) sugars contained in our foods

(c) starches contained in our foods

(d) vegetables we use in cooking

6. Deficiency of carbohydrates in our meals results in

(a) sickness

(b) weakness

(c) dehydration

(d) dizziness

7. The following list of food (vegetables, mango, oranges, pine-apple), belongs

to

(a) body building food

(b) energy giving food

(c) protective foods

(d) delicious foods

8. The field of study which deals with the food we eat and how it nourishes the

body is.

(a) home management

(b) clothing and textile

(c) foods and nutrition

(d) housing and interior decoration

9. Identify the small units that make up protein

(a) fatty acid

(b) amino acids

(c) oily acid

(d) monosaccharide.

10. Name the nutrient that supply the body with heat and energy.

(a) carbohydrate and fats

(b) carbohydrate and iron

(c) carbohydrates and vegetable

(d) protein and calcium

11. Calcium is an example of

(a) proteins

(b) carbohydrates

(c) vitamins

(d) minerals

12. Tooth decay in children is caused by

(a) lack of protein

(b) lack of calcium

(c) lack of vitamins

(d) too much carbohydrates

13. Proteins are

(a) energy giving foods

(b) body building foods

(c) healthy foods

(d) complete foods

14. Which of the vitamins are responsible for fertility and blood clothing

(a) A, C

(b) B, D

(c) C, E

(d) E, K

15. Which food among those listed are sources of vitamins

(a) Egg, milk, meat

(b) Yam, rice, cassava

(c) Vegetables, fruits, oranges

(d) Meat, garri, indome

16. Night blindness is associated with deficiency of

(a) vitamin A

(b) vitamins C

(c) calcium

(d) vitamins K

17. Where do you group the following local foods-apple, palm nut, cashew

(a) roughages

(b) carbohydrates

(c) vitamins

(d) protein

18. Which of the following is a good source of protein

(a) oil bean fruit

(b) cocoyam

(c) bread

(d) rice

19. Which of the following foods contain more energy than others?

(a) bread

(b) beans

(c) meat

(d) fruit

20. Meat, fish are eggs are examples of food items rich in

(a) complete minerals

(b) incomplete protein

(c) complete protein

(d) incomplete vitamins

21. A pregnant woman is lacking blood, what type of mineral does she need

most.

(a) potassium

(b) iron

(c) sodium

(d) calcium.

22. Which of the following is not a body protector

(a) cassava

(b) fruits

(c) green vegetable

(d) egg yolk

23. Deficiency of iron results to a disease called

(a) night blindness

(b) goiter

(c) anaemia

(d) scurvy

24. Which of the following is a deficiency disease

(a) malaria

(b) fever

(c) kwashiorkor

(d) aids

25. Surplus carbohydrates in the body is stored as

(a) starch

(b) acid

(c) water

(d) fat

APPENDIX H

HOME ECONOMICS INTEREST Test (HEIT)

Name of Student: ----------------------------------------

Class: -----------------------------------------------------

Sex: Female ----------------- Male --------------------

Group A: Project-based learning Group B-conventional method.

Instruction: This inventory is designed to help you indicate the level of interest in

Home Economics. Indicate your extent of agreement or disagreement with the

following statements about Home Economics by ticking right (√) in the appropriate

box.

S/N ITEMS SA A D SD

1. Home Economics is a subject I enjoy a great deal

2. I enjoy studying Home Economics, because I learn to cook

many dishes.

3. I am happier studying Home Economics than other subjects

4. I enjoy practical work in Home Economics

5. Carrying out practical in foods nutrients is very interesting

6 Participating in Home Economics activities is very boring

7 I am always happy when ever I am doing Home Economics

practicals.

8. I enjoy studying Home Economics because it relates to what I

do at home.

9 I really like reading about foods and nutrition.

10 I do not like going to the class when lessons on Home

Economics is taught

11 I like taking part in discussion about Home Economics.

12 The study of Home Economics helps man to solve family

problems.

13 I like telling my friends and parents what I learnt about Home

Economics.

14 I will like to attempt any questions based on any topic in Home

Economics.

15 I feel happy copying notes on any topic related to Home

Economics.

16 Money spent on books and practicals in Home Economics is

useful.

17 When I get to higher institution I will choose subjects that will

involve home Economics.

18 Home Economics does not contribute to peoples happiness.

19 I have never liked studying Home Economics and I dread

having to study it.

20 Home Economics concepts are difficult to understand.

APPENDIX I

(HERS) HOME ECONOMICS RETENTION TEST

S/N ITEMS SA A D SD

1. Studying Home Economics makes me to transfer knowledge

and ideas when project based learning is used.

2. Solving problems in Home Economics makes me to acquire

good critical thinking skill when project based learning is used.

3. Participating in Home Economics activities makes me to learn

more and remember what has been learnt using project based

learning.

4. I understand the subject when I discuss with my friends using

project based learning.

5. With group work or project, I remember topics in Home

Economics using project based learning method.

6 By working with my friends, I am able to solve my problems

and generate new ideas with project learning method.

7 By studying in groups with peers, I develop a closer relationship

with them.

8. With group work, I understand the subject better when project

based learning is applied.

APPENDIX J1

TABLE 6a: RELIABILITY COEFFICIENT WITH (HEIQ)

RELIABILITY

/VARIABLES=ITEM1 ITEM2 ITEM3 ITEM4 ITEM5 ITEM6 ITEM7 ITEM8 ITEM9 ITEM10 ITEM11

ITEM12 ITEM13 ITEM14 ITEM15 ITEM16 ITEM17 ITEM18 ITEM19 ITEM20

/SCALE('INTEREST IN HOME ECONOMICS') ALL

/MODEL=ALPHA

/STATISTICS=DESCRIPTIVE

/SUMMARY=MEANS.

Reliability Scale: INTEREST IN HOME ECONOMICS

Case Processing Summary

N %

Cases

Valid 15 100.0

Excludeda 0 .0

Total 15 100.0

a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure.

Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's Alpha

Cronbach's Alpha Based

on Standardized

Items

N of Items

.849 .842 20

Item Statistics

Mean Std. Deviation N

ITEM1 3.2667 .96115 15 ITEM2 3.3333 .72375 15 ITEM3 2.5333 .99043 15 ITEM4 2.4667 1.24595 15 ITEM5 2.6667 1.17514 15 ITEM6 2.2667 1.22280 15 ITEM7 2.8667 1.18723 15 ITEM8 2.6667 1.23443 15 ITEM9 2.6667 1.17514 15 ITEM10 2.9333 1.22280 15 ITEM11 2.6000 1.05560 15 ITEM12 2.9333 .96115 15 ITEM13 2.7333 1.03280 15 ITEM14 2.8667 1.12546 15 ITEM15 2.9333 1.03280 15 ITEM16 2.8667 1.06010 15 ITEM17 3.4667 .74322 15 ITEM18 3.3333 .72375 15 ITEM19 3.2000 .67612 15 ITEM20 3.1333 .83381 15

APPENDIX J2

TABLE 6: RELIABILITY COEFFICIENT WITH (HEAT)

S/N Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 Q12 Q13 Q14 Q15 Q16 Q17 Q18 Q19 Q20 Q21 Q22 Q23 Q24 Q25 total

1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 20

2 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 10

3 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 20

4 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 15

5 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 10

6 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 15

7 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 20

8 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 10

9 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 20

10 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 20

11 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 15

12 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 15

13 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 20

14 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 10

15 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 20

S/N Proportion

Passing (P)

Proportion

(Failing (F)

Pq (x) Score X2

1 0.73 0.27 0.1971 20 400

2 0.6 0.4 0.24 10 100

3 0.87 0.13 0.1131 20 400

4 0.33 0.67 0.2211 15 225

5 0.67 0.33 0.2211 10 100

6 0.67 0.33 0.2211 15 225

7 0.6 0.4 0.24 20 400

8 0.8 0.2 0.16 10 100

9 0.4 0.6 0.24 20 400

10 0.73 0.27 0.1971 20 400

11 0.73 0.27 0.1971 15 225

12 0.6 0.4 0.24 15 225

13 0.87 0.13 0.1131 20 400

14 0.33 0.67 0.2211 10 100

15 0.67 0.33 0.2211 20 400

16 0.67 0.33 0.2211 240 4100

17 0.6 0.4 0.24

18 0.8 0.2 0.16

19 0.4 0.6 0.24

20 0.73 0.27 0.1971

21 0.67 0.33 0.2211

22 0.6 0.4 0.24

23 0.8 0.2 0.16

24 0.4 0.6 0.24

25 0.73 0.27 0.1971

5.1594

S2 =

n

n2x)( - x 2

ΣΣ

S2 =

15

152)2400( -1004

S2

= 17.33

KR20 =

Σ

2 - 1

1-K

K

S

pq

KR20 =

33.17

16.5 - 1

1-25

25

KR20 =

−

33.17

16.533.17

24

25

KR20 = (1.04) × (0.70)

KR20 = 0.728

KR20 = 0.73

APPENDIX K

TEST BLUE PRINT FOR THE (HEAT)

Table 7: Table of specification for the 25 items used for the trial testing.

Content Knowledge

40%

Comprehension

25%

Application

20%

Analysis

5%

Synthesis

5%

Evaluation

5%

Total

Basic food

nutrients

40%

5

2,4,5,6,7

3

3,8,9

2

10,11

1

12

1

13

1

14

13

Functions

nutrients

30%

3

1,15,16

2

17,18

1

19

0 0 0 6

Deficiency

diseases

30%

3

20,21,22

2

23,24

1

25

0 0 0 6

Total

100%

11 7 4 1 1 1 25

APPENDIX L

Table 8: Number of Secondary Schools in Nsukka Local Government Area

where Home Economic is taught

S/N NAME OF SCHOOLS NUMBER OF

STUDENTS

1 St. Theresa’ College Nsukka 213

2 Queen of the Rosary Secondary School 224

3 Community Secondary School Isienu 265

4 Urban Girls Secondary School, Nsukka 152

5 Community High School Umabor 148

6 Community Secondary School Obimo 40

7 Community Secondary School Obukpa 60

8 Community Secondary School Ede Oballa 382

9 St. Cyprians’ Girls High School Nsukka 231

10 Community Secondary School Nru 175

11 Model Secondary School Nsukka 160

12 Community Secondary School Alo-uno 76

13 Agu Umabor Secondary School 28

14 Urban boys Secondary School Nsukka 113

15 Community Secondary School, Ohodo 135

16 Akutara Secondary School Ohodo 49

17 Community High School Nrobo 60

18 Community High School Ukpata 55

19 Welfare Secondary School Opanda 29

Total 2761