Part four: Application of Physical Geography —Method、 principles and scheme

Chapter 14 Evaluation and zoning of the Earth’s Surface EnvironmentChapter 15 Prediction of the Earth’s Surface EnvironmentChapter 16 Planning and Management of the Earth’s SurfaceChapter 17 Adjustment of the Earth’s Surface System

Chapter 14 Evaluation and zoning of the Earth’s Surface Environment

Climate classification and evaluation of climate environment

Regionalization and evaluation of biological environment

Evaluation and zoning of topography, landform and geological environment

Distribution and evaluation of water resources

Land classification ， land gradation and land evaluation

Integrated physicogeographical regionalization

KÖppen climate system and major climate belts and climatic types

A 、 C 、 D 、 E are wet climate ， B is dry climate ， H is highland climate 。 Each climate is defined according to assigned values of temperature,precipitation and distribution of nature vegetable,Using f 、m 、 w et al behind the first letter. Af for example shows tropical rainforest climate 。 Based on climate types, Each vice-climatic type is made off according to variables of temperature ， using the third letter a 、 b 、 c 、 d et al. Cfa for example is humid subtropical 。

Humid mesothermal

climates

Humid microthermal

climates

Tropical climates Tropical rainforest climateTropical monsoon climateTropical savanna climateMediterranean climate

Subtropical monsoon

Climatic patterns

polar

dry Climates

highlands

Tundra

Icecap

Steppe

Desert

Climatic patternsclimate belts climate belts

Humid subtropical

Dry winter subtropicalArid humid climate with no dry season

symbol and signification under the Köppen system

First letter Second letter Third letter

A Tropical climates

Coolest month above 18 º

f Constantly moist,driest month with at least 6 cm of precipitation m one dry season and excessively wet during rain season w less rain in winter, much in summer

C Mild humid climates

More than one month above 10ºc

s summer drought

w less rain in winter, much in summer

f sufficient precipitation in all month, driest month with at least 3 cm of precipitation

s mean temperature of the warmest above 22 ºcb warmest month under 22ºc, four months over 10ºcc warmest month under 22ºc, one to three months above 10ºcd coldest month mean below 38ºc

D Snowy-forest climates

More than one month above 10ºc , coldest month below 0º

E polar Warmest month below 10ºc

t warmest month between 10 º and 0 º

f warmest month below 0 º c

B Dry climates Precipitation less than half potential evaporation

s semiarid

w dry

h mean temperature above 18 ºck mean temperature under 18 ºc

H Highlan

Global six climatic belts （ KÖppen climatic systems ）

Based primarily on temperature and precipitation ,using vegetation patterns as a general indicator, W.Köppen, Germanic climatology established Köppen climatic system.It also dependson experience.However, such a classification system is yet to be development,and now it is widely accepted.

The earth’s climates are viewed under the Köppen system as within global climates of six major climate belts labeled A,B,C,D,E and H as the first letter.

Climatic types （ considering Desheng Liu ）

Wet equatorial climate

Wet-dry tropical climate

Tropical maritime climate

Tropical arid-semiarid climate

Tropical monsoon climate

Subtropical dry climate in summer

Moist subtropical climate

Subtropical monsoon climate

Subtropical continental arid-semiarid climate

Temperature maritime climate

Temperature moist continental climate

Temperature monsoon climate

Temperature continental

arid-semiarid climate

Sub-frigid continental climate

Pole long-cold climate

Pole ice-field climate

Highland climate

Impact of climate on human

Direct impact of master meteorological elements on human physiology ： oxygen ：Human being can suffer from oxygenous pressure reducing 20%. Generally speaking, peop

le will have alpine reaction at an altitude of 2000 m; temperature ： Generally human bod

y only stand ±4oC variety inside the body. If temperature was under 32oC ,people would los

e consciousness. If temperature was over 41oC circle system of human body is likely to brea

kdown. Hot-wet synthetic influence : temperature between 20 and 24oC ， humidity betwee

n 40% and 60% are most comfortable to people 。Indirect impact of master meteorological elements on human physiology （ In differe

nt climatic areas and different seasons ， there were different typical diseases ， and incid

ence of a disease is unlikeness 。 Incidence of rheumatism and arthritic is four times in col

d-humid area than in dry-hot area ）Climate and meteorological disaster （ In different climatic areas, there were differen

t climate and meteorological disasters ， which had an impact on human life and produce

）

Sense classification of human towards temperature and humidity

Temperature between 20 and 24oC ， humidity between 40% and 60% are most comfortable to people. When environment was torridity and wateriness ， people would feel uncomfortable. index THI denotes combination of temperature and humidity.

sense

Most people feel comfortable

At least half people feel uncomfortable

Nearly all people feel uncomfortable

Evaluation index of biological environment

Evaluation index of biological environment ：

2 、 net primary productivity

1 、 biodiversity

Biological function in the forming of earth’s surface environment

Participating in construct of rock and nonmetallic mineral

Biological function in the forming of earth’s surface environment

Attaching to the movement of earth’s chemistry elementary

Changing components of atmosphere and hydrosphere

Participating in petrous effloresce and edaphic forming

Net primary productivity of Global continent （ Huggett,1998)

From net primary productivity of Global continent and ocean,we can easily see ， land’s net primary productivity is higher than oceanic ， shallow sea’s alongshore higher than widen ocean ，forest’s higher than grassland’s ， swamp’s higher than river’s and lake’s,grassland’s higher than desert’s ,and so on.

dm2 refers to dry substance

Global land community (Mackenzie ，1998)

Tundra

Temperature north coniferous forest

Temperature coniferous forest

Temperature deciduous forest

Mediterranean vegetation

Highland vegetation

Tropical deciduous forest

Grassland

Desert

Savanna/ woodland

Tropical rainforest

Classified evaluation of biological environment

Classified evaluation of biological environment lever net primary

productivity (g/m2/a)

biology species

evaluation of biological environment

District or community

1 highest（>800） most abundance best Humid tropic, intertropicarea and mid- latitude forest areas，fresh swamp，nearshore areas developing reef and alga，many estuary areas

2 higher（600-800） More abundance better Monsoon and trade-wind coastal areas，wet-dry tropical areas（southeast asia），some estuary areas

3 high（400-600） abundance good wet-dry tropical areas（southeast asia），moist subtropical areas，part continental shelfs

4 middling（200-400） common normal Mediterranean climatic areas、moist continential areas，many continental shelfs

5 lowness（100-200） monotony bad

Dry and semiarid tropical and mid-latitude areas，widen ecean areas

6 lower（0-100） More monotony worse hungriness、tundra、neve，some oceanic areas

Evaluation and regionalization of Topography 、 relief and geological environment

evaluating processes of terrain, relief and geologic environment

height above sea level ： The higher of height above sea level, the littler of biologic production, population and economic consistency. surface constitute ： from the height of surface compositive content of element ， evaluating elemental geochemistry environment ， elemental geochemical environment carves up good, common and bad. geological hazards ： as the example earthquake, volcano, coast, landslip, and so on ， severely threaten human living and procreative conditions 。 terrain undulation ： the more surface relief is ， the more discommodiousness human living is. According surface relief ， suitability was divided into ： suitability less than 100 m ， common between 100 and 500 m， unsuitability between 500 and 1000 m ， very unsuitability above 1000 m. morphologic sections ： different sections have different conditions.

influencing classification of altitude impacting on human living

From current status ， not only productivities ， hut also population density ， will minish with altitude increasing. So we can say that ， under the current conditions of science and technology and economy ， to many people ， high altitude is not suitability to people’s life and residence. If want to classify altitude, you can reference the classified standard of mountain and knap.

Classification of suitability to people living according to altitude （ Wang jian ， 2000 ）

classification amenity

unsuitability to many people

litter suitability

common

suitability

the best

altitude (m)

constitution of surface elements and human geochemical environment （ Jian Wang ， 2000 ）

There are a lot of elements in the earth’s surface. According to the relationship between elements and human body 、 biology ， they are separate into necessary elements,unnecessary elements and poisonous elements. Because in different place there are various elements ，elements distribute imbalance in different areas, and impact on people’s health. If evaluating surface substantial composing in some place in regard to advantages or disadvantages ， seemliness and unseemliness of human circumstance ， you should think of elementary content and advantages and disadvantages.

Content of necessary elements

absorbed by human body

moderate

moderate

less or more

less or more

content of poisonous elements

absorbed by human of biology

nothing

nothing

existence

existence

element geochemical

environment of human

good

normal

normal

bad

classification and impact on human life of terrain undulation

Surface undulation have an important effect on human living and production. To most people ， life more facilitate in plain than in rugged areas 。 Using standard margin of altitude ， in a certain extent can show the degree of surface undulation ， it can be named relief 。 According to relief ， you can evaluate environmental amenity.

Surface relief and suitability of human life （ Wang jian ， 2000 ）

classificationSurface relief (m) suitability

amenity

normal

very unsuitability

unsuitability

Characters of Chinese landform 、 relief and geological environment

Three ladders ； Chinese terrain is high in the west and low in the

east ， and lowers along Tibetan plateau .

Three across three vertical and a arc characteristic of mountain

system—framework of Chinese surface structure

four plateaus 、 four basins and three plains four plateaus ： Tibetan plateau 、 inner Mongulian Plateau 、 Loess plateau and Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau ； four basins ： Tarim Basin 、 Juaggar Basin 、 Chaidamu basin 、 Sichuan basin ； three plains ： Northeast plain 、 the north china plain and the middle and lower Valley of Yangtze River

Three ladders China’s terrain is high in the west but low in the east sloping from Tibetan Plateau toward east. Three ladders are the true portray of China’s terrain. Tibetan Plateau lies on the first ladder which is also the highest ladder, with the average elevation between 4,000 meters and 5,000 meters. The north and east of it are surrounded by a series of basins and plateaus, with the average elevation between 1,000 meters and 2,000 meters. The eastern part of line of Daxing’ anling Mountain-Taihang Mountain-Wushan Mountain-Xuefeng Mountain is the third ladder of China. 500 meters above sea level, it is mainly composed of low mountains, hills and plains. As a result, most of rivers of China flow from west to east, such as Yangtze River 、 Huanghe River 、 Pearl River 、 Huai River 、 Haihe River and so on.

The first ladder

The second ladder

The third ladder

The Characteristics and Spatial Distributions of Water Resource

The total volume of water on the earth is about 1.36×1010 km3. But most of it is ocean water which covers 97.22 percent of the total and fresh water only accounts for 2.78 percent of the total. Furthermore, ice accounts for 77.14 percent of fresh water and the volume of river water that can be utilized directly by human beings is 1 ， 250 km3 accounting for 0.003 percent of the total. As far as fresh water that can be utilized by human beings is concerned, the volume per capita is 5×106 litre which can meet the need of human beings. But the problem is not that there is not enough water but that water resources distribute unevenly. As a result, there is crisis of water in some places but flood in other places. More seriously, in some places, there are duality crises unfortunately.

Spatial distributions of water resource

The characteristicof circulate supply

The characteristic ofcomplex change

The characteristic ofbeing used comprehensively

The characteristicof duality

The characteristic of indispensable

The characteristics of water resource

Evaluation on Water Resource

Evaluation on water resource refers to the comprehensive evaluation on the quantity, quality, space-time distribution of water resource in a area. Making a scientific evaluation on the water resource is the precise of exploiting and utilizing water resource reasonably and is also the scientific basis of programming, regulating and protecting water resource. Principles of

evaluation onwater resource

Water quality

Change Provision and supply

Source and distribution

Principle of mutual transformation

between surface water, ground water and atmosphere water

Principle of exploiting and utilizing water

resource synthetically

Principle of investing, exploiting and regulating

water resource harmonically

Principle of taking the quantity and quality of water resource into account at the same time

Contents of Evaluation on water resource

Formation of the Hydrosphere Each kind of water body interrelates with each other through water cycle so as to form a whole hydrosphere. In a broad sense, all the water that is useful for human beings directly or indirectly can be included in water resource. As far as capacity of current technology and economy is concerned, ocean water, groundwater buried deeply and glaciers distributing on the polar, high mountains and plateaus can not be exploited and utilized on a large scale. Therefore, water resource is commonly known as surface freshwater resource that can be utilized directly by human beings and ground freshwater resource buried not deeply. But this volume is less than 0.01 percent of the total water storage of the world.

Fresh water

Total volume100%

Ocean water

Atmosphere Water0.03%

Soil waterGround water

11.02%

The ratio of fresh water volume to the total2.78%

Fresh lake0.33%

Saline lake0.28%

2.78%

Glacier0.003%

Snow and glacier99.35%

Deep ground water11.12%

The ratio of surface water volume to the total

0.643%

Fresh water

Map of Global River Annual Runoff （ Jones,1998)

The Contrast among Potential Water Supply 、 Estimated Population of 2010 and

Time of Population Doubling of Each Continent

With the increasing of population, water supply per capita is decreasing. On the other hand ， with the development of economy, water requirements per capita is increasing at the same time. It is estimated that there should be about eighty countries lacking in water in the coming future.

Land area

Asia

Africa

Europe

NorthAmerica

SouthAmerica

Global

Australia-Oceania

Annual average Runoff(km3/a)

RegionTime of

population doubling (a)

Estimated population of 2010(Ma)

The proportion toglobal annual runoff (%)

The proportion to global population

in 2010(%)

Division of Earth’s Surface Runoff Resource in China

The runoff of China is supplied by precipitation. As a result, it distributes corresponding to precipitation. On the basis of runoff quantity, precipitation and evaporation, China was divided into five different areas: areas rich in water, areas with much water, transition areas, areas with little water and areas lacking in water.

Areas rich in water

Areas withlittle water

Areas withmuch water

Transitionarea

Areas lackingin water

Natural landscape

RunoffCoefficient

(%)

Desert

Precipitation(mm)

Runoff depth(mm)

Land Evaporation

(mm)

Names of runoff area

Semi-desert and prairie

Evergreen and deciduousBroadleaf forest

Deciduous broadleaf forest and forest prairie

Tropical rainforest and Sub-tropical evergreen forest

Outlines of Land Classification and Land Evaluation

Land adaptability refers to the land suitable degree to some kind of economicutility.

Mutisuitability: Lands are suitable for agricultural production, forest production and pasture production at the same time.Doblesuitability: Lands are suitable for two types of production mentioned above at the same time.Singlesuitability: Lands are suitable for one type of production mentioned above. Nosuitability: Lands can not be utilized with current science and technology.

Limitation: It refers to the restraining degree of some adverse factors to land suitability and productive potential.Economic benefits: It refers to the available benefits provided by land. It is one of the main measurements of land quality.Ecological benefits: It refers to the quality of land ecosystems.

The Comparison Among Land Classification Units (Chen Chuan-kang, 1993)

Three levels of classification system

Phase: It is the minimal unit of land classification and also the land region where the comprehensive natural characteristics are most consistent.

Land facet (land unit): Phases combine with each other regularly so as to form the intermediate land classification unit.

District (land system): Land facets combine with each other regularly so as to form the advanced land classification unit.

From phase to land facet and further to district, the inner structures of land become more and more complex, the inner consistency is weaker and weaker but the discrimination gets more and more obvious.

Landclassification

Physiognomy Climate Hydrology Soil Vegetation

Phase Physiognomy surface

small climate Of the same quality

of soil water

Variety Associations

Land facet Primary physiognomy

Combinations of small climate

Of the same drainage

condition and diving condition

Combinations of variety

Combinations of association

District Combinations of Primary

physiognomy

Local climate Small valley Various type unit

Various type unit

The Relationship Between Individual Unit and Grade

Generally, family, genus and specie can be used as units of land type by virtue of biologic classification. For example, as far as the division of land type in the same level is concerned, the phases with similar property are included into phase specie, the phase species with similar property are included into phase genus and the phase genus with similar property are included into phase family.

In a similar way, the land facets with similar property are included into land-facet specie, the land-facet species with similar property are included into land-facet genus and the land-facet genus with similar property are included into land-facet family. According to the same method, district can be divided into district species, district genus and district family.

据伊萨钦科

Units of physicalregionalization

Units of landclassification

District

Land facet

Phase

State

Landscape

Specie

Specie

Specie

Specie

Specie

Genus

Genus

Genus

Genus

Genus

Family

Family

Family

Family

Family

Sequence of characteristic unit

Seq

uen

ce o

f ind

ivid

ual u

nit

Of state

Oflandscape

Of district

Of phase

Of landfacet

Double-Row Index Grid Method

After classified, the land grade can be noted by the method of sequence. That is to say, all levels of units can be showed directly in sequence of family, genus and species. Generally, family can be noted by Latin numbers, such as Ⅰ,Ⅱ,Ⅲ,Ⅳ,Ⅴ and so on. Genus can be noted by English letters, such as a, b, c, d, e and so on. Species can be noted by Arabian numbers, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on. Finally , three of them are assembled orderly so as to express land grade and their relations with signs, such as Ⅰa1 、Ⅱ b2 、Ⅲ c3. At the same time, it also can be expressed by double-row index grid method.

According to Chen Chuan-kang

Characteristics of soil and vegetation

(wet→dry)

(hig

h→

low

)P

hysio

gn

om

y s

ite

Chart of Land Grade Land grade is the final result of land assessment and also the essential part of land grading. The number of land grade is ascertained according to the complexity of assessment purpose. At present, land grade is classified into eight. From the first to the eighth, land adaptability and productive potentials decreases orderly but numbers of restrictive factors to them are more and more. If the they are in the same level of grade, then land adaptability and productive potentials of them are the same too.

Potential

Grade

Adaptability

Decre

asin

g p

rod

uctiv

e p

ote

ntia

ls

Decreasing adaptability

Muti-adaptability

Single-adaptability

Double-adaptability

Noadaptability

The bestThe

betterGood

Suit for agricultureand pasture

Suit forforest

Suit forpasture

Suit fornoneCommon

Recurrent-Type Structure (According to Chen Chuan-kang)

Land structure can be classified into two types: recurrent-type structure and repeated-type structure. Recurrent-type structure means that each kind of land type arranges in spatial sequence and combines together to form a certain sequence.

Hillside, seacoast and valley Lake basin

Recurrent-type structure(according to Chen Chuan-kang)

Repeated-Type Structure (According to Chen Chuan-kang)

Repeated-type structure means that land type does not alternate in spatial sequence but distributes as patches. The typical examples are mesa incised by gulches, paleo-hammocks and grassland in the shallow valley.

Repeated-type structure(according to Chen Chuan-kang)

Paleo-hammocks on the plain Gulches on the mesa

Comprehensive Physical Regionalization

Physical regionalization refers to research means by which physical regional units are classified and merged gradually according to comparability and difference of physical geographical characteristics in some certain areas and some regional hierarchical system are built based on the subordinations between these regional units.

Principles of regionalization Methods of regionalization

Methods of geographic relative analysis;Methods of prevailing symbols;Methods of from-top-to-bottom;Methods of from-bottom-to-top;Methods of overlap of departmantal Regionalization.

Principle of the same inducing reasons; Principle of homologous appearance; Principle of regional conjugation; Principle of combining comprehensive analysis with leading factors; Principle of combining zonal factors with unzonal factors.

Double-row Hierarchical System and the Relationships among Its Units

Nature regions are restricted jointly by laws of zonal distributions and unzonal distributions. Based on this two differential laws, land regionalization was classified into zonal regionalization unit hierarchical system and unzonal one. The both are jointly entitled as double-row hierarchical system of comprehensive physical regionalization unit. As for zonal hierarchical system of regionalization unit, it follows the sequence: natural belt, natural zone, natural sub-zone and natural hypo-zone. As far as unzonal one is concerned, it follows the sequence: big region, natural region, sub-region and small region.

Country

Province

State

Belt

Zone

Sub-zone

Hypo-zone

Big region

Region

Sub-region

State

Section

Sub-section

Hypo-section

Area

Zone

Chart of Division of Single-row Hierarchical System (Modified by Chen Chuan-kang)

From the point of some scholars, the differences between natural regions and laws of spatial distributions of regional units are the comprehensive reflections on laws of regional differentiation. As a result, it is suggested that there should be another uniform regionalization hierarchical system reflecting zonal and unzonal laws of regional differentiation and this system should follow the sequence : zone, natural country, section, natural province, sub-section, natural state, hypo-section, landscape and so on.

Zone

Country

Section

Province Sub-section

state

①Boundary of big regions② Boundary of regions③ Boundary of sub-regions④ Boundary of hypo-regions

⒈ Boundary of belts ⒉ Boundary of zones ⒊ Boundary of sub-zones ⒋ Boundary of hypo-zones

Hypo-section

Landscape

Comprehensive Physical Regionalization

China’s physical regionalization

Tibetan High- cold region

The polar

Warm temperate zoneTropical

zone

Tibetan alpine

region

The equator

East monsoon region

Northwest arid region

World’s physical regionalization

Five zones and one region

Three largeregions

Cold temperatezone

Big region

East monsoon region

Northwest arid region Tibetan High- cold region

Proportion to total area(%) 47.6 29.8 22.6

Proportion to total

population(%)

95 4.5 0.5

Climate Monsoon climate; being drought in some areas.

Arid High cold; low temperature

Physiognomy Mainly being made up of plains and hills, with an

elevation below 500meters

Basins and plateau divided by high mountains

Plateau with an elevation above

5000 meters

Zonal Latitude zone Longitude zoneVertical zone and

plateau zone

Water condition

Rivers develop well; Precipitation supply;

Much water in south butlittle in north

Island rivers; precipitation supply,

Island rivers in west and cradles of rivers in east;

ice and snow melting water supply

soilBeing acid in south but

alkaline in north;

abundant organic materials in northeast area;

Lime and alkali in the soil;little organic materials;a lot of sand and wind

Strong mechanical weathering;

organic materials being decomposed into meadow

vegetation Tropical rainforest; evergreen broadleaf forest; Deciduous broadleaf forest; taiga forest

Dry prairie; desert prairie; desert and taiga forest in some mountain areas

Alpine meadow; alpine prairie;

alpine desert; forest in river valley

Agricultural characteristic

s

Food production; fruit; agriculture;

forest; prairie

Prairie; oasis

Plateau prairie; agriculture distributing in valley.

The Characteristics of Three Big Regions (According to Xi Cheng-pan and Qiu Bao-jian)

Chapter 7 Predictions on the Earth’s Surface Environment

Section 1: Principles of predictions on the earth’s surface environment;Section 2: The variation trend of the lithosphere;Section 3: The variation trend of the atmosphere;Section 4: The variation trend of the hydrosphere;Section 5: The variation trend of the biosphere;Section 6: The variation trend the earth’s surface environment.

Principles of Predictions on the Earth’s Surface Environment

Principle of space-time scale Space-time scale must be taken into account when predicting the earth’s surf

ace environment.

Principle of mutual effects between human beings and nature We have to consider feedback of natural changes and human activities at the sa

me time.

Principle of relevance The earth’s surface environment is a complex system. Each subsystem interac

ts and interrelates with each other. Changes of subsystem will result in the changes of system.

Non-linear principle When predicting the changes of environment ， the first analysis we should mak

e is the time limitation of prediction , what kind of state environment is in ， whether or not it can be predicted and whether there are mutation spots during the limited time. With these, we can establish mathematics model for prediction.

The Variation Trends of the Lithosphere

The result of Plate movement

． Global continental Plate drifts westward: The longitude of ocean and continent will change;

． Eurasian Plate and North America Plate move in opposite directions: It will result in gradual shrink of Pacific ocean and gradual expand of Atlantic ocean;

． Australia Plate drifts northeastward: As a result, land area of southern hemisphere will decrease more and more;

． India Plate drifts northward: Tibetan plateau and Himalayas will uplift further because of the obstruct of Eurasian Plate. The western part of China will drift northward.

． East African Rift Valley enlarges: Red Sea will expand and turn into an ocean finally. Asia will separate from Africa 。

There are a lot of human activities shaping the land.

Reclamation, beach protection; Construction of irrigation facilities; City construction ; Different land use patterns.

Direction and Velocity of Plate Movement

The direction and velocity of Plate movement won’t change a lot over decades to centuries. So is the boundary of Plate. Therefore, there won’t be essential changes to distributions of earthquake and volcano. That is to say, they still distributes on the edge of Plates especially concentrating on the circum-Pacific belt and Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt. But as far as timescale of 1000000 years is concerned, there will be great changes to seismic belt, volcanic belt, distributions of Plates and land-sea profiles of the earth’s surface.

Land-Sea Distribution in the Future (Christensen,1991 ）

The Variation Trends of the Atmosphere

The variation trends of the components of the atmosphereThe amount of CO2 ， N2O ， CH4 and haloid carbon in the air increases greatly but that of SO2 increases slightly. The amount of dust also changes.

The variation trends of the structure of the atmosphere

Formation of the Ozonosphere, depletion of the Ozonosphere and changes

of the Ozonosphere. The variation trends of the atmosphere

As far as timescale of 10000 years is concerned, modern interglacier epoch is about to be over and new glacier epoch is coming. It will become colder and colder. But because of greenhouse effect resulting from human beings, there will be a contrary trend of climatic change.

As far as century timescale is concerned, it won’t be warmer than that of years between 1900 and 1950. But because of the impact imposed by human beings, greenhouse effect can not be controlled completely in a short time. Therefore, by taking account of natural factors and human disturbances, it will be warmer in 21st century than that of the 19th century but almost equal to or slightly warmer than that of 20th century.

The Variation Trends of Components of the Atmosphere (according to Machenzie)

Con

cen

tratio

n

CH4

Con

cen

tratio

n

Con

cen

tratio

n

CO2

Formation and depletion of the Ozonosphere

Ultraviolet rays

Ultraviolet rays

Formation of the ozonosphere

Natural process

Ozone depletioncaused by Cl

Ozone depletion

Human impacts

Ozone depletion caused by NO

Climatic Changes On a view of century timescale, the change of climate has the obvious characteristics of double-century period. The latest warm peak happened during the period of 1900-1950. There will be next warm peak after 2050. Therefore, it is relative cold during the period of 2000-2050. That is to say, it has been relatively warm-cool since 1950 and this trend will last till 2050. There will be a lot of short-time climatic fluctuations during this period, but as far as natural trend is concerned, it will not be warmer than that of 1900-1950.

Temperature Greenland Ice LandEngland global China

(winter)

Tree-ring index Of Qilian Mountain

Change Trend of the Hydrosphere

Change of sea level

Water circulation and the change of water balance． Plate movement—Shrink of Pacific ocean and expand of Atlantic ocean

— change of pattern of water circulation—Regional imbalance of water

balance;． Further uplift of Tibetan Plateau——Desertification in the middle part

of Asian;． Global warming——Great changes of global water balance.

． Global warming——Glacier melting——Sea level rise ；． Crustal subsidence——Relative rise of sea level ；． Land subsidence——Sea level rise ；． Temperature of sea water raising——Sea water expanding——Sea level rise.

The change of components and structures of the hydrosphere

． The proportion of gaseous water and liquid water increases but that of solid water

decreases;

． Because of sea level rise, the earth surface’s water distributes toward low-latitude;

． The trend of asymmetry distribution of river, lake and swamp becomes more and more obvious.

Sea Level Change

It is indicated by research that current sea level is not horizontal but irregular. This surface varies with the change of earth’s gravity field. The highest uplift lies in New Guinea with an elevation 76 meters higher than mean sea level and the biggest depression lies in Maldives with an elevation 104 meters lower than mean sea level. The height difference between them is 180 meters and it surpasses the mean change range of sea level during glacier-interglacier epoches. Because the gravity field of earth surface is determined by the earth’s interior components and the lithosphere drifts eastward away from the centrosphere and mantle, the earth’s gravity field will change all over the world. It will result in the change of sea level.

Sea Level Change

On a view of century timescale, there will be an ascend trend of sea level because of the global warming in the future. But as for the estimation to the increase range of sea level, there are great differences. According to the prediction on the trend of climate change mentioned above, we can conclude safely that mean sea level of the world will increase 15 centimeters by the year 2030 and increase 40-50 centimeters by the year 2100. But taking the factors like ground subsidence into account, the increase range of sea level on some large-scale eatuarine shorelines and coastal plains is far more than the value mentioned above.

据 Warrick et al.,1996According to Warrick et al.,1996

Sea le

vel c

han

ges

The change of aerosol since 1990

The amount of aerosol equal to that of 1990

High

Middle

Low

Effects of sea level rise

Marine erosion enhance

Saline lands

Sewage holdback

Storm surges enhance

Seawater intrusion

Submerge land

Flood and waterlogging strengthen

Affect function of haven

and sea-route

Change trend of biosphere

structure changes of biosphere

Increasing of content of microorganism in the air （ humidity augment ）；Asymmetry of biology horizontal distribution in the earth surface augments much

more （ local diversity of precipitation enlarge ）；expanding towards mid-latitude of biologic distributing （ warming ）；Space of sea and ocean ecosystem expands ， but that of land ecosystem reduces （ sea level

rise ）Some fisheries disappear ， but others maybe enlarge or shape （ changes of ocean

currents ） . changes of ecological productivity

Because of warming, aggravation of plant diseases and insect pests ， some species’s

productivity will reduce ； productivity of some species ， especially wheat, paddy,

soybean and so on ， will increase because of elevated CO2 and photosynthesis enhance.

component changes of biosphere

Reduction of biologic species scale-up of proportion of human Task of protecting biodiversity is difficult

Change trend of biosphere Because biology need some tim

e to adapt the changes of environment ， a number of species will depopulation because of changes of environment. Temperature warms up ， especially at the mid and high latitude, some biology which like stay around cold environment would increase or disappear because they could not bear high temperature. In some arid areas water reduces much more ， some species also decreases or disappear. Although environmental changes would give birth to new species ， in short time, extinct biologic species is much more than new species. In addition,because of human impact ，biodiversity will destroy much more. 。 That is say,in the future ，biosphere is not rich and colorful than now.

Population growth and extinct animal （ Tao Shilong etl. ）

Pop

ulation

/ten h

un

dred

million

year

Nu

mb

ers of extinct an

imal

mammalia

birds

Changes of biosphere construction

Physical biologic species is reducing ， but the number of population is always increasing 。 According to predication, amount will be more 100 million before 2050.If don’t adopt available measures ， 44 years later ， the number of population would double. So in the future human Proportion will largen.

According to Mackenzie,1998

Pop

ulation

/ten h

un

dred

millio

n

The world

Developed areasDeveloping areas

Secon

d w

orld w

ar

Ind

ustrial revolu

tion

Changes of biosphere structure

In the view of long time ， regulation of changes of land and sea distribution 、 surface relief ， will cause great changes and regulation of zone of vegetation and biota, so biosphere structure would change much more. For example, forest in east Asia would disappear because of the Pacific's disappear. At last it would become grassland and desert.

European vegetation changes in glacial age –interglacial age 　

Mediterranean sea

Mountain glacier interglacial

Mountain glacierBroad-leaved forest Broad-leaved forest North coniferous forest

The arctic ocean

Continental glacier

Pole desert

Brushy tundra

Brushy tundra

Dry grassland

Dry grass tundra

Pine

Betula

Low Betula

Dry grassland

tundre

Mixing Quercus

Ilex and Quercus

Zelkova

Spruce and Abies

Tundra

Betula

The last Glacial maxmum (18000 aB.P.)

Changes of biosphere structure (wangjian,2000)

In the view of short time ， global climate changes will cause the changes of biosphere structure and construction. （ 1 ） Content of microorganism increase in the air. （ 2 ） In the earth’s surface asymmetry of biologic horizon distribution largen more. （ 3 ） Biologic distribution expands towards mid-latitude. （ 4 ） Space of ocean ecosystem will scale-up ， but that of land ecosystem will dwindle because of marine erosion caused by sea level rise 。（ 5 ） Some fisheries disappear ， but others maybe enl

arge or shape because of changes of ocean currents caused by sea level rise and ocean water’s temperature changes .

Biodiversity lower

Expansion of ocean ecosystem

expand towards mid-latitude

of biologic distribution

content of microorganism

increase in the air

Diminution of pure nature

accretion of human Proportion

Changes of

biosphere

inhomogeneity of

spatial distribution

Land ecosystem reduce

vegetable during the process of greenhouse (double content of Co2 ， Mackenzie,1998)

Tundra north forest deciduous brush grass ever-green forest savanna

broad-leaved forest

expanded model towards mid-latitude of biologic distribution （ present-day, Mackenzie,1998 ）

present

1 、 The more man-made environment, the less natural environment

population growth in a short time will not change much more. With the population growth and developments in science and technology, human influence the earth’s surface environment much more. The ratio of got-up environment or man-made environment will be higher ， and that pure natural environment will be less.

2 、 changes of energy flow

Now primary energy used by human

is fossil fuel （ coal 、 petroleum 、 n

atural gas ） . However, the use of fos

sil fuel causes many environmental p

roblems. Human actively want to crea

te new energy which can replace fossil

fuel in all its bearings. so it will chang

e energy flow in the future from unde

rground to surface, from coteau to pla

in, from ocean to land, from country t

o city.

Variation trend of the earth’s surface environment

Variation trend of the earth’s surface environment

3 、 changes of matter flow

Changes of aspect and intensitymatter exchange between human and environment strengthening exchange between human and

environment4 、 changes of information flow

Changes of aspect ： In the future information flow will not

change but enhance from developed country and area to

developing country.

intensity ： Intensity will augment distinctly.

velocity ： With the development of communication and network

technology ， speed of transmission will enhance greatly.

Chapter 16 Planning and Management of the Earth’s Surface

Environment

General description of environmental planningDrawing-up of environmental planning Environmental management and its characteristicsTask and content of environmental managementMeasures of environmental managementEnvironmental management information system

Environmental planning and principle

Environmental planning is organic composition of national economy and social development plan ， and refers to concrete plan of environmental decision in the scale of time and space.And it also bring forward explicit environmental goal and impactful measures protecting environmental waste and damage ， in order to improve eco-environment ，and advance coordinated development of environment, economy and society.

assorting with economy and societal development projects

feasible and easy to operate

Ameliorating environment ， guarantee correspond between environment , society and economy

Principles of Environmental

planning

Feature of environmental planning

dynamic properties: Goals and contents will change constantly ， so they should be endlessly recruited and amended 。 synthesis properties:The object of environmental planning is the earth’s surface environment.And the earth’s surface environment is a complex syntheses. Environmental planning colligates more knowledge.

local diversity:Based on regional difference ， environmental planning must build upon regional environment characteristic ， in order to achieve maneuverability.

harmonization: Environment planning should combine with country economy and social developmental planning ， and harmonize development with protection.

Classification of environmental planning

According to time limit :Short-term planning

Medium-term planning

Long-term planning

According to range and level:Global environmental planning

Country environmental planning

Regional environmental planning

According to object:comprehensive (unitary) environmental planning

special (subject 、 section) environmental planning

Principles of drawing-up of environmental planning

Ecology balance Contact and restrict each other limit property principle each resource and environmental bearing the weigh

t are limit. integer principle In the environment system each element or variable which

contact and restrict each other composes organic entia. local characteristics principle the earth’s surface environment provides wi

th regional attributes ， so adjusting measures should accord as local conditionds.

principle of taking prevention first Perist in principles of taking prevention first ， integrating prevention and cure ， comprehensive planning ， proper redistribution ， standing out stress ， giving attention to two or morethings ， and turning working stresses around environmental comprehensive regulatory.

proceeding of drawing-up of environmental planning

Commonly ， the drawing-up of environmental planning is to figure out the environment question in some area ， improve ecology environment ， and correspond with relationship between environment, economy and society. Owing to distinct objects, goals, tasks,contents and extensions ， there are many types of environment planning. But whatever it is ， it must keep to some produces and methods:

Programming work planEnvironmental research and evaluation

environment forecast

ascertain aims

design schemes of environmental planning

declare Schemes and examine and approve

Carry into practice

proceeding of drawing-up of environmental planning

Characters of environmental management

stratagem Environmental management contacts with implementing sustainable development strategy.

synthesis environmental management must be incorporated into the national economic and social development plans; the state shall adopt economic and technological policies and measures favorable for environmental protection so as to coordinate the work of environmental protection with economic construction and social development. The state shall encourage the development of education in the science of environmental protection, strengthen the study and development of the science and technology of environmental protection, raise the scientific and technological level of environmental protection and popularize scientific knowledge of environmental protection.

Quality of region Environmental management should adjust measures to local conditions, put forward diverse measures ， adopt different methods and artifices to realization according to different areas.

Universality All units and individuals shall have the obligation to protect the environment and shall have the right to report on or file charges against units or individuals that cause pollution or damage to the environment. The people's government shall give awards to units and individuals that have made outstanding achievements in protecting and improving the environment.

Task of environmental management

（ 1 ） Reasonably empolder and make use of natural resource ， maintain ecology balance order to sustain.

（ 2 ） Attach importance to prevention and cure of environment pollution and optimization and reconstruction of ecological environment ， in the interest of human’s subsistence and development.

（ 3 ） Natural environment system’s structure and function optimize towards direction what people prospective by controlling its matter flow, energy flow, information flow.

（ 4 ） Human play a directorial and under directorial role in environmental management.Therefore ， human should take powerful measures to adjust and alter human unreasonable behaviors and activities ， in order to reduce waste and destroy.

（ 5 ） establish feasible policies, laws, ordinances, programming of environmental protection ， put forward material routes and measures.

（ 6 ） go along environment science research ， for the sake of environmental protect to train person with management ability. At the same time ， strengthen propagandism and education work in order to advance people’s participant consciousness.

classification and content of environmental management

content of environmental management is far-ranging and complicated. Commonly we can compartmentalize it in the aspect of administrant range and attribution.

（一） Classifying according to range 1.resource environmental management 2. professional environmental management 3.regional environmental management

（二） Classifying according to property 1. environmental quality management 2. environmental arrange management 3. environmental technique management

Instruments of environmental management

Law instruments ： It is a coercive measure of environmental management——making the law and executing the law.

Economic instruments ： adopt economic instruments ,as the example of toll of blow down, economic penalty, compensation for a loss, incentive complex utilization. Sufficiently display the role of economic law in the environmental management.Administration instruments ： It recurs to actualize executive decision and supervision in allusion to protection of resource and environment based on organic and commanding influence invested by nation and all levels states.Technique means ： The result of stand or fall lies on technology in a way.Therefore ， if without advanced technology ， it would only be a dream of managing environment efficaciously.

Educational instruments ： Through all kinds of routes and manners ， and giving publicity to the conception of environmental protection far and wide ， the public can find out significance and task of environmental protection, excitated environmental protection passion and enthusiasm ， protect and devote voluntarily to environment ， accordingly in order to form powerful public opinion ， put down behavior of wasting resource and destroying environment.

Environmental management information system

Environmental management information system is a complex and ordered technical system provided with integrated function refering to realizing manipulation of input 、 output 、 modification 、 increase 、 deletion 、transmission 、 secrecy 、 searches 、 calculation of environment information, saving environmental information in the computer based on present-day data-base ， according to hardware and software ， and integrating application software of statistic mathematics, optimization management analysis 、 forecast evaluation model 、 programming decision model 、 cartographic output.

Procedure of environmental management information system

project: Based on diagnoses ， fix on aim and require of environmental management information system ， formulate and

filtrate best project, workout feasibility research report.

analysis: Design logic system according with demands of practicality and consumer. Contents include system survey,function requirement analysis, data analysis, advancing logical model and authorizing report.

design: In this step according to logical model putting forward physical model is the primary task 。 Choosing the best from all kinds technologies and methods ， and carry into physical model in order to resolve “how to do”.

putting in practice: when design is over ， system must be tested,

checked and accepted. When the system is ok, you can use it. During the course of

operation ， pay attention to system maintenance because of guaranteeing sustainable

development.

Chapter 17 Adjustment of the Earth’s Surface System

General description of adjustmentPrinciples of adjustmentWays of adjustmentMethods and models of optimization, regulation and control

Process of adjustment

Concept: Adjustment of the Earth’s Surface System ， means through people intervene purposefully in order that human can benefit from the development of the earth’s surface environment, and can obtain anticipative aims 。

Essence:it includes that human constantly ameliorate the

relationship between human and environment ， through

adjustment of the earth’s surface system ， in order to

achieving the aims of harmony and unification between

human and environment. nodus: Earth’s Surface System is a most complex gigantic system.people are short of knowledge of laws of development and evolution of natural environment. people’s control ability is quite limit ， especially difficult to control nature in long time and large scale.

Theories and principles of adjustment

（一） system and systemati

c ideology

（二 )feedback and control

（三） adjustment

principles of adjustment

（一） coordination （二） flexibility（ 三 ） global optimizatio

n（四） ecological principle

（五） economic principle（六） adaptability

Theories of adjustment

procedures of adjustment

Adjustment of the earth’s surface system is a difficult, gigantic and intricate systemic engineering ，and takes on a suit of scientific and rigorous procedure.The left is step.

Preparation

Confirming aims

Advancing scheme

optimization design

Confirming control scheme

put into execution and control

Environmental systeminput output

feedbackSystem modeling

Ways of adjustment

Control of matter flow

achieving the aim of controlling systemic structure and function though adjusting input or output of systemic physical quality and quantity

Control of energy flow

achieving the aim of control and optimize earth’s surface environment though adjusting energy flow

Control of information flow

Changes of information flow will change systemic structure and function. So controlling information flow ,also can achieve the aim of controlling environment.

Linear layout model

traits: It is one of simplest and broadest mathematics planning method ， and also one of an optimum method used earliest. applying: It only solves problems that target function and constraint conditions all take on the linearity. produce: first confirm aim,then analyze all factors influence on aims in order ascertain target function and all constraint conditions ， then establish linear programming model ， last conclude by mathematics.

Analytic hiberarchy process

feature Analytic hiberarchy process which provides with quite scientifi

c properties, logicality and practicability, integrates qualitative analysis with

quantitative analysis, ， and also it is an efficient method to adjust environme

nt as complex system 。

procedure First regard complex problem as a system ， through analyzin

g all factors establish the hiberarchy of each factor ； compare each factor of

hiberarchy ， present relative essentiality ； more count each ratio of each fac

tor and compositor ； lastly according to compositor carry on integrated evalu

ation ， line up excellent and inferior scheme.

reAnalyzing of cost and benefit

Analyzing of cost and benefit is one of economic analytic

method in best common use.theory and practice developed in USA in 1930,and now are widely used in environment economic analysis. 。

Its principium is that: firstly list all cost and benefits ， then denote quantificationally recurring to money ， considering time worth of capital ， and embodying all cost and benefits ， lastly calculate existing cash of net benefit 。Using net benefit as criterion ， choose the best scheme.

The right is common step 。out put

Compare benefit with cost

cost calculating benefit calculating

cost of control planning Degree of improving

environment

Benefit of each plan

environmental function analysis

Relationship between the degree of environmental

damage and environmental function damage

Making clear question and controlled goal