RELIGIOZNE I SEKULARNE JEVREJSKE …scindeks-clanci.ceon.rs/data/pdf/2217-7337/2015/2217-73371501029K.pdfjednoj od reprezentativnih zajednica u Transilvaniji, gde su postojale razne

Kucaru: RELIGIOZNE I SEKULARNE JEVREJSKE OBRAZOVNE INSTITUCIJE U ARADU ________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Dr Kajus Klaudijus Kucaru1 Fakultet pravoslavne teologije Originalni naučni rad Arad, Rumunija UDK: 37.014.523

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RELIGIOZNE I SEKULARNE JEVREJSKE OBRAZOVNE INSTITUCIJE U ARADU

Rezime: U judaizmu, učenje je religiozna dužnost jer je pobožan jevrejski život vođen zahtevima Tore. S toga, judaizam je religija knjige, učenja svetih spisa. Ovo objašnjava organizovanje hebrejskog obrazovnog sistema na svim nivoima kroz istoriju i na svim mestima gde su stanovali Jevreji. Obrazovanje je bilo glavno pitanje za svaku zajednicu, a nepismenosti gotovo da nije bilo. Isto se dogodilo i u Jevrejskoj zajednici u Aradu, jednoj od reprezentativnih zajednica u Transilvaniji, gde su postojale razne jevrejske obrazovne institucije kako religijske tako i sekularne: osnovne škole, srednje škole, ješive ili Talmud Tora. Ključne reči: ješiva, judaizam, religiozno obrazovanje, svetovno obrazovanje, Talmud Tora.

1. Izučavanje spisa kao ekspresije Božije volje Hebrejski narod je narod kome je glavna okupacija bilo i ostalo obrazovanje, sa religioznim i sekularnim konotacijama. Bez spiritualnosti, bez napora da se uči i zna reč Božija, ne možemo pričati o jevrejskom identitetu. Stoga, „učenje se pojavljuje prirodno kao esencijalni uslov za opstanak judaizma i jevrejskog naroda, a ovako je oduvek i bilo” (Lemalet, Strait, 2003: 29). Zakon koji je Bog preneo Mojsiju na Sinajskoj gori morao se znati, predavati i učiti dan i noć, morao se slaviti i bogoslužiti. Prenošenjem Tore – kao što nam Talmud mudraci govore – isto je kao da se ponovo nalazimo pri dnu Sinajske gore (Eisenberg, 1995: 127). Judaizam je religija u kojoj bogosluženje i učenje idu zajedno, dele iste kuće, jer su u mnogim slučajevima sinagoge bile kuće učenja (bet midrash). Ako je prvo ime sinagoge „Beit-Haknesset”, što znači „kuća zajednice”, drugo ime je „Beit-Hamidrash”, što znači „kuća učenja”, čija je glavna svrha biti mesto u kome se čita Tora (Rosen, 1992: 5–6). Talmud navodi da „na mestu gde je učenje, treba biti i molitve” (Talmud Bavli, Tractatul Berahot, fn. 6), što nam nameće zaključak da je učenje prioritet u odnosu na molitvu, pravi put za molitvu. Ovde možemo zaključiti koliki se značaj pridaje izučavanju spisa u judaizmu, kao i naukama uopšte. Činjenica da samo ograničeni broj Jevreja nije znao da čita i piše, a stoga da je broj nepismenih oduvek bio mali, značajna je činjenica. Kao što se navodi u Talmudu, postojalo je ispitivanje od grada Dan (severni obod Jevreja) pa do Biršeba (južnog ekstremiteta Jevreja) o tome da je svako dete, i dečak i devojčica, preko tri godine moglo da čita ili objasni komentare i zakone čistote. Očigledno, deca sa tri godine nisu mogla da pišu, ali su svi mogli da čitaju, što je jedinstveno za religioznu tradiciju u svetu danas. Zaključak koji je Rene Samuel Sirat (Rene-Samuel Sirat), bivši glavni rabin za Francusku, doneo „možemo reći da se želja za iskorenjem nepismenosti javila za jevrejski narod pre dvadeset osam vekova” (Lemalet, Sirat, 2003: 30) odnosio se na kralja

1 Imejl-adresa: [email protected].


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Ezekija, koji je u VIII veku pre nove ere odlučio da se suprotstavi Sanheribu, u to vreme velikoj sili – kroz razvoj i uopštavanje obrazovanja zasnovanog na Tori. Obrazovanje dece nije jednostavna ekspresija porodične dužnosti, već to jevrejski zakon nalaže. U Ponovljeni zakoni Bog pokazuje da pitanje prenošenja i usvajanja njegovih zapovesti kod mladih ljudi mora biti uvek prisutno u svesti roditelja: „I neka ove reči koje ti zapovedam danas budu u srcu tvom. I često ih napominji sinovima svojim, i govori o njima kada sediš u kući svojoj i kada ideš putem, kad ležeš i kad ustaješ” (Deuteronomy 6: 6–7). Postoje i drugi delovi Starog testamenta, koji govore o tome koliki je prioritet edukacija dece u jevrejskoj zajednici. U Pričama se ovako navodi značaj obrazovanja: „Uči dete prema putu kojim će ići, pa neće odstupiti od njega ni kada ostari” (Proverbs 22: 6). I takođe Solomon pokazuje da „Mudar sin sluša nastavu oca svog, a podsmevač ne sluša ukore” (Proverbs 13: 1). Mišna nam ukazuje na pravo doba za učenje: „Sa pet godina treba da se uči Biblija, deset godina je vreme za učenje Mišne, sa trinaest dete je u obavezi da proučava zapovesti, a u petnaestoj godini je vreme da se uči Talmud” (Cohn-Sherbok, 2000: 163). Inicijalno, obrazovanje je uglavnom bilo religijsko, a vremenom, počeli su da razlikuju svetovno i religijsko obrazovanje. Stoga, u krajem XVII veka i početkom XVIII veka došlo je do promene u mentalitetu evropskih Jevreja, pod uticajem usklađivanja sa modernim trendovima društva u kojima su živeli. To je period otvaranja, izlazak iz geta koji su sami sebi stvorili – jevrejska modernizacija društvenog pejzaža (Rotman, 2000: 174). Čak ni jevrejsko obrazovanje nije moglo da ignoriše ove društvene realnosti koje su transformisale čitave zajednice. U ovom periodu sve više mladih napušta tradicionalno obrazovanje i opredeljuje se za sekularni obrazovni sistem. Jevreji uče da čitaju i pišu latinicu odustajući od hebrejskog pisma da bi uspešnije poslovali. S druge strane, roditelji su slali decu da rade i pre nego što su ona završila svoje jevrejsko obrazovanje; to je činjenica koja je umnogome oštetila učenje Talmuda. U ovom periodu, na žalost „Deca iz jevrejskih familija (čak i devojčice) učila su francuski, italijanski i nemački, čak i ples, ali nisu mogla da odvoje sat vremena za učenje Mišne ili Gemariju”. Takođe je dodao (prema: Ejbešuc/Eibeschuts) ,,ne možeš se moliti a da ne razumeš šta čitaš. Učenje dece se ne sme staviti u ruke nesposobnih i nekompetentnih... ” (Hayoun, 1999: 14). U kontekstu gde evropski Jevreji pokušavaju da se stope sa društvom u kome žive, takođe se uklapa i rumunsko jevrejsko obrazovanje uopšteno (Rotman, 1999), a pogotovo u Aradu.

2. Jevrejske obrazovne institucije U ovom delu rada govorićemo kako o savremenim obrazovnim institucijama tako i o tradicionalnim, a veliku pažnju posvetićemo tome kako se postiže i kako se postizalo obrazovanje kod jevrejskih vernika.

2.1. Osnovno i srednjoškolsko obrazovanje

Danas deca započinju svoje religiozno obrazovanje u osnovnoj školi, u kojoj kurikulum uključuje i religiozno i svetovno znanje. U takvim školama, u koje se kreće od sedme godine, deca uče jevrejski i jezik države u kojoj žive. Učenje Tore je prioritet kada deca počnu da uče svete knjige, a često se među stranice stavljaju slatkiši da podstaknu učenje Tore i da im pokažu kako je slatko i prijatno (Cohn-Sherbok, 2000: 163). Od veoma ranog uzrasta, deca uče


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i memorišu cela poglavlja Biblije, ali se učenja takođe šire i na razumevanje jevrejskog načina života. Fokus je na jevrejskim učenjima, iako deca (dečaci i devojčice) uče svetovne predmete (Cohn-Sherbok, 2000: 164). Čak se i u jevrejskom obrazovanju može primetiti prisustvo sekularizacije, pošto sve manji broj dece u dijaspori ima religiozno obrazovanje, a broj onih koji odaberu sekularno obrazovanje raste. Za ovu decu sinagoge organizuju sistem za dodatno jevrejsko učenje, ali se to obrazovanje često posmatra kao sekundarno a svetovno obrazovanje kao primarno. Iako neki pohađaju jevrejsko obrazovanje kao sekundarni sistem, većina završava svoje jevrejsko obrazovanje na ovom uzrastu, koje se poklapa sa slavljenjem Bar micve, odnosno Bat micve, uklapajući se sa određenim pravilima svojih predaka. Ova situacija čini da se povećanje sekularnosti nastavi u jevrejskim zajednicama van Izraela. Kada napune četrnaest godina, jevrejska deca prelaze iz osnovnog u srednjoškolsko obrazovanje. Tu se učenici bave proučavanjem Mišne, Talmuda i etike (Musar). Počevši od najranijeg mogućeg perioda u učenju judaizma, cilj je temeljna priprema za dalji život i završetak učenja. U ovoj fazi nije postojalo obrazovanje za devojčice, barem do početka XX veka, pošto su se devojčice u tom periodu pripremale za rešavanje kućnih problema i za građenje porodice (Cohn-Sherbok, 2000: 165). Danas američki obrazovni sistem sadrži jevrejsko srednjoškolsko obrazovanje za devojčice (između 14 i 18 godina) koje se zovu Bet Jakob (the Beth Jacob) i koje pružaju jevrejsko i svetovno znanje. Međutim, predmeti se razlikuju od onih koje pohađaju dečaci pošto ultra-ortodoksni Jevreji ne podržavaju to da žene uče Talmud.

2.2. Bet midraž (kuća učenja)

Bet midraž (Beth Midrash) je centar religioznog obrazovanja koji obično pripada sinagogi ili kompleksu sinagoga. Kao izraz značaja koji se daje jevrejskom obrazovanju vernika, bet midraž je glavno mesto istraživanja tekstova Talmida, a ponekad je i mesto molitve za one koji proučavaju. Izučavanje Tore ima poseban značaj u judaizmu, pa se smatra da je mesto u kome se izučava Tora više sveto nego sama sinagoga. Stoga je dozvoljeno da se proda sinagoga da bi se kupio ili sagradio bet midraž (Wigoder, 2006: 99–100). Međutim, mesto učenja je u samoj zgradi sinagoge. Jevrejska tradicija nam govori da je prvi bet midraž koristio Šem, Nojin sin, a njegov unuk Eber. Midraš nabraja nekoliko biblijskih likova koji su osnovali ili učili u bet midražu (Wigoder, 2006: 100). U antici se spominje nekoliko kuća učenja, među kojima su Šamaj i Avtalion, mudraci iz I pre nove ere i Hilel, jedan od najmudrijih ljudi nacije. U srednjem veku i u kasnijim periodima po jedan bet midraž postojao je u svakom gradu, vođen je od strane zajednice, i u njima su Talmud učili muškarci. Čak i oni koji nisu bili spremni da postanu rabini i koji su drugde radili, izdvajali su svakodnevno vreme pre ili posle posla da se posvete učenju u bet midražu.

2.3. Ješiva

Ješiva je akademija posvećena izučavanju Talmuda i svetih spisa. Takve akademije su postojale u Svetoj zemlji i u Vavilonu od I veka pre nove ere. U I veku, nakon uništenja hrama u Jerusalimu, Johanan ben Zakaj je osnovao akademiju u gradu Javna, koja je ubrzo postala poznata. U Vavilonu, od III veka, akademije su osnovane u gradovima Sura i Pumbedita, koje su privlačile veliki broj mladih ljudi.


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U moderno doba (XIX vek), širom čitave istočne Evrope postojalo je nekoliko akademija, od kojih su najpoznatije Telz, Ponovez i Slobodka, kao i Hasidijske akademije u Lubinu; sve su ih nacisti uništili. Posle rata, nove akademije su izgrađene u Izraelu, SAD-u i Evropi. Danas ove akademije Talmuda imaju mnogo studenata, s obzirom na to da više jevrejskih porodica ima mogućnosti da školuju svoju decu (Cohn-Sherbok, 2000: 170). U jedišvama se radi u parovima, studenti diskutuju o značenju određenih svetih tekstova na jidiš jeziku. Dva puta nedeljno, rektor drži predavanja o određenom delu Talmuda koji se zatim izučava, a profesor predaje jevrejsku moralnost (Musar). Studije traju četiri godine; nakon diplomiranja studenti mogu graditi karijeru kao rabini, ali mnogi se odlučuju za svetovne profesije.

3. Jevrejsko obrazovanje u Aradu

Prve dve porodice naselile su se u Arad, u zapadnoj Rumuniji, početkom XVIII veka, tačnije 1717. godine, nakon čega se njihov broj konstantno povećavao. Vremenom, određene jevrejske institucije pojavile su se u gradu na reci Moriš. Prva institucija ovog tipa je bila Hevera kadiša (1729), koja ne samo da se bavila pogrebnom službom i ceremonijalnom administracijom već je pružala i kada je to bilo moguće zdravstvenu negu za Jevreje u Aradu. Interesantno je pomenuti da je Hevera kadiša prethodila samu zajednicu, odnosno Jevrejsku organizaciju Arada, i njenu generalnu skupštinu, gde su se u forumu zajednički donosile odluke. Mnogo kasnije se pojavio prvi krug religioznog učenja (1785) (Istoria evreimii arădene, 1996: 33 / engl. The History of the Jewish People of Arad, 1996: 33). U XIX veku, pojavio se problem izgradnje sinagoge, ali, kao i u drugim sličajevima, škola je sagrađena pre sinagoge. Godine 1828. postavljen je kamen temeljac za izgradnju sinagoge, a 1834. godine završilo se sa gradnjom i proglašena je za vlasništvom austrijskog cara Franca II (v. sliku br. 1 u Dodatku). Danas zgrada u kojoj se nalaze kancelarije jevrejskih službenika u Aradu takođe služi i kao Neolog sinagoga, a ortodoksne sinagoge ne koriste se od strane zajednice (v. sliku br. 2). U to vreme, glavni rabin u Aradu bio je Aron Horin (1766–1844), rabin reformator (Mehr, 2000: 31–32). Među institucijama koje su Jevreji osnovali u Aradu, u drugoj polovini XIX veka i prvih decenija XX veka, na osnovu donacija bogatih, možemo spomenuti: sirotište za devojčice, kuću za dečake koji su ostali siročad, starački dom, dobrotvornu kuću, javnu kuhinju, jevrejsku bolnicu, udruženja za pomoć i osnovnu školu. Što se tiče obrazovanja u prvoj polovini XX veka, pogotovo u Bukureštu, na severu Moldavije, Banata i Dobrudže, postojale su izrealsko-rumunske škole, osnovne i srednje, u kojima su se držali religijski časovi 2–4 nedeljno, na jevrejskom, ali ne i časovi jevrejskog jezika i jevrejske istorije. Škole su bile asimilacionog tipa. U ortodoksnom hebrejskom okruženju u Transilvaniji, u Aradu, Klužu, Satu Mare, Baja Mare i Velikom Varadinu, postojao je veliki broj ješiva gde su hiljade mladih ljudi nastavili svoje obrazovanje i nastavili da žive jevrejskim životom između dva rata (Rosen, 1991: 128).

3.1. Osnovne škole

Osnovna škola u Aradu je osnovana 1832. godine, školska zgrada se sagradila u ulici Piata Luptei broj 2, zahvaljujući donacijama Julijana Dobler, barona Adolfa Nojmana i Jakoba Hiršla (Istoria evreimii arădene, 47). Danas zgrada pripada školi broj 2 (v. sliku br. 3). Od 1835. postojala su dva mešovita odeljenja, 1854. nivo obrazovanja je proširen na sedam godina, a 1855. osnovali su školu za devojčice, koja je postala model u to vreme u Aradu. Iz istog je


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perioda jevrejska strukovna škola (1851) sa 12 zanata, preobražena u državnu školu 1872, sa nemačkim kao glavnim jezikom predavanja i sa dva razreda od po 35 učenika (Miksa, 1896: 4, 30). Škola je inicijalno funkcionisala sa 12 profesora. Što se pitanja troškova funckionisanja tiče, 85% su pokrili Zapadni obred, Adolf Nojman i/ili strane donacija ortodoksne zajednice, pa je samo trećina učenika plaćala školarinu. Profesori su bili kvalitetni i obrazovni program je služio kao model za druge škole u Transilvaniji. Posle 1918. godine, aneksom Transilvanije, jezik predavanja je postao rumunski. Iako su školske aktivnosti tokom XX veka bile vođene Zajednicom zapadnog obreda, deca ortodoksnih hebrejskih porodica nisu ispaštala jer su ove dve religiozne zajednice imale dobre odnose u Aradu. U temelju njihove odlične saradnje je verovanje da obe religiozne zajednice treba da imaju predstavnike u institucijama zajednice. Jevrejske škole u Aradu predstavljale su pravi model škola za zajednice u Transilvaniji, kako zbog organizovanosti tako i zbog kurikuluma. Iako su postojali finansijski problemi u jevrejskoj zajednici, u to vreme, plate i penzije profesora se nisu smanjivale. Ovo je zbog velikog značaja koje se stavlje na obrazovanje u jevrejskoj zajednici. Na primer, u školskom godišnjaku objavljenom 1931–1932, Zajednica zapadnog obreda je pokrivala 85% troškova dok je ostatak pokrila Ortodoksna zajednica. Baron Adolf Nojman doprinosio je velikim svotama za obrazovanje mladih. Ovo jedinstvo je omogućilo stipendije, koje su pokrivale besplatne obroke za oko 60% učenika, kao i druge vidove pomoći kao što je odeća ili obuća (Almanahul Școlii evreiești din Arad / engl. Almanach of Jewish School of Arad, 1932). Posle 1918. sa aneksijom Transilvanije Rumuniji, pojavilo se pitanje jezika na kome će se odvijati predavanja. U to vreme još uvek nije bilo dovoljno profesora da predaju na rumunskom ili jevrejskom, kako su nove regulacije tvrdile. Stoga, „direktori škola i predstavnici Zajednice zapadnog obreda dogovorili su se da uvedu rumunski jezik od 1922. godine” (up. Istoria evreimii arădene, 47). Jevrejska osnovna škola je postala poznata pre svega zbog učitelja i nastavnika koji su tu predavali, i među kojima ćemo spomenuti: Lazarus Šrajnka (prvi direktor škole), Leo Ajtelec, Bak Ignajcijus, Lazar Kanicer, Karolina Fuksel, Rozalija Štajner, Vilhem Otenberg, Abraham Feferkorn, Albert Šajdner (Silađi), Leopold Grundvald, Armin Nojman i Vilhelm Šuc (Almanahul Școlii evreiești din Arad, 1932). U XX veku profesori su bili: Mor Ekštajn, Mor Lefkovič, Ileana Šrajber (uprava škole za devojčice), Frosman Deziderijus (direktor škole za dečake preko 10 godina do 1936. i predsednik Unije hebrejskih profesora u Transilvaniji i Banatu), Mor Kronovič (direktor škole za dečake 1936), ali, takođe, možemo spomenuti i sledeća imena: Irina Kornaj, Fani Vajs, Ana Foldes, Margaret Kaufman, Nikolae Luđer, Serena Santo, Luis Santaj, Heda Sološi, Danijel Sebok i mnogi drugi. Takođe, treba spomenuti i rabina Avrama Levenkopfa, bivšeg rabina zajednice u Oršavi, dobrog poznavaoca hebrejskog jezika, koji je počeo sa predavanjima u poslednjim godinama postojanja škole. Ubrzo nakon 1918. godine nekoliko gradova u Transilvaniji sa značajnijom jevrejskom populacijom, kao što su Temišvar, Veliki Varadin i Kluž sagrađene su škole, slična se inicijativa započela i u Aradu 1941. godina zbog određenih istorijskih uslova. Za samo par meseci (septembar 1940–1941), Atonesku period, određene mere su preuzete protiv jevrejske populacije u Rumuniji. Spomenućemo neke koje se odnose na obrazovanje. Samo mesec dana nakon što je sproveden numerus clauses, što je podrazumevalo da samo 6% jevrejske dece i mladih ljudi ima pristup državnom obrazovanju na svim nivoima, sprovedena je numerus nulus, što je podrazumevalo da se sva jevrejska deca odstrane iz obrazovnog sistema.


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3.2. Jevrejske srednje škole (1941–1945)

Godine 1941. jevrejska srednja škola je osnovana u Aradu, u teškim uslovima tokom Drugog svetskog rata, dok su druge zajednice u okolini (Temišvar, Veliki Varadin, Kluž) još od ranije imale takve institucije (Istoria evreimii arădene, 47). Pod teškim uslovima podrazumevamo izbacivanje jevrejskih učenika iz svih državnih škola, što je zahtevalo specijalne mere. U ovoj situaciji glavna briga jevrejske zajednice u Aradu je bila da obezbedi obrazovanje mladih. Stoga su neki od učenika učili hebrejski kod kuće sa profesorima iz državnih škola, među kojima ćemo spomenuti: Ana Tausk, Agneta Rab, Maksimilijan Rozenfeld, Berkovic Ivan, i onih iz ABC privatne škole, vođeni od strane profesora Zigismunda Kaca; na kraju školske godine svi su išli u Temišvar da polažu završne testove u jevrejskoj srednjoj školi. Omogućeno je nabavljanje opreme potpuno neophodne za otvaranje jevrejske srednje škole u Aradu zahvaljujući donaciji od milion leja, koju je načinio Dan Oskar, a za uspešno poslovanje posrednik je bio proizvođač Armin Štajn ( Az aradi zsidó Liceum alapitásának 50-ik évfordulójára, 1991). Škola je otvorena 21. novembra 1941. godine kao srednja škola za dečake u zgradi u Seminar ulici (v. sliku br. 4), a kasnije se pojavila i srednja škola za devojčice. Direktor srednje škole za dečake bio je glavni rabin Nikolae Šenfeld, a direktorka srednje škole za devojčice Eva Balkani. Zanimljivo je govoriti o predmetima i profesorima koji su predavali u ovoj školi a koje smo već spomenuli: dr Nikolae Šenfeld i Emil Kahan (hebrejski jezik, religija i istorija jevrejskog naroda), Sigismund Kac, koji je zatvorio privatnu školu ABC (latinski i filozofija), Eva Balkani (rumunski i francuski), Agneta Rab (francuski i engleski), Tiberiju Rosman (matematika), dr Lorant Dojč (prava), dr Ahiles Falticeneanu i dr Ladislav Haber (anatomija i higijena), Aleksandar Amigo (francuski i latinski), dr Ela Šloser (nemački i francuski), Vasile Kardos (francuski), Martin Naht, Idit Kardos i Malvika Mojse (rumunski), Heini Teler (matematika i fizika), dr. Joan Kalmar (prava), Naht Libertine Haimovič (prirodne nauke), Jakob Leb i Stefen Lob (prirodne nauke), Josef Teči (geografija i istorija), Viorika Cmuk (istorija), Euđen Ceisler i Gizela Lebovič (fizika i hemija), Emerič Stokl (hemija), Cecilia Merlaub i Joan Spic (crtanje), Stefan Šon (matematika), Ignatijus Goldziher i Tiberiju Epstein (muzičko), Rodika Novak (nemački i francuski), Florijan Egon (fizika), Berti Rothšild (matematika) (up. Istoria evreimii arădene, 106). Prva velika prepreka sa kojom se suočilo srednjoškolsko obrazovanje u Aradu je rekvizicija školske zgrade proleća 1942. godine, kada su iznajmili prvi sprat zgrade na bulevaru (današnje središte PNL – v. Dodatak, slika br. 5), gde će se preseliti i srednja škola za devojčice. Upravnici su bili Euđen Tausk, Aldar Lakutuš, dr Euđen Gaboš, dr Jozef Ujhelji, dr Joan Rado, Dan Oskar, dr Francis Dojč i Karlos Kabos. Takođe su imali podršku od strane rukovodilaca u nekoliko prestižnih srednjih škola u gradu, kao što su školski inspektor dr Nikolae Đurkesku i direktor Askaniu Krišan (Mojse Nikoara), Bukuresku Florika (Elena Giba Birta) i Vasile Suču (poslovna škola). Dobro funkcionisanje obrazovnog procesa je podrazumevalo dobar obrazovni proces i saglasnost sa državnim školskim kurikulumom, kome su doprineli profesori iz drugih škola u Aradu, kao što su Mihaj Paun, Joan Niču i Eduard Gavanesku; iako su bili deo škole ,,Mojse Nikoara” bili su aktivni i u jevrejskoj srednjoj školi. Završni ispit i diploma priznati su i sertifikovani od strane države posle 23. 8. 1944. god. (Istoria evreimii arădene,107). U školskoj godini 1944/45. godini dva suprotna trenda počela su da se manifestuju: jedan, podržan od strane pokreta cionizam, koji je želeo da se nastavi srednja škola, drugi, podržavan od strane članova Zapadnog obreda i upravnika, čije pristalice su smatrale da školske


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aktivnosti treba prekinuti zbog isuviše velikih troškova održavanja. Interesantno je spomenuti da su dnevne novine Patriotul (Patriotul) u svom broju iz 1. 11. 1944. objavili i poziv prvobitnog Odbora za održavanje škole i objavu da ne mogu da obezbede materijalna sredstva za ponovno otvaranje škole. Ove novine su 24. 9. 1944. unele podnaslov „Organ antifašističke borbe”. Vođa izdavačkog odbora bio je Patar Bela. Ovaj časopis je nastavio da izlazi do 1949. kada je promenio ime sa Patriot (Patriot) u Crveni plamen. Ovoga puta podnaslov je glasio „Organ državnog odbora rumunske radničke partije i privremene države i gradskog odbora” (Șimăndan, 2006). Kao kompromis, škola je nastavila da radi još godinu dana, drugim rečima do 1945, u ograničenom obliku, samo prva četiri odeljenja, dečaci i devojčice. Izabrao se novi odbor u kome su se nalazili dva člana Cioniztičkog trenda u Zajednici zapadnog obreda (dr Kalmar Joan i Dojč Francis) i dva vodeća člana ortodoksne zajednice (Ladislav Haber i Štefan Krauz). Škola se trajno zatvorila 1945. godine, pošto je Zajednica zapadnog obreda tvrdila nedostatak sredstava za rad škole (Istoria evreimii arădene, 107). Iako je bila kratkog veka, sećanje na jevrejsku školu u Aradu ostalo je čvrsto u kolektivnom sećanju zajednice u ovom gradu, pa se ljudi i dalje prisećaju na postojanje ove obrazovne institucije sa nostalgijom.

3.3. Jevrejsko religiozno obrazovanje u Aradu, Talmud Tora U Aradu je postojalo jevrejsko religijsko obrazovanje. Posle početka Prvog svetskog rata, nekoliko jevrejskih porodica iz Poljske doselile su se u Arad i postale deo Ortodoksne zajednice, koja je bila jedna od najprestižnijih zajednica u Transilvaniji. Ove porodice, među kojima su bile i Hasidijske, kao što su Stauber, Feldman, Ganc, Fiš, same su organizovale svoje minjane, sagradili su kuću molitve i radili ka tome da osnuju Tora Talmud, pošto su do tada imali samo melamede (privatne profesore). Melamedi Jozef Šapira ili Herman Labovic predavali su u svojim domovima (Istoria evreimii arădene, 86). Otvaranje Talmud Tore u četvrtoj dekadi XX veka od strane jevrejske zajednice značilo je povećanje kvaliteta ove vrste obrazovanja. U ovom slučaju melamedi su zaposleni profesori. Na ovakav način „Besplatno obrazovanje se obezbeđuje za studente bez dovoljno finansijskih sredstava. Prvi posleratni melamed koji je bio zaposlen je Fredman, izbeglica u Aradu... Prvi Gabai bio je Moše Kremer i njegov naslednik Zalomon Vurcel” (Istoria evreimii arădene, 86). Vremenom, Talmud Tora se povećala i dostigla je da ima pet odeljenja. Neki od najznačajnijih profesora u školi su bili: Šmajović, Fišer; Mencer, Štern; Štajner, Mozes; Šiber, Klajn; Vajnberger Haberfeld, Gotlib itd. Predstavnici zajednice su odlučili da pošalju profesora Jakoba Stajnera u London, pošto je govorio engleski, da prikuplja sredstva za zajednicu i da bi se završila izgradnja sinagoge. Ovaj se poduhvat završio sa ogromnim uspehom. U vezi sa Talmud Torom u Aradu postoji lepa priča o glavnom rabinu dr Moses Rosenu iz Rumunije, koja je ispričana u njegovom memoaru pod naslovom Gefahren, Versuchungen, Wunder. Inspirisana njegovim odlaskom u inspekciju ove vrste jevrejskog obrazovanja u zapadnom delu države septembra 1948, dva i po meseca nakon što je bio izabran za glavnog rabina. Kontekst je bio označen borbom glavnog rabina i Demokratskog jevrejskog odbora (DJC) komunističke orijentacije za jevrejsko religiozno obrazovanje; DJC su želeli ukidanje svih predavanja Talmud Tore. S obzirom na to da je ispovest Mosesa Rosena, s jedne strane, ilustrativna za period dolazećeg komunizma, a s druge strane, traume jevrejske zajednice posle Holokausta, sa svojim tragičnim i komičnim situacijama, u potpunosti ću je preneti, uprkos dužini:


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Konflikt se svakim danom sve više zaoštravao. Odlučio sam da dam ostavku i tako napravim gest javnog protesta i pomoći Talmud Tori. Otišao sam u Arad, sa jednim ciljem – da proverim kurseve Talmud Tore. U to vreme, pored Neologa (nekadašnjih Jevreja), koji su živeli u gradu u zapadnoj Rumuniji, bilo je hiljade hasidijskih rabina iz Satu Mare (danas ih nalazimo u Bnej Brak ili Mea Šearim). Još me nisu poznavali. Za njih ja sam „Crveni rabin”, koji je skoro izabran sa podrškom rumunske komunističke vlade. Stoga, bili su „spremni” za sui generis dobrodošlicu. Kada smo ušli u veliku salu u njoj je bilo oko dve stotine dece sa loknama kraj lica. Učitelji su nosili tradicionalne crne pliš šešire. Ješiva u svom najčistijem obliku. U sredini svega toga mahale su dve crvene zastave iznad kojih je visila... ogromna slika Staljina. Naravno, dekoracija sobe je bila čudna i smešna. Melamed je, međutim, ubrzo počeo... „ispitivanje” koje je zvučalo otprilike ovako (na jidiš jeziku): „Deco, ko je naš otac?” „Staljin, Staljin”, odgovorili su jednoglasno. „Deco, ko su naši prijatelji?”, nastavlja da ispituje učitelj. „Veliki Sovjetski Savez”, odmah se začuo zajednički odgovor. „I ko su naši neprijatelji?”, upitao je melamed. „Anglo-američki imperijalisti”, zvučno odgovoriše učenici. Sve je bilo u redu. Nisam se usuđivao da prekidam dečju igru velikog čoveka. Kada se predstava završila, želeo sam da počnem sa ispitivanjem, da vidim kako stvari stvarno stoje. Upitao sam, stoga, dete (uzrasta od 5, 6 godina) da li je već naučio ovonedeljno začelo i ime dotičnog začela. Zamolio sam ga da mi prevede prvi stih i počeo je to klasičnom metodom heider, u kome je svaka reč prevedena u hebrejski jidiš tekst „Ki Teitzei”. „Ako počneš”, počelo je dete, „da se boriš”, nastavilo, „protiv svojih neprijatelja...” Ovde sam ga prekinuo i upitao: „Ko su tvoji neprijatelji?” „Ale goim – svi inovernici”, odgovorilo je dete. Ovaj odgovor je ogromna tragedija; to je vreme u kome je dato. Samo tri godine nakon Holokausta, godine u kojima je ceo svet bio tih, bez ikakvog pokreta. Nadajmo se da će doći vreme kada ćemo moći da zaboravimo detetov tragičan odgovor” (Rosen, 1991, 134–135) – M. Rosen završava svoju priču o Talmud Tori u Aradu.

Iz priče možemo uvideti kakav je uticaj jevrejsko religiozno obrazovanje imalo u gradu kao što je Arad: broj dece koja su pohađala kurs – „200 dece sa loknama kraj lica”, mesto učenja u kome je toliki broj dece mogao da se smesti, znanje koje se steklo: 5/6-godišnjak je znao začelo za tu nedelju i mogao je da ga interpretira koristeći „klasični heider metod ”, o odgovarajućoj pripremi melameda, vešti u izučavanju spisa, ali takođe i o snalaženju u situacijama koje su zahtevale preživljavanje u totalitarnom režimu koji je tek uspostaljen. Postojanje Talmud Tore, odnosno tipa religijskog obrazovanja u komunističkoj n ateističkoj državi, koja potiskuje denominantne škole velikih hrišćanskih denominacija, uključujući i teološke akademije, kao ta u Aradu – čudo je. Ovo je odgovor Mosesa Rosena na pitanje kako je jevrejsko religiozno obrazovanje opstalo u Rumuniji tokom tih godina (Rosen, 133). Štaviše, postojanje jevrejskog religioznog obrazovanja omogućilo je religiozni opstanak Jevreja u Rumuniji, koji su kasnije formirali prve kibutc u novo oformiranoj državi Izrael, „desetine hiljade kopija Talmud Tore su stigle u Lod ne Beč” – navodi glavni rabin Moses Rosen (Rosen, 1991: 133). I ovo je u velikoj meri zahvaljujući njegovim naporima kako on sam iskazuje.

3.4. Ješiva u Aradu Postojali su zahtevi za visoko religijsko obrazovanje u Aradu. Na Kongresu jevrejskih viđi, koji je održan u Pešti od 14. 12. 1868 – 23. 2. 1869. godine, delegati aradske zajednice, Pol Valfiš i Ignac Dojč, podržani od strane rabina Pola Stainharta imali su dve cilja: stvaranje


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reprezentativnog tela koje može da održava jevrejske interese i osnivanje centralne škole za rabine. Bez potrebne opreme za sinagogu, reforma nije mogla da se sprovede. Međutim, Arad je otvorio ješivu u XX veku. O ovoj visokoškolskoj instituciji postoji malo podataka. Ali se zna da je u trećoj deceniji XX veka u Aradu radila ješiva u kratkom periodu, pod ortodoksnim rabinom Jokaim Šiberom, koja je bila u oku zajednice.

4. Zaključak U judaizmu ne možemo da zamislimo učenje, vaspitanje i obrazovanje odvojeno od potrebe da se izučavaju sveti tekstovi. Imajući u vidu ulogu koju ima znanje Tore kod Jevreja, prevazilazeći sferu instrukcije za znanje i njegovo prenošenje na sferu religioznosti, gnoseološki aspekt, aspekt učenja, zamenjen je soteriologijom, pošto čitanje svetih spisa znači otvaranje nebesa. Citiraćemo u ovom kontekstu reči Jovana Zlatoustog: ,,Tora je život za one koji je izučavaju; za onog koji prestane sa izučavanjem Tore podnosi svoj život”, kako navodi rabin Jakob (Mello, 1997: 107, 198). Sam jevrejski identitet je dobijen iz znanja Tore. Stoga su kao prirodna posledica: skoro potpuno nepostojanje nepismenosti u hebrejskim zajednicama; posebna pažnja koja se pridaje obrazovanju dece od veoma ranog doba (od tri godine); iskrena briga o formiranju biblioteka u svakom naselju; sakupljanje knjiga je osnovno zaduženje za jevrejsku zajednicu koja je osnovana u određenoj oblasti. Jevrejske zajednice ispoljavaju interesovanje za sve vidove obrazovanja, od zabavišta do visokoškolskog obrazovanja. Ovo je bilo teže u dijaspori, ali ne i nemoguće. Danas je u Izraelu, koji je nezavisan od 1948, obrazovati se još lakše, ali takođe i u državama sa značajnim jevrejskim zajednicama (Amerika – na primer). Tragedija prošlog veka za jevrejske zajednice rasejane čitavom Evropom bilo je da ostave separatistički stav i pokušaju da se stope sa društvom u kome žive. Međutim, odgovor je bio neočekivan: asimilacijom sa većinom, što je praćeno dužim ili kraćim periodima izdvajanja, završilo se masakrom nakon stupanja nacizma. Ovi trendovi društvene integracije uključivali su religiozne reforme koje su vodile do formiranja neolognih grupa, koji su sačinjavali većinu u Aradu, kao i obrazovni sistem, pokušavajući da usklade kurikulum sa specifičnim jevrejsko-rumunskim državnim obrazovanjem; reč je o integraciji jevrejske dece u standardno obrazovnje. Odgovor je bio, barem tokom vlasti legionara Antoneskua (septembar 1940 – januar 1941) numerus clausus, koji se kasnije pretvorio u numerus nulus. Naravno, Jevreji nisu morali da trpe takvo ophođenje sve vreme. Jevrejsko društvo u Aradu se podjednako brinulo o religioznom obrazovanju (ješiva) i o svetovnom obrazovanju (srednja škola), pogotovo pošto su značajni evropski rabini bili aktivni u određenom vremenskom periodu. Ovi se ciljevi su mogli da se ostvare samo kada je zajednica bila jaka, odnosno kada je ima više od par hiljada članova (tokom XIX i XX veka). Iako je jevrejsko obrazovanje u Aradu sada briga istoričara, saznanje o istoriji obrazovanja u Aradu stvara specifičnu društvenu sliku. I ne smemo zaboraviti da su Jevreji, sa toliko različitom kulturom, tradicijom i religijom, vekovima bili naše komšije.


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Bibliografija

• Almanahul. (1932). Școlii evreiești din Arad: Ediția Comunității evreiești din Arad. • Az aradi zsidó Liceum alapitásának 50-ik évfordulójára. (1991). Ed. Haifa. • Cohn-Sherbok, L. & D. (2000). Introducere în Iudaism, Trad. by Marcel Ghibernea. Bucharest:

Editura Hasefer. • Eisenberg, J. (1995). Iudaismul. Bucharest: Editura Humanitas. • Hayoun, Maurice-Ruben. (1999). O istorie intelectuală a iudaismului. Luminile de la Corba la

Berlin. 2, Trad. by Dumitru Hîncu. Bucharest: Editura Hasefer. • Hertz, J. H. (1947). The Ethics of the Fathers. London: Authorised Daily Prayer Book. • Istoria evreimii arădene. (1996). Tel Aviv: Editura Minimum. • Mehr, B. M. (2000). Evreii. Istorie. Valori. Bucharest: Editura Hasefer. • Mello, A. (1997). Detti di rabbini. Pirqé Avot con i commenti tradizionali. Milano: Fabbri Editori. • Miksa, Grünbaum. (1896). Az aradi israelita hiköség iskoláinak története, Arad. • Rosen, M. (1991). Primejdii, încercări, miracole, Ed. a II-a. Bucharest: Editura Hasefer. • Rosen, M. (1992). Eseuri biblice, Second Edition. Bucharest: Editura Hasefer. • Rotman, L. (1999). Școala israelito-română (1851–1914). Bucharest: Editura Hasefer. • Rotman, L. (2000). Tipologia învățământului evreiesc în a doua jumătate a secolului al XIX-lea şi la • începutul secolului al XX-lea, in Studia et Acta Historiae Iudaeorum Romaniae (SAHIR), Vol. V.

Bucharest: Editura Hasefer. • Șimăndan, E. (2006). Contribuții la istoria presei arădene comuniste şi la nominalizarea ziariştilor

şi colaboratorilor între anii 1944 –1989!, Arad: Editura Fundației „Ioan Slavici”. • Sirat, R.-S., Lemalet, M. (2003). Tandrețea lui Dumnezeu. Bucharest: Editura Hasefer. • Talmud Bavli, Tractatul Berahot, folio 6. • Wigoder, G. (2006). Enciclopedia Iudaismului, Trad. by Radu Lupu and George Weiner,

Bucharest: Editura Hasefer.

Dodatak

Štab zajednice i neologna sinagoga

Slika br. 1

Ortodoksna sinagoga

Slika br. 2


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Jevrejska osnovna škola

Slika br. 3

Prva lokacija jevrejske srednje škole

(ulica Seminarului)

Slika br. 4

Hebrejska srednja škola

(prvi sprat zgrade na bulevaru)

Slika br. 5

Biografska nota

Kajus Klaudijus Kucaru (Caius Claudius Cutaru) je rođen 1974. u Aradu (Rumunija). Po završetku Teološkog fakulteta na Univerzitetu u Aradu 1997. godine, pohađao je master studije na Pravoslavnom bogoslovskom fakultetu u Bukureštu (1997–1998), smer Doktrine i Kulture. Između 2000–2002. pohađao je postdiplomske studije na Fakultet katoličke teologije na Papskom univrezitetu „Santa Croce” u Rimu. Između 1999–2007. pohađao je doktorske studije iz filozofije na Fakultetu političkih nauka, filozofije i komunikacionih tehnologija na Zapadnom univerzitetu (Universitatea de Vest) u Temišvaru. Između 2007–2011. pohađao je doktorske studije na Pravoslavnom bogoslovskom fakultetu „Dumitru Stăniloae” na Univerzitetu „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” u Jaši, sa doktorskom tezom „Homo Religiosus in the vision of Mircea Eliade”. Objavio je nekoliko knjiga i veliki broj stručnih radova u polju filozofije, istorije religije i teologije, a takođe je učestvovao u nekoliko nacionalnih i internacionalnih naučnih seminara. Postao je đakon 2010. godine.

Cuţaru: RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR JEWISH EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN ARAD

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Arhid. Lect. Ph.D. Caius Cuţaru Faculty of Orthodox Theology of Arad Original scientific paper Romania UDK: 37.014.523

DOI: 10.17810/2015.03

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RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR JEWISH EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN ARAD

Abstract: In Judaism, the study is a religious duty, because the pious Jew's life is governed by the requirements of the Torah. Therefore, Judaism is a religion of the book, of the study of the Scriptures. This explains the organization of a Hebrew educational system at all levels, in all times and in all the places inhabited by Jews, as one of the major concerns of any community, illiteracy being almost unknown. The same happened in the Jewish community in Arad, one of the representative communities of Transylvania where, in time, there were various Jewish educational institutions, both religious and secular: elementary school, high school, Torah Talmud or yeshiva.

Keywords: Judaism, religious education, secular education, Talmud Torah, Yeshiva.

1. Studying the Scriptures as an expression of God's will The Hebrew people are a people for whom the study is and was a primary occupation, with religious and secular connotations. Without spirituality, without an effort to study and know the word of God, we can not talk about a Jewish identity. Therefore, “studying appears naturally as an essential condition for the survival of Judaism and the Jewish people and it has always been so” (Sirat, Lemalet, 2003, 29). Law revealed by God to Moses on Mount Sinai had to be known, taught and studied day and night and had to be celebrated in worship. Transmitting the Torah – the Talmudic sages say - it's like being at the foot of Mount Sinai again (Eisenberg, 1995, 127). Judaism is the religion in which worship and study go together, they even shared the same houses, because in many cases the synagogues were houses of study (bet midrash). If the first name of the synagogue is „Beit-Haknesset”,which means „the house of the community”, the second name is „Beit-Hamidrash”, that is „the house of study”, its main function being the place where Tora is read (Rosen, 1992, 5-6). In this regard, the Talmud states that 'the place where the teaching is, there should be the prayer, too” (Talmud Bavli, Tractatul Berahot, f. 6), imposing the conclusion that teaching is a priority to prayer, paving the way for prayer. From here we deduce the importance enjoyed by the study of the Scriptures in Judaism, and by sciences in general. The fact that only a very limited number of Jews did not know how to read and write, illiteracy rates being, therefore, very low at all times, is a significant fact. And the same Talmud stated that there was an inquiry from Dan (the northern tip of the Jews) and to Beersheba (southern extremity of the Jews) and they found that there is no child, boy or girl, over three years that can not read or explain the


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comments and the purity laws. Obviously, the children of three years could not write, but everyone was able to read, which is unique in a religious tradition in the world today. The conclusion that René-Samuel Sirat, former Chief Rabbi of France, stated was that ”we can say that the desire to eliminate illiteracy was established for the Jewish people over twenty eight centuries ago” (Sirat, Lemalet, 2003, 30). René-Samuel Sirat referred to king Ezechia who,in the 8th century B.C.,decided to answer to the power of the sword of the Senaherib, the superpower of that time, through the develpment and generalization of an education based on the Torah. The education of children is not a simple expression of family responsibilities, but one of the requirements of the Jewish law. In Deuteronomy, God shows that the transmission and acquisition of His Commandments by young people should stay permanently in the attention of parents: ”The words that I say to you today shall be in your heart and in your soul; you shall plant them in your sons and shall talk of them when you sit in your house, when you walk by the way, when you lie down and when you get up” (Deuteronomy 6: 6-7). There are other Old Testament prescriptions concerning the priority that the Jewish communities had in educating their children. The book of Proverbs states the importance of education as follows: ”Train a child in the way he should go; even when he is old he will not depart from it” (Proverbs 22: 6). And also Solomon shows that ”A wise son hears his father's teaching, and the mocking nor rebuke” (Proverbs 13: 1). Mishnah indicates the age that is favorable for the study: ”Five years is the age at which to study the Bible, ten years for the study of the Mishnah; at thirteen, the child is obliged to observe the commandments and fifteen years is the time to start studying the Talmud” (Cohn-Sherbok, 2000, 163). While initially, education was mainly religious, in time, they began to distinguish between secular and religious education. Thus, in the late seventeenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth century there is a shift in the mentality of the Jews of Europe, from the test of compliance with the modernist trends of the societies in which they lived. It is the opening period, the output from the self-imposed ghetto, the Jews modernizing of the social landscape (Rotman, 2000, 174). Not even the Jewish education could ignore these social realities that transformed the entire communities. It is the period in which traditional education is left by more and more young Jews for secular education systems; Jews learn to read and write in Gothic, giving up the Hebrew characters, in order to be able to draw the best acts of sale. On the other hand, parents send their children to work before accomplishing their Jewish education, fact which caused serious damages to the Talmudic studies. During this period it was lamented that the ”Offspring of the Jewish families (even the girls!) learned French, Italian and German, even dance, but could not find an hour for the learning of Mishnah and Gemariah. And he also added: (Eibeschutz notes) you can not pray without understanding what you read. And teaching children should not be entrusted to the incapable and to the incompetent...” (Hayoun, 1999, 14). In this context, in which the Jews of Europe try to integrate more and more in the societies in which they lived, the Romanian Hebrew education in general (Rotman, 1999), and that of Arad, in particular, may also be included.


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2. Jewish educational institutions

In this chapter we will refer to both contemporary educational institutions, as well as to the traditional ones, with a considerable attention to show how the education of a Jewish believer was and is achieved.

2.1. Primary and secondary education

Nowadays, children begin their Jewish religious education in primary schools, the curriculum including religious and secular knowledge. In such schools, starting at the age of seven, children learn Jewish language and the language of the country they are living in. Torah knowledge is a priority when the child starts the study of the sacred books, sweets being often placed between the pages of the book, to encourage the study of Torah and to see that its study is sweet and pleasant (Cohn-Sherbok, 2000, 163). From a very young age, whole passages from the Bible are studied and memorized, but the study also extends to an understanding of Jewish life. The focus is on the Jewish studies, although children (boys and girls) are trained in subjects of a secular nature (Cohn-Sherbok, 2000, 164). Even in the Jewish education one can notice the presence of secularization, in that, fewer children in the diaspora undergo the religious education, and the percentage of those who attend secular education system is steadily increasing. For these children, the synagogues organize a system of additional Jewish studies, or Sunday after classes, but it is often perceived as secondary, the emphasis being on the secular education. And even if some attend the Jewish education as a secondary system, most of them complete their study of Judaism at this age, coinciding with the celebration of bar or bar mitzva, agreeing on the knowledge of some precepts of the faith of their ancestors. This reality creates the premises of increasing secularization in the Jewish communities outside Israel. At the age of fourteen, Jewish children go from elementary to secondary educational system. There, students turn their attention to the study of Mishnah, Talmud and the ethics (Musar). Starting from the lowest possible period in the teachings of Judaism, aims to provide a thorough preparation for the child's life and subsequent completion of studies. This stage lacked in the girls’ education, at least until the early twentieth century, girls being instructed at home regarding the household problems and preparing for the foundation of a family (Cohn-Sherbok, 2000, 165). Nowadays, the US educational system has secondary schools where girls are admitted, such as the one called Beth Jacob, which provides Jewish and secular education for four years (between fourteen and eighteen), but the subjects that the girls study are different from those of the boys because the ultra-Orthodox Jews do not encourage the study of the Talmud by women.

2.2. Beth midrash ("house of study")

Beth midrash is a center of religious education which usually belongs to a synagogue or a synagogue complex. As an expression of the importance they attach to Judaism instruction and education of believers, Beth midrash was the main place of study of classic Talmudic texts and commentaries, sometimes being a place of prayer of those who attended it. Torah study is given a special attention in Judaism, so the place where the Torah is studied is considered even more sacred than the synagogue itself. It is therefore permitted the sale of a synagogue


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in order to purchase or build a bet midrash (Wigoder, 2006, 99-100). However, the place of study is inside the synagogue building, coinciding with it. Jewish tradition says that the first bet midrash served Shem, son of Noah, and his grandson Eber. The Midrash lists several biblical characters who established one bet midrash or studied in such a place (Wigoder, 2006, 100). In antiquity are mentioned several houses of study, among which may be mentioned the study house of Shammai and Avtalion, wisemen from the first century BC., and of Hillel, one of the wisest men of the nation. In the Middle Ages and in later periods there was one bet midrash in every city, being run by the community, where Talmud was studied by men. Even those who are not ready to become rabbis and worked elsewhere, found a daily moment before or after work, to come to study here. Nowadays, such places of Jewish education communities have ceased to exist, and only some synagogues have one bet midrash. Each yeshiva also has one bet midrash, that special place of study, and the men of the community attend it.

2.3. Yeshiva

Yeshiva (pl. yeshivot) is an academy dedicated to the study of the Talmud and sacred texts. Such academies existed in the Holy Land and in Babylon since the first century. BC. In the first century, following the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, Johanan ben Zakai founded an academy in Yavne, which soon became famous. In Babylon, since the third century academies were established at Sura and Pumbedita, which attracted many young people. In modern times (19th century), throughout Eastern Europe there were several academies, including the most popular, those of Telshe, Ponovezh, Slobodka, and the Hasidic ones at Liubavici and Lubin, all of which were destroyed by the Nazis. After the war new academies were created in Israel, the United States and Europe. Currently, these Talmudic academies have many students, as more Jewish families have the opportunity to send their children to school (Cohn-Sherbok, 2000, 170). In yeshivot the method is working in pairs of two students, who discuss the meaning of certain sacred texts in the Yiddish. Twice a week, the rector lectures on the portion of the Talmud which is then studied, and a teacher teaches Jewish morality (Musar). The duration of the study is four years, graduates are able to embrace a career as a rabbi, but many choose to follow secular professions.

3. Jewish Education in Arad

The first two Jewish families settled in Arad, in western Romania, in the early eighteenth century, precisely in 1717, after which their number grew constantly. Gradually, specific Jewish institutions appeared in the town on the Mureş river. The first institution of this kind was Chevra Kadisha (1729), which dealt not only with Jewish funeral and cemetery administration, but, if possible, ensured health care for the Jews of Arad. Interesting to note is that Chevra Kadisha preceded the community itself, i.e. the Jewish organization from Arad, its General Assembly representing the forum that took decisions for all members. Much later appeared the first circle of religious studies (1785) (The History of the Jewish People of Arad, 1996, 33). In the nineteenth century, there will appear the problem of building a synagogue, but just like in other cases, the school building prevailed, so that the school was built before the synagogue.


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In 1828, after lengthy delays, the foundation stone for the building of the synagogue was laid, and in 1834 its construction was completed, being declared as the property of the Austrian Emperor Francis (see Appendix, Photo 1). Nowadays, the building which houses the offices of the Jewish community of Arad also functions as a Neolog synagogue, the Orthodox synagogue are not being used by the community. (see Appendix, Photo 2). At that time, Chief Rabbi of Arad was famous Aaron Chorin (1766-1844), the reformer rabbi (Mehr, 2000, 31-32). Among the institutions that the Jews founded in Arad, in the second half of the nineteenth century and the first decades of the twentieth century, due to the donations of the wealthy, we can mention: the orphanage for girls, the house for orphan boys, the nursing home, the charity home, the popular canteen, the Jewish hospital, help associations and the elementary school. Regarding education, the first part of the twentieth century, especially in Bucharest, in the south of Moldova, Banat and Dobrogea there existed ”Israelite-Romanian” schools, primary and secondary schools, which taught religion classes 2-4 weekly, in Jewish, but not Jewish language and Jewish history concepts. The schools were of the assimilation type. In the Orthodox Hebrew environments in Transylvania, in Arad, Cluj, Satu-Mare, Baia Mare and Oradea, there were numerous yeshivot schools where thousands of young people have continued their education and continued to live a Jewish life between the two wars (Rosen, 1991, 128).

3.1. Elementary School

In Arad, the elementary school was established in 1832, the school building being on Piaţa Luptei, no. 2, being raised due to the donations of Juliana Dobler, the Baron Adolf Neumann and Jacob Hirschl (The History of the Jewish People of Arad, 47). Nowadays, the building belongs to School no. 2 (see Appendix, Photo 3). From 1835 there were two mixed classes of pupils, in 1854 the level of education was extended to seven years, and in 1855 they founded a school for girls, a model school for that time in Arad. To the same period dates the Jewish vocational school (1851) with 12 trades, converted in 1872 into a state school, with German as teaching language, with two classes of 35 students (Miksa, 1896, 4, 30). The school initially functioned with 12 teachers. The issue of school funding was covered 85% by the community of Western Rite, by the Baron Adolf Neumann or by the Orthodox community contribution, so only one third of the students had to pay tuition fees. In terms of teaching, the teachers were of value, and the education program constituted a model for other schools in Transylvania. After 1918, with the changes brought by the annexation of Transylvania to the mother country, the teaching language became Romanian. Even if the school activity in the twentieth century was under the leadership of the Western Rite community, the children from the Orthodox Hebrew families have not suffered because the two religious communities in Arad had a good collaboration. At the basis of their excellent collaboration was the assumption that the Community institutions equally included candidates from both religious communities. The Jewish schools of Arad represented a true model for the schools in the communities in Transylvania, both through their organization and the curricula they had. Even if there were financial problems in the Jewish community, given the unfavorable times, salaries and pensions of teachers have not suffered. This is due to the importance that the training of young people enjoyed in the Jewish community. For example, in the school almanac published


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in 1932, 100 years after its foundation, we find that in fiscal year 1931-1932, the community of Western Rite which was larger, covered 85% of the total, the rest being covered by the Orthodox community. Baron Adolf Neumann contributed with large amounts to the education of youth. This unity carried out around the school provided scholarships, and provided free meals for about 60% of pupils and other facilities in the form of clothing and footwear (Almanach of Jewish School of Arad, 1932). After 1918, with the annexation of Transylvania to the mother country, Romania, the question of the language of instruction arose. At that time there were still not enough teachers to teach in Romanian or in Jewish, as the new regulations claimed. Therefore, ”the curators of the school and the community leadership of Western Rite agreed on the introduction of the Romanian language from 1922” (The History of Jewish people of Arad, 47). Jewish elementary school gained fame due, mostly, to the teachers who taught here, among whom we can mention: Shreinka Lazarus (the first director of the school), Leo Jeitelesz, Back Ignatius Kanitzer Lazar, Fuchsel Carolina, Steiner Rozalia, Ottenberg Wilhelm, Pfefferkorn Abraham, Seidner (Szilagyi) Albert, Leopold Grünwald, Neumann Armin and Schütz Wilhelm (Almanach

of Jewish School of Arad, 1932). In the twentieth century the teachers were: Eckstein Mor Mor Lefkovitcs, Schreiber Ileana (the directory of the girls’school), Groszman Desiderius (headmaster of the boys’ school for over 10 years until 1936 and president of the Union of Hebrew Teachers of Transylvania and Banat), Kronowith Mor (headmaster of the boys’ school in 1936), but we can also mention the teachers: Irina Kornai, Weisz Fanny, Foldes Anna Margaret Kaufman, Luger Nicole Szántó Serena, Szántai Louis, Szöllősi Hedda, Sebok Daniel and many others. We must mention Rabbi Avram Löwenkopf, former rabbi of the community in Orşova, good scholar of Jewish and Jewish teaching that began his activity during the last years of the school. If soon after 1918 in several Transylvanian cities with significant Jewish population, such as: Timișoara, Oradea, Cluj Jewish schools were established, in Arad a similar initiative started in 1941, due to certain historical circumstances. In the few months (September 1940 - January 1941) the legionary Antonescu period several measures were taken against the Jewish population of Romania. Among them, we mention some aimed at education, only one month after the numerus clausus had been applied, which meant that only 6% of the Jewish children and young people had access to public education at all levels, numerus nulus was adopted which meant that all Jewish children were to be removed from the state education system.

3.2. The Jewish High School (1941-1945)

In 1941 a Jewish high school was founded in Arad, in the harsh conditions during the Second World War, while other communities nearby (Timișoara, Oradea, Cluj) have had such institutions for some time (History of Jewish people of Arad, 47). By harsh conditions we mean excluding Jewish students from all state schools, which required special measures. In this situation, the care of the Jewish community in Arad was to ensure the education of youth. Therefore, some of the students studied Hebrew at home with teachers from the former state school, among which we mention: Tauszk Ana, Raab Agneta, Rosenfeld Maximilian, Berkovitz Ivan, others in the ABC private school, led by Professor Katz Sigismund, and at the end of the school year, all went to Timisoara to give their exams in Jewish High School. The equipment absolutely necessary to establish The Jewish High School in Arad was made possible by the donation of one million lei, made by industrialist Dan Oszkar, the amount being received from


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the manufacturer Stein Ármin for the success of a transaction (Az aradi zsidó Liceum

alapitásának 50-ik évfordulójára, 1991). The school was opened on 21stNovember 1941 functioning as a high school for boys in the building on Seminar Street (See Appendix, Photo 4), and later appearing the high school for girls. The Director of the High School for Boys was Chief Rabbi Nicolae Schönfeld, and as director of high school for girls was elected Mrs. Eva Balkany. It is interesting to speak about the subjects and teachers who taught at this school, among whom we mention: dr. Nicholas Schönfeld and Emil Kahan (Hebrew language, religion and History of the Jewish people), Sigismund Katz, who closed the private school ABC (Latin and Philosophy), Eva Balkany (Romanian and French), Agneta Raab (French and English), Tiberiu Rosman (Mathematics), dr. Lorant Deutsch (Law), dr. Achilles Fălticeneanu and dr. Ladislaus Haber (Anatomy and hygiene), Alexander Amigo (French and Latin), dr. Ella Schlosser (German and French), Vasile Kardos (French), Martin Nacht, Edit Kardos and Moses Malva (Romanian), Heini Teller (Mathematics and Physics), dr. Joan Kalmár (Law), Nacht Libertine Haimovici (Natural Sciences), Jacob Léb and Stephen Löb (Natural Sciences), Joseph Téthi (Geography and History), Viorica Szmuk (History), Eugen Czeisler and Gisela Lebovics (Physics and Chemistry), Emerich Stökl (Chemistry) Cecilia Merlaub and Joan Spitz (Drawing), Ștefan Schön (Mathematics), Ignatius Goldziher and Tiberiu Epstein (Music), Rodica Novac (German, French), Florian Egon (Physics), Berti Rothschild (Mathematics) (History of Jewish people of

Arad, 106). A first difficult period that the Jewish high school education in Arad had to face was determined by the requisition of the school building in the spring of 1942, on which occasion they rented the first floor of a building on the boulevard (the present headquarters of PNL - see Appendix, Photo 5), where the high school for girls will function, too. The curators were Eugen Tauszk (chairman), Aladár Lakatos, dr. Eugene Gabos, dr. Joseph Újhelyi, Dr. Joan Rado, Dan Oszkar, dr. Francis Deutsch and Charles Kabos. They also had the support from the executives of several prestigious high schools in the city, such as school inspector dr. Giurchescu Nicholae and directors Ascaniu Crișan (Moise Nicoară) Bucurescu Florica (Elena Ghiba Birta) and Vasile Suciu (Business School). The smooth running of the educational process meant a quality educational process, and compliance with state school curriculum, which were contributed to by the teachers from other schools in Arad, such as Mihai Păun, Joan Niciu and Eduard Găvănescu, although they were part of the teachers of Moise Nioară of Arad, they were active in the Jewish High School. The end of year exams and the baccalaureate were recognized and certified by the state after August 23rd, 1944 (The History of Jewish people of Arad, 107). In the school year 1944-1945 there began to manifest two opposite trends; one supported by the Zionist movement, which wanted the continuation of high school and another of the community members of the Western Rite and the curator, who felt that, because of the high costs, the school activity should cease. Interesting to note is that the daily newspaper, Patriotul in its issue of 1stNovember 1944 published both the calling of the initiative committee for school maintenance and the notice announcing that they could not provide the material basis for reopening the school. The newspaper appears on the 24th September 1944, with a subtitle”Organ of Antifascist Fight”. It had an editorial board lead by Petre Bele. It continued to appear till 2nd August 1949, when it changed its name, from ”The Patriot” to ”The Red


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Flame”. The newspaper had a subtitle”Organ of the County Committee of the Romanian Labour Party and of the Temporary County and City Committee” In a compromise, the school remained another year, i.e. until 1945, in a more restricted form, only the first four classes, both girls and boys. There was elected a new curator board that included two members of the Zionist trend in the community of Western Rite (dr. Kalmár Joan and dr. Deutsch Francis) and two members of the Orthodox community leadership (Ladislaus Haber and Stephen Krausz). In 1945 the high school closed its doors permanently, the Community of Western Rite claiming lack of funds to ensure adequate materials (The History of Jewish people of Arad, 107). Even if it had a short life, the memory of the Jewish school in Arad marked the collective memory of the community in this city so far, people still remembering with nostalgia the existence of this educational institution.

3.3. The Jewish religious education in Arad, Talmud Torah

Jewish religious education existed in Arad. After the outbreak of the First World War, several Jewish Polish families settled in Arad, and became part of the Orthodox community here, which was one of the most prestigious communities in Transylvania. These families, including some Hasidic ones, such as Stauber, Feldmann, Ganz, Fisch families organized their own minyan, and they built a house of prayer and worked to establish a Torah Talmud, because until then, they had only melameds (private teachers). The melameds Joseph Schapira or Hermann Lebovitz taught alef-Beith in their own homes (The History of Jewish people of Arad, 86). Setting up a Talmud Torah in the fourth decade of the twentieth century, under the authority of the Jewish community meant the increase of the quality of this form of education, the melameds being, in this case, the employees. In this way ” free tuition could be ensured for students without financial means. The first postwar melamed employee was Rabbi Friedmann a refugee in Arad... The first Gabbai was Moshe Kremer and his successor Salomon Wurzel” (The History of Jewish people of Arad, 86). In time, Talmud Torah increased and reached to form five classes. Among the prominent teachers of this school we would name: Schmajovits, Fischer, Menczer, Stern, Steiner, Mozes, Schieber, Klein, Weinberger, Haberfeld, Gottlieb etc. The community leadership decided to send Professor Jakob Steiner to London, as he was an English speaker, to collect funds to financially help the community and to facilitate the completion of the building of the synagogue, action that ended in a tremendous success. Related to the Talmud Torah from Arad there is a beautiful story of Chief Rabbi Dr. Moses Rosen of Romania, described in his book of memories entitled Dangers, Trials, Miracles, inspired when he was sent to inspect this form of Jewish education in the West of the country, September 1948, two and a half months after his election as Chief Rabbi. The context was marked by the struggle of the Chief Rabbi and the Democratic Jewish Committee (DJC's) of Communist orientation for Jewish religious education, DJC wanting the abolition of all classes of Talmud Torah. Because Moses Rosen's confession is an illustrative one for the period of the coming of communism on the one hand and the post-Holocaust trauma of the Jewish community, on the other hand, with its tragic and comic situations, I will allow to render it entirely, despite its length. «The conflict became more acute every day. I decided to resign and at the same time, to make a gesture to mean a public demonstration for the help of the Talmud Torah: I went to Arad, with the sole purpose, to inspect the Talmud-Torah courses. At that time, apart from the Neologs (the reformed Jews), who lived in this city in the western


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Romania, there were thousands Hasidim Rabbi from Satu-Mare (today we meet them at Bnei Brak or Mea Shearim). They still did not know me. To them I was the ”Red Rabbi”, who was recently elected with the support of the Romanian Communist government. Therefore, they were ”prepared” for a sui generis welcome. When we entered the great hall, there were about 200 children with side curls. The teachers were wearing the traditional black velvet hats. A Yeshiva in the purest sense. In the midst of it, two red flags were waving, over which hung a... huge Stalin. Of course... the decoration of the room was strange and funny. The melamed, however, soon began... the "examination" which sounded something like this (in Yiddish): ”Children, who is our father?” ”Stalin, Stalin,” replied the chorus, ”Children, who are our friends?” - continues the teacher to ask. ”The Great Soviet Union” - came immediately, a collective response. ”And who were our enemies?” - Asked the melamed. ”Anglo-American imperialists” – sound the students. Everything was fine. I did not dare to interrupt this childish game of big men. When the performance ended, I wanted to start an examination, to see how they are in reality. I asked, therefore, a child of 5-6 years if he had already learned a pericope of the week, telling me its name. I invited him to translate my first verses and he began after the classical method of Heider, in which each word was translated into Hebrew Yiddish text. ”Ki Teitzei” ”if you start” the child began ”to fight” continuing ”against your enemies”. Here I interrupted him and asked him: ”Who are your enemies?” ”Ale goim - all Gentiles” replied the child. This response is a terrible tragedy; it is the time in which it was given. It was only three years after the Holocaust, years in which the whole world was silent, without moving a finger. Let's hope the time will come when we can forget the child’s tragic response» (Rosen, 1991, 134-135) - M. Rosen ends his story from the Talmud Torah experience in Arad. From this story we realize the influence that the Jewish religious education had in a city like Arad: the number of children attending courses - ”200 children with side curls”; the study place that could accommodate all these children; the knowledge acquired: a 5-6 year old child knew the Scripture pericope of the week and could interpret it using the ”classic method of Heider”; about the proper preparation of the Melamed, skillful in the study of the scriptures, but also in coping with situations that involved survival in a totalitarian regime that had just set up. The existence of the Talmud Torah, i.e. a type of religious education in a communist atheist state, which suppressed the denominational schools of the large Christian denominations, including the theological academies, as that of Arad, is a miracle. This is the answer that Moses Rosen gives to the question how a Jewish religious education could have survived in Romania during those years (Rosen, 1991, 133). Moreover the existence of the Jewish religious education ensured the religious survival of the Jews in Romania, who, later, founded the first kibbutz sites of the newly founded state of Israel, ”tens of thousands of copies of the Talmud-Torah arriving in Lod not in Vienna” - notes Chief Rabbi Moses Rosen (Rosen, 1991, 133). And this is largely due to his efforts, as he himself confesses.

3.4. Yeshiva in Arad

There have been requests for a higher religious education in Arad. At the Congress of the Jewish leaders held in Pest between 14th December 1868 and 23rd February 1869 the delegates of the Arad community, Paul Walfish and Ignatz Deutsch, supported by Rabbi Paul Steinhardt had two aspects: the creation of a representative body able to sustain the Jewish interests and the founding of a central rabbinic school. Without the necessary equipment for the synagogue institutes, the reform could not be achieved.


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However, Arad created a yeshiva in the twentieth century. About this higher form of religious education there is little data. It is known, however, that in the third decade of the twentieth century a yeshiva in Arad functioned for a short period, under the Orthodox Rabbi Joachim Schreiber, enjoying great attention from the community.

4. Conclusions

In Judaism we can not conceive the teaching, the instruction and the education separately from the need to study the sacred text, given the role the Torah knowledge has for the Jewish, thus surpassing the instructions for the sake of knowledge and passing into the sphere of religiosity, the gnosiological aspect of the study being replaced by the soteriological one, because the reading of the Scriptures means the opening of heavens - if we were to quote, in this context, the words of St. John Chrysostom. Torah is life for those who study it and he who stops the study of Torah endangers his life - Rabbi Jacob says (Mello, 1997, 107, 198). The very Jewish identity is given by the knowledge of the Torah itself. Hence the natural consequence, the lack almost entirely of illiteracy among the Hebrew communities, the special care for the education of children from infancy, from the age of three years, the genuine concern for the formation of libraries in each settlement, the acquisition of books representing a principal duty for a Jewish community established in a particular place. The Jewish communities manifest the preoccupation for all forms of education, from primary up to higher education. This was more difficult in diaspora, but not impossible, it is even easier today in Israel, independent since 1948, but also in countries with significant Jewish communities (USA - for example). The tragedy of the last century of the Jewish communities scattered throughout Europe was to leave the secluding attitude and try to integrate in the societies where they lived. Even if the answer was not an expected one, by assimilation with the majority, followed by longer or shorter periods of purging, completed by the massacres that followed the rise of Nazism. These trends of social integration subsumes both religious reforms which led to Neolog group, majority in Arad and the education system, trying to put the curriculum in line with the specific Jewish Romanian public education or even more, Jewish youth integration in mainstream education. The answer was, at least during the Legionary Antonescu (September 1940-January 1941) numerus clausus then transformed into numerus nulus. Of course, the Jews didn’t have to suffer similar treatment, all the time. The Jewish Community of Arad had the same concerns for the religious education (yeshiva) and the secular education (the high school), especially because, renowned European rabbis were active at a certain period of time. This goal could only materialize when the community was strong, numbering several thousand members (during the 19th and 20th centuries). Even if the Jewish education in Arad remained only a concern for the historians, the recovery of the historical past of Arad education presents a specific community image. And, we must not forget that the Jew, so different in culture, traditions and religiosity, was for centuries our neighbour.


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Almanahul. (1932). Școlii evreiești din Arad: Ediţia Comunităţii evreiești din Arad. Az aradi zsidó Liceum alapitásának 50-ik évfordulójára. (1991). Ed. Haifa. Cohn-Sherbok, L. and D. (2000). Introducere în Iudaism, Trad. by Marcel Ghibernea. Bucharest: Editura

Hasefer. Eisenberg, J. (1995). Iudaismul. Bucharest: Editura Humanitas. Hayoun, Maurice-Ruben. (1999). O istorie intelectuală a iudaismului. Luminile de la Corba la Berlin. 2, Trad.

by Dumitru Hîncu. Bucharest: Editura Hasefer. Hertz, J. H. (1947). The Ethics of the Fathers. London: Authorised Daily Prayer Book. Istoria evreimii arădene. (1996). Tel Aviv: Editura Minimum. Mehr, B. M. (2000). Evreii. Istorie. Valori. Bucharest: Editura Hasefer. Mello, A. (1997). Detti di rabbini. Pirqé Avot con i commenti tradizionali. Milano: Fabbri Editori. Miksa, Grünbaum. (1896). Az aradi israelita hiköség iskoláinak története, Arad. Rosen, M. (1991). Primejdii, încercări, miracole, Ed. a II-a. Bucharest: Editura Hasefer. Rosen, M. (1992). Eseuri biblice, Second Edition. Bucharest: Editura Hasefer. Rotman, L. (1999). Școala israelito-română (1851–1914). Bucharest: Editura Hasefer. Rotman, L. (2000). Tipologia învăţământului evreiesc în a doua jumătate a secolului al XIX-lea şi la

începutul secolului al XX-lea, in Studia et Acta Historiae Iudaeorum Romaniae (SAHIR), Vol. V. Bucharest: Editura Hasefer.

Sirat, R.-S., Lemalet, M. (2003). Tandreţea lui Dumnezeu. Bucharest: Editura Hasefer. Șimăndan, E. (2006). Contribuţii la istoria presei arădene comuniste şi la nominalizarea ziariştilor şi

colaboratorilor între anii 1944 –1989!, Arad: Editura Fundaţiei „Ioan Slavici”. Talmud Bavli, Tractatul Berahot, folio 6. Wigoder, G. (2006). Enciclopedia Iudaismului, Trad. by Radu Lupu and George Weiner, Bucharest: Editura

Hasefer.

Appendix

The Community Headquarters and the

Neolog synagogue

Photo 1

The Orthodox Synagogue

Photo 2


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The Elementary Jewish School

Photo 3

The first location of the Jewish High School,

Str. Seminarului

Photo 4

The first floor -The Hebrew High School, the

building on the boulevard

Photo 5

Biographical note

Caius Claudius Cuțaru was born in 1974 in Arad, Romania. After graduating The Theological Faculty of Arad University in 1997, attended master degree courses at the Faculty of Orthodox Theology of Bucharest University, 1997-1998, section ”Doctrine and Culture”. Between 2000-2002 attended post university studies at the Faculty of Catholic Theology of the Pontifical University ”Santa Croce” in Rome. Between 1999-2007 attended courses for a doctor's degree in philosophy at The Faculty of Political Sciences, Philosophy and Communication Sciences of the Timișoara West University. Between 2007-2011 attended courses for a doctor's degree at The Faculty of Orthodox Theology ”Dumitru Stăniloae” of the ”Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, in Iași, with the thesis ”Homo Religiosus in the vision of Mircea Eliade”. He published several books and many professional papers in the field of philosophy, history of religions and theology, and took part in several national and international scientific meetings. In 2010 he was ordained deacon.

Documents

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