Pegem Akademi İNGİLİZCE ingilizce k… · Pegem Akademi Yay. Eğt. Dan. Hizm. Tic. Ltd. Şti.ne aittir. Anılan kuruluşun izni alınmadan kitabın tümü ya da bölümleri, kapak

KPSS2016ÖABT

İNGİLİZCEAlan BilgisiAlan Eğitimi

29.Eğitimde

yıl

Pegem AkademiSınav Komisyonu;

2015 KPSS’yePegem Yayınları

ile hazırlanan adayların,40'ın üzerinde soruyu

kolaylıklaçözebildiğini

açıkladı.

Komisyon

ÖABT İngilizce Öğretmenliği Konu Anlatımlı

ISBN 978-605-318-173-6

Kitapta yer alan bölümlerin tüm sorumluluğu yazarlarına aittir.

© Pegem AkademiBu kitabın basım, yayın ve satış hakları

Pegem Akademi Yay. Eğt. Dan. Hizm. Tic. Ltd. Şti.ne aittir.Anılan kuruluşun izni alınmadan kitabın tümü ya da bölümleri,kapak tasarımı; mekanik, elektronik, fotokopi, manyetik, kayıtya da başka yöntemlerle çoğaltılamaz, basılamaz, dağıtılamaz.

Bu kitap T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı bandrolü ile satılmaktadır.Okuyucularımızın bandrolü olmayan kitaplar hakkında

yayınevimize bilgi vermesini ve bandrolsüz yayınlarısatın almamasını diliyoruz.

5. Baskı: 2015, Ankara

Proje-Yayın Yönetmeni: Şafak TangıçDizgi-Grafik Tasarım: Selda Tunç

Kapak Tasarımı: Gürsel Avcı

Baskı: Vadi Grup Ciltevi A.Ş.İvedik Organize Sanayi 28. Cadde 2284 Sokak No:105

Yenimahalle/ANKARA(0312 394 55 91)

Yayıncı Sertifika No: 14749Matbaa Sertifika No: 26687

İletişim

Karanfil 2 Sokak No: 45 Kızılay / ANKARAYayınevi: 0312 430 67 50 - 430 67 51

Yayınevi Belgeç: 0312 435 44 60Dağıtım: 0312 434 54 24 - 434 54 08

Dağıtım Belgeç: 0312 431 37 38Hazırlık Kursları: 0312 419 05 60

İnternet: www.pegem.netE-ileti: [email protected]

ÖN SÖZ

Sevgili Öğretmen Adayları,

Bu kitap, Kamu Personeli Seçme Sınavı (KPSS) İngilizce Öğretmenliği Alan Bilgisi Testi (ÖABT-İngilizce) kapsamındaki soruları çözmek için gerekli bilgi, beceri ve teknikleri edinmeniz ve geliştirmeniz sürecinde siz değerli öğretmen adaylarımıza kılavuzluk etmek için hazırlanmıştır.

Kitabın hazırlanış sürecinde, sınav kapsamındaki temel alanlarda kapsamlı alanyazın taraması yapılmış, bu kitabın gerek İÖABT’de gerekse gelecekteki meslek hayatınızda ihtiyacınızı maksimum derecede karşılayacak bir başucu kitabı niteliğinde olması hedeflenmiştir.

Detaylı, güncel ve anlaşılır bir dilde yazılan konu anlatımları, çıkmış sorular ve detaylı açıklamalarıyla desteklenmiş, her ünite içeriği ÖSYM formatına uygun, özgün soru ve detaylı çözümlü cevap anahtarıyla pekiştirilmiştir. Ayrıca konu anlatımlarında verilen çözüm tekniklerine ek olarak uyarı kutucuklarında önemli konuların altı çizilmiş ve alandaki önemli terminolojik bilgiler bölüm sonlarında verilmiştir.

Bu kitabın hazırlanmasında yardım, destek ve katkılarını esirgemeyen Sevgi ŞAHİN, Funda DÖRTKULAK, Hilal BOZOĞLAN, Emre YAĞLI, Meriç Tutku ÖZMEN, Sibel YÜCEL ve Numan SERÇE'ye teşekkürlerimizi sunarız.

Yoğun bir araştırma ve çalışma süreci ile hazırlanmış olan bu kitapla ilgili görüşlerinizi ve önerilerinizi bizimle [email protected] aracılığı ile paylaşabilirsiniz.

Geleceğimizi güvenle emanet ettiğimiz siz değerli öğretmenlerimizin hizmet öncesi ve hizmet içi eğitimlerinde katkıda bulunabilmek ümidiyle...

Başarılar.

Komisyon

KPSS İÖABT İLE İLGİLİ ÖNEMLİ BİLGİLER

KPSS-İÖABT, 50 sorudan oluşmakta ve İngilizce Öğretmen Adaylarının Alan Eğitimi Bilgisi, Dilbilim, Edebiyat ve Dil Yeterliği alanlarındaki bilgi ve becerilerini ölçmeyi hedeflemektedir.

Öğretmenlik Alan Bilgisi Testinde çıkan sorular, İngilizce Öğretmenlik Lisans Programlarında verilen akademik disiplinlere paralel olarak hazırlanmaktadır. Sınavdaki Alan-Soru dağılımı aşağıdaki tabloda belirtilmiştir.

Yüzde Soru Sayısı

Dil Yeterliği %50 25

Alan Eğitimi Bilgisi (Metodoloji)

%20 10

Dil Bilim %16 8

Edebiyat %14 7

Genel Kültür, Genel Yetenek ve Eğitim Bilimleri Sınavlarınıza ek olarak gireceğiniz Öğretmenlik Alan Bilgisi Testi ile ilgili verilen bu bilgiler 2013-2014-2015 KPSS-İÖABT sınavları çerçevesinde hazırlanmıştır. Sınav içeriğinde yapılabilecek olası değişiklikleri ÖSYM'nin web sitesinden takip edebilirsiniz.

CONTENT PAGE

SECTION I

METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER 1

PART 1

APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING ...........................................................3

1. Linguistic Views ....................................................................................................................................................3

2. Theories Of Learning ............................................................................................................................................4

3. Definitions Of Terminologies .................................................................................................................................6

A. Before The Methods Era ..........................................................................................................................................7

1. The Grammar Translation Method ......................................................................................................................7

2. Reform Movement ................................................................................................................................................9

3. Direct Method .....................................................................................................................................................10

4. The Oral Approach And Situational Language Teaching ...................................................................................12

B. The Methods Era ....................................................................................................................................................13

5. Audio-Lingual Method.........................................................................................................................................13

6. Silent Way ..........................................................................................................................................................15

7. Suggestopedia....................................................................................................................................................18

8. Community Language Learning ........................................................................................................................20

9. Total Physical Response ...................................................................................................................................23

10. Whole Language Approach ..............................................................................................................................25

11. Multiple Intelligences ........................................................................................................................................26

12. Neuro-Linguistic Programming (Nlp) ................................................................................................................29

13. Lexical Approach ..............................................................................................................................................30

14. Competency-Based Language Teaching .........................................................................................................31

C. Current Communicative Approaches ..................................................................................................................32

15. Communicative Language Teaching ................................................................................................................32

16. Natural Approach .............................................................................................................................................35

17. Cooperative Language Learning ......................................................................................................................37

18. Task-Based Language Teaching ......................................................................................................................39

19. Content-Based Instruction ................................................................................................................................40

20. Participatory Approach .....................................................................................................................................41

PART 2

POST-METHOD ERA ...................................................................................................................................................42

A. Eclectic Approach/Eclecticism .............................................................................................................................43

B. Post-Method Pedagogy .........................................................................................................................................43

vi

PART 3

COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK ......................................................................................................................44

A. Understanding And Using The Global Scale .......................................................................................................44

B. The European Language Portfolio ......................................................................................................................46

PART 4

TECHNOLOGY IN ELT ................................................................................................................................................47

1. Computer-Assisted Learning (CALL)..................................................................................................................47

2. What’s Web 2.0? ................................................................................................................................................49

Subject Test 1 .............................................................................................................................................................51

Çözümlü Cevap Anahtarı ...........................................................................................................................................55

CHAPTER 2

PART 1

TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS ...............................................................................................................................57

1. Teaching Listening ..............................................................................................................................................57

2. Teaching Speaking .............................................................................................................................................60

3. Teaching Pronunciation ......................................................................................................................................63

4. Teaching Reading ...............................................................................................................................................64

5. Teaching Writing .................................................................................................................................................66

6. Teaching Vocabulary ..........................................................................................................................................68

7. Teaching Grammar .............................................................................................................................................70

PART 2

FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE LEARNING .....................................................................................................72

A. Linguistic Factors ..................................................................................................................................................72

Cross-Linguistic Influence and Learner Language .................................................................................................72

B. Individual Factors ..................................................................................................................................................78

1. Age .....................................................................................................................................................................78

2. Motivation ..........................................................................................................................................................78

3. Intelligence and Aptitude ....................................................................................................................................79

4. Characteristics Of Learners/Learning Styles ......................................................................................................80

5. Learning Strategies ............................................................................................................................................82

C. Sociocultural Factors ............................................................................................................................................82

1. Culture ................................................................................................................................................................83

2. Acculturation .......................................................................................................................................................83

3. Intercultural Competence ...................................................................................................................................83

4. English As A Lingua Franca ...............................................................................................................................83

5. World Englishes ..................................................................................................................................................83

Subject Test 2 .............................................................................................................................................................85

Çözümlü Cevap Anahtarı ...........................................................................................................................................89

vii

CHAPTER 3

PART 1

TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNG LEARNERS .........................................................................................................93

1. Who Are Young Learners? .................................................................................................................................93

2. Child as a Language Learner .............................................................................................................................94

3. Major Theories of Language and Cognitive Development .................................................................................94

4. Teaching Language Skills to Young Learners ....................................................................................................97

5. Teaching Speaking to Young Learners ...............................................................................................................97

6. Teaching Literacy Skills (Reading & Writing) To Young Learners .......................................................................98

7. Teaching Vocabulary to Young Learners ............................................................................................................99

8. Teaching Grammar to Young Learners ...............................................................................................................99

9. Types of Syllabuses..........................................................................................................................................100

10. General Principles of Foreign Language Pedagogy For Young Learners ......................................................100

PART 2

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................................................101

1. What is Classrom Management .......................................................................................................................101

2. Classroom Management Areas ........................................................................................................................101

3. Key Factors in Language Classroom Management .........................................................................................102

4. Preventing Disruptions in the Class..................................................................................................................104

5. Classroom Management Strategies .................................................................................................................104

Subject Test 3 ...........................................................................................................................................................105

Çözümlü Cevap Anahtarı .........................................................................................................................................109

CHAPTER 4

PART 1

MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT .................................................................................................................................. 111

1. Definitions of Key Terminologies: Curriculum and Syllabus ............................................................................. 111

2. Approaches to Syllabus Design........................................................................................................................ 111

3. Shapes of Syllabus Design............................................................................................................................... 113

4. Materials and Material Types............................................................................................................................ 114

5. Principles for Materials Development ............................................................................................................... 114

6. Steps in Materials Development ....................................................................................................................... 115

PART 2

MATERIALS ADAPTATION .......................................................................................................................................116

1. Why Do We Need to Adapt Materials? ............................................................................................................. 116

2. Objectives Of Adaptation .................................................................................................................................. 116

3. Adaptation Techniques ..................................................................................................................................... 117

viii

PART 3

MATERIALS EVALUATION .......................................................................................................................................119

1. What is Evaluation? .......................................................................................................................................... 119

2. Why Do We Evaluate Materials? ...................................................................................................................... 119

3. Approaches to Materials Evaluation ................................................................................................................. 119

PART 4

TESTING IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING .....................................................................................................120

1. What is a Test? .................................................................................................................................................120

2. Definitions: The Differences Between Testing, Assessment and Evaluation ....................................................120

3. Why Do We Test? .............................................................................................................................................120

4. Ways of Assessment ........................................................................................................................................120

5. Test Types ........................................................................................................................................................121

6. Criteria For a Good Test ...................................................................................................................................122

7. Types of Test Items...........................................................................................................................................123

8. Testing Language Skills And Language Areas ................................................................................................124

9. Historical Trends in Language Testing .............................................................................................................125

Subject Test 4 ...........................................................................................................................................................126


Appendix Elt Glossory ................................................................................................................................................................133

Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................................149

ix

SECTION 2LINGUISTICS

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS ..........................................................................................................................157

PART 1

WHAT IS LANGUAGE? .............................................................................................................................................157

The Definition of Language ..................................................................................................................................157

PART 2

WHAT IS LINGUISTICS? ...........................................................................................................................................163

1. Definition of Linguistics .....................................................................................................................................163

2. Definition of Grammar ......................................................................................................................................163

3. Branches of Linguistics.....................................................................................................................................163

PART 3

LANGUAGE IN HUMAN BRAIN ................................................................................................................................165

1. Physiology of Human Brain ..............................................................................................................................165

2. Modularity of Human Brain ...............................................................................................................................165

3. The Autonomy of Language .............................................................................................................................167

4. Plasticity of Human Brain .................................................................................................................................167

5. The Critical Age Hypothesis .............................................................................................................................167

Subject Test 1 ...........................................................................................................................................................168


CHAPTER 2

MORPHOLOGY & PHONOLOGY .............................................................................................................................175

PART 1

MORPHOLOGY .........................................................................................................................................................175

1. What is Morphology? ........................................................................................................................................175

2. Morphemes: The Smallest Meaningful Units ....................................................................................................175

3. Inflectional Morphology.....................................................................................................................................179

4. Morphological Analysis .....................................................................................................................................180

5. Word Formation Processes ..............................................................................................................................180

PART 2

PHONETICS ...............................................................................................................................................................182

1. Branches of Phonetics......................................................................................................................................182

2. Articulatory Phonetics .......................................................................................................................................182

3. AspIrated vs. Unaspirated Sounds ...................................................................................................................185

x

PART 3

PHONOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................................185

1. What is Phonology?..........................................................................................................................................185

2. What is Phoneme? ...........................................................................................................................................185

3. Phonotactics .....................................................................................................................................................187

4. Phonological Rules ...........................................................................................................................................188

Subject Test 2 ...........................................................................................................................................................189


CHAPTER 3

SYNTAX & SEMANTICS ...........................................................................................................................................195

PART 1

SYNTAX .....................................................................................................................................................................195

1. What is Syntax?................................................................................................................................................195

2. What is Grammaticality?...................................................................................................................................195

PART 2

SEMANTICS ..............................................................................................................................................................200

WHAT IS SEMANTICS? ............................................................................................................................................200

1. Branches of Semantics.....................................................................................................................................200

2. The Truth Condition ..........................................................................................................................................200

3. Ambiguity ..........................................................................................................................................................201

4. Principle of Compositionality ............................................................................................................................202

5. Anomaly............................................................................................................................................................202

6. Semantic Features ...........................................................................................................................................203

7. Argument Structure ..........................................................................................................................................203

8. Lexical Relations ..............................................................................................................................................204

Subject Test 3 ...........................................................................................................................................................206


CHAPTER 4

PRAGMATICS, DISCOURSE & SOCIOLINGUISTICS .............................................................................................213

PART 1

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ...........................................................................................................................................213

1. What is Discourse Analysis? ............................................................................................................................213

2. Components of Discourse ................................................................................................................................213

3. Conversation Analysis ......................................................................................................................................216

xi

PART 2

PRAGMATICS ............................................................................................................................................................217

1. What Is Pragmatics? ........................................................................................................................................217

2. Speech Act Theory ...........................................................................................................................................217

3. The Cooperative Principle ................................................................................................................................218

4. Politeness Theory .............................................................................................................................................219

PART 3

SOCIOLINGUISTICS .................................................................................................................................................220

1. What Is Sociolinguistics? ..................................................................................................................................220

Subject Test 4 ...........................................................................................................................................................224


CHAPTER 5

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ......................................................................................................................................231

PART 1

FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ...........................................................................................................................231

1. How do Children Acquire Language? ...............................................................................................................231

2. Unversality of Stages in Language Acquisition ................................................................................................233

3. Language Development in First Language Acquisition ....................................................................................233

4. Stages of Acquisition ........................................................................................................................................234

5. Universal Grammar (UG) ..................................................................................................................................235

6. Bilingualism ......................................................................................................................................................236

PART 2

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ......................................................................................................................237

1. Critical Period Hypothesis ................................................................................................................................237

2. Communication Strategies ...............................................................................................................................238

Subject Test 5 ...........................................................................................................................................................239


Appendix A Spelling In English ...................................................................................................................................................245

Appendix B Linguistics Glossary ................................................................................................................................................248

Bibliography ..............................................................................................................................................................267

xii

SECTION 3

ENGLISH LITERATURE

CHAPTER 1

LITERARY PERIODS IN BRITISH LITERATURE .....................................................................................................271

1. Old English Period: 450-1066...........................................................................................................................275

2. Middle English Period: 1066-1500....................................................................................................................275

3. Renaissance Period: 1500-1660 ......................................................................................................................277

4. Neoclassical Period: 1660-1785 .......................................................................................................................281

5. The Romantic Period: 1785-1837.....................................................................................................................282

6. The Victorian Period: 1837-1901 ......................................................................................................................284

7. The 20th Century ..............................................................................................................................................286

Subject Test 1 ...........................................................................................................................................................288


CHAPTER 2

LITERARY MOVEMENTS .........................................................................................................................................293

1. Absurdism (c. 1930–1970) ...............................................................................................................................293

2. Aestheticism (c. 1835–1910) ............................................................................................................................293

3. Angry Young Men (1950s–1980s) ....................................................................................................................293

4. Bloomsbury Group (c. 1906–1930s).................................................................................................................293

5. Cavalier Poetry (17th Century)..........................................................................................................................293

6. Enlightenment (c. 1660–1790) .........................................................................................................................293

7. Elizabethan Era (c. 1558–1603) .......................................................................................................................293

8. Existentialism (C. 1940S-Present)....................................................................................................................293

9. Imagism (Early 20th Century) ...........................................................................................................................294

10. In Yer Face Theather (C. 1990S – Present) ...................................................................................................294

11. Kitchen Sink Realism (C. 1950S-2000S) ........................................................................................................294

12. Metaphysical Poets (c. 1633–1680) ..............................................................................................................294

13. Middle English (c. 1066–1500) .......................................................................................................................294

14. Modernism (1890s–1940s) ............................................................................................................................294

15. Naturalism (c. 1865–1900) .............................................................................................................................294

16. Neoclassicism (c. 1660–1798) .......................................................................................................................295

17. Postcolonial Literature (c. 1950s–present) .....................................................................................................295

18. Postmodernism (c. 1945–present) .................................................................................................................295

19. Pre-Raphaelites (c. 1848–1870).....................................................................................................................295

20. Realism (c. 1830–1900) .................................................................................................................................295

21. Romanticism (c. 1798–1832)..........................................................................................................................295

22. Surrealism (1920s–1930s) .............................................................................................................................295

23. Symbolism (1870s–1890s) .............................................................................................................................296

24. Victorian Era (c. 1832–1901) ..........................................................................................................................296

Subject Test 2 ...........................................................................................................................................................297Çözümlü Cevap Anahtarı .........................................................................................................................................299

xiii

CHAPTER 3

FIGURES OF SPEECH ..............................................................................................................................................301

1. Allegory.............................................................................................................................................................301

2. AllIteration.........................................................................................................................................................301

3. Allusion .............................................................................................................................................................301

4. Anachronism.....................................................................................................................................................301

5. Analogy.............................................................................................................................................................301

6. Anaphora ..........................................................................................................................................................301

7. Aphorism ..........................................................................................................................................................301

8. Apostrophe .......................................................................................................................................................301

9. Archaism...........................................................................................................................................................301

10. Archetype .......................................................................................................................................................301

11. Assonance ......................................................................................................................................................301

12. Chiasmus........................................................................................................................................................302

13. Circumlocution ................................................................................................................................................302

14. Conceit ...........................................................................................................................................................302

15. Connotation and Denotation ...........................................................................................................................302

16. Consonance ...................................................................................................................................................302

17. Deus ex Machina ............................................................................................................................................302

18. Ekphrastic / ekphrasis ....................................................................................................................................302

19. Epithet ............................................................................................................................................................302

20. Euphemism.....................................................................................................................................................302

21. Flashback .......................................................................................................................................................302

22. Flashforward ...................................................................................................................................................303

23. Foreshadowing ...............................................................................................................................................303

24. Hyperbole .......................................................................................................................................................303

25. Imagery...........................................................................................................................................................303

26. Irony................................................................................................................................................................303

27. Kenning ..........................................................................................................................................................304

28. Lampoon.........................................................................................................................................................304

29. Litote ...............................................................................................................................................................304

30. Malapropism ...................................................................................................................................................304

31. Metaphor ........................................................................................................................................................304

32. Metonymy .......................................................................................................................................................304

33. Onomatopoeia ................................................................................................................................................304

34. Oxymoron .......................................................................................................................................................304

35. Paradox ..........................................................................................................................................................304

36. Periphrasis......................................................................................................................................................304

xiv

37. Personification ................................................................................................................................................304

38. Polysyndeton ..................................................................................................................................................305

39. Portmanteau ...................................................................................................................................................305

40. Pun .................................................................................................................................................................305

41. Sarcasm .........................................................................................................................................................305

42. Satire ..............................................................................................................................................................305

43. Simile ..............................................................................................................................................................305

44. Spoonerism ....................................................................................................................................................306

45. Parody ...........................................................................................................................................................306

46. Synecdoche ....................................................................................................................................................306

47. Understatement (Meiosis) ..............................................................................................................................306

Subject Test 3 ...........................................................................................................................................................307


CHAPTER 4

LITERARY GENRES AND FORMS ...........................................................................................................................313

Literary Genre ...........................................................................................................................................................313

1. Prose ................................................................................................................................................................313

a. Elements of Narrative .................................................................................................................................313

b. Types of Novels ..........................................................................................................................................316

2. Poetry ...............................................................................................................................................................317

a. Elements of Poetry .....................................................................................................................................317

b. Types of Poetry...........................................................................................................................................318

3. Drama ...............................................................................................................................................................320

Subject Test 4 ...........................................................................................................................................................323


Biblography ...............................................................................................................................................................326

xv

SECTION 4

LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY

CHAPTER 1

TENSES & ACTIVE, PASSSIVE AND CAUSITIVES ................................................................................................329

1.Tenses (Zamanlar) ............................................................................................................................................329

2. Passive Voıce ...................................................................................................................................................335

3. Causative Verbs (Ettirgen Fiiller) ......................................................................................................................337

Subject Test 1 ...........................................................................................................................................................338


CHAPTER 2

PART 1

PARTS OF SPEECH ..................................................................................................................................................345

1. Nouns (İsimler) .................................................................................................................................................345

2. Pronouns (Zamirler)..........................................................................................................................................347

3. Adjectives (Sıfatlar) ..........................................................................................................................................349

4. Quantifiers ........................................................................................................................................................351

5. Adverbs (Zarflar)...............................................................................................................................................354

6. Articles (A/An and The) ....................................................................................................................................357

7. Connectors (Bağlaçlar) .....................................................................................................................................360

8. Prepostions (Edatlar) ........................................................................................................................................363

9. Verbs ................................................................................................................................................................368

10. Interjections ....................................................................................................................................................369

Categories of Verbs ..............................................................................................................................................372

PART 2

AFFIXES - PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES ....................................................................................................................375

Subject Test 2 ...........................................................................................................................................................377


xvi

CHAPTER 3

MODALS ....................................................................................................................................................................385

1. Advice ...............................................................................................................................................................386

2. Duty ..................................................................................................................................................................386

3. Habits ...............................................................................................................................................................386

4. Possibility..........................................................................................................................................................386

5. Ability ................................................................................................................................................................387

6. Necessity ..........................................................................................................................................................387

7. Deduction .........................................................................................................................................................388

8. Prohibition.........................................................................................................................................................388

9. Absence of Necessity .......................................................................................................................................388

10. Permission ......................................................................................................................................................389

11. Suggestion ......................................................................................................................................................389

12. Invitations .......................................................................................................................................................389

13. Preference ......................................................................................................................................................389

14. Dare ................................................................................................................................................................389

15. Perfect Modals................................................................................................................................................389

Subject Test 3 ...........................................................................................................................................................391


CHAPTER 4

CLAUSES ..................................................................................................................................................................397

1. Noun Clauses (İsim Cümlesi) ...........................................................................................................................397

2. Adverbial Clauses (Zarf Cümlecikleri) ..............................................................................................................399

3. Relative Clauses (Sıfat Cümlecikleri) ...............................................................................................................403

4. Conditional Clauses (Şart Cümlecikleri) ...........................................................................................................407

Subject Test 4 ...........................................................................................................................................................410


CHAPTER 5

GERUNDS & INFINITIVES ........................................................................................................................................417

1. Gerunds (Ad Eylemler) .....................................................................................................................................417

2. Infinitives (Mastarlar) ........................................................................................................................................418

3. Anlam Değişikliğine Neden Olmadan hem Mastar (Infinitive) hem de Ad Eylem (Gerund) Alabilen Fiiller .....421

4. Anlam Değişikliğine Neden Olarak hem Mastar (Infinitive) hem de Ad Eylem (Gerund) Alabilen Fiiller .........421

5. Mastar (To Infinitive) ya da Ad Eylem (Gerund) Almayan Fiiller: Bare Infinitive (Çıplak Mastarlar)..................422

Subject Test 5 ...........................................................................................................................................................423


xvii

CHAPTER 6

AMBIGUITY ...............................................................................................................................................................429

1. Structural Ambiguity (Yapısal Belirsizlik) ..........................................................................................................429

2. Lexical Ambiguity (Sözcüklerle İlgili Belirsizlik) ................................................................................................431

Subject Test 6 ...........................................................................................................................................................432


CHAPTER 7

PUNCTUATION MARKS ...........................................................................................................................................439

1. The Full Stop/The Period: Nokta (.) ..................................................................................................................439

2. The Comma: Virgül (,) .....................................................................................................................................439

3. The Apostrophe: Kesme İşareti (‘) ....................................................................................................................440

4. The Quotation Mark: Tırnak İşareti (“ ”) ............................................................................................................440

5. The Semi-Colon: Noktalı Virgül (;) ....................................................................................................................441

6. The Colon: İki Nokta (:).....................................................................................................................................441

7. The Hyphen: Kısa çizgi (-) ................................................................................................................................442

8. The Dash: Uzun Çizgi (–) .................................................................................................................................442

9. The Parantheses: Parantez (( )) .......................................................................................................................442

10. The Exclamation Mark: Ünlem (!) ...................................................................................................................442

11. The Question Mark: Soru İşareti (?) ...............................................................................................................442

Subject Test 7 ...........................................................................................................................................................443


CHAPTER 8

RESTATEMENT .........................................................................................................................................................449

Subject Test 8 ...........................................................................................................................................................453


CHAPTER 9

DIALOGUE COMPLETION ........................................................................................................................................461

Subject Test 9 ...........................................................................................................................................................464


xviii

CHAPTER 10

PARAGRAPH COMPLETION ....................................................................................................................................475

Subject Test 10 .........................................................................................................................................................479


CHAPTER 11

FINDING IRRELEVANT SENTENCES ......................................................................................................................491

Subject Test 11 ..........................................................................................................................................................494


CHAPTER 12

READING COMPREHENSION ..................................................................................................................................503

1. Okuma Teknikleri ..............................................................................................................................................503

2. Soru Tipleri .......................................................................................................................................................504

3. Test Teknikleri ...................................................................................................................................................506

Subject Test 12 .........................................................................................................................................................509


Appendix A Affixes........................................................................................................................................................................519

Appendix B Idiom List ...................................................................................................................................................................529

Bibliography ..............................................................................................................................................................537

KPSS-İÖABT includes 10 questions on the field of ELT Methodology, which encompasses the topics of Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Teaching Language Skills, and Teaching English to Young Learners & Classroom Management, Materials Development, Adaptation & Evaluation, and Testing in ELT.

The first section of this book provides detailed information about the above mentioned topics in the field of ELT Methodology with a comprehensive literature review within the scope of KPSS-İÖABT. Moreover, sample questions have been taken from KPSS-ÖABT and included under the relevant subjects in the chapters.

As in each section in the book, this one also contains a subject test and an answer key with detailed explanations.

SECTION 1 METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER 1 PART 1

APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

When the history of language teaching and learning is searched and examined, it can be seen that depending on the needs and the educational conditions of the time, different perspectives have emerged. This, together with the pursuit of the best method, led to the appearance of a wide range of approaches and methods regarding how language teaching needs to be carried out. The shortcomings of an approach and method paved the way for another one in order to compensate for these lacks and problems. The complexity of the contexts and the dynamic nature of the classroom have led us to the conclusion that there is no best method that can be universally accepted. Instead, teachers now acknowledge the need to adopt an informed and eclectic approach, incorporating elements from the range of methods and approaches at hand.

As mentioned above, throughout the history of the field of foreign language teaching, different approaches and methods have emerged and were affected by certain linguistics and psychology theories in this process. In order to discover and clearly understand the principles and underlying assumptions of the approaches and methods of language learning and teaching, linguistic and psychological views in language teaching methodology first need to be understood. Therefore, linguistic and psychological views are briefly explained below.

1. LINGUISTIC VIEWS

1.1. THE TRADITIONAL VIEW

Considering that the everyday spoken language is neither pure nor perfect and it includes errors, for centuries scholars have focused on the written language and its grammatical structures. With the emphasis on the accurate production of the language and determining the correct way of putting things into words, they followed a prescriptivist approach to the language (Please See Linguistics Chapter 1 for further information about prescriptivism). They were not concerned with the usage of the language for communication purposes, yet a tool for understanding the literature of the target language. To do that, they taught how to form grammatically correct sentences along with the knowledge of vocabulary.

1.2. STRUCTURALISM

In structuralism, language is viewed as a system of structurally related elements to convey meaning. It is an approach to linguistics which originated from the studies of Ferdinand de Saussure. The core idea of this theory for teaching language is that language can be analyzed as a formal system of differential components. In addition, language is considered to be basically for

speech and not reading or writing, consisting of habits which are systematically different from those in other languages. Teaching the language rather than teaching about the language is emphasized. In contrast to the traditional view in which written language is given priority and prescriptivism is adopted, the followers of this view focused on everyday language use and speech by examining the way people used the language not necessarily in the way scholars prescribed them to do, which is called descriptivism (Please refer to Linguistics Chapter 1 for further information about descriptivism). This descriptive approach to language aimed at depicting the language at the level of sound, word and sentence.

In short, structural linguistics emphasized the significance of language as a system and examines the role that linguistic units such as sounds, words, sentences play within this system. In association with behaviorism, it provided the principal theoretical basis of the audio lingual method, and in this way influenced language teaching materials, and techniques.

1.3. THE GENERATIVE TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORY

Noam Chomsky opposed to the assumptions of structuralism and criticized it heavily by emphasizing that there is an underlying level for all utterances of the native speakers. The theory opposed to the empiricist theory, which is pedagogically audiolingualism, psychologically behaviorism, and linguistically structuralism. It emphasized mental activity and proposed that human beings have the capability to learn a language. It is the inborn ability instead of practice that enabled human beings to obtain the rules of a language and comprehend or produce unlimited numbers of utterances.

Basically, Chomsky introduced two core ideas in his theory. The first one is related to the distinction between competence and performance. Competence is defined as the knowledge of the language; however, performance is the actual use of the language, which is observable. The explanation of knowledge underlying the human ability to speak and understand the language is at the centre. Consequently, in this approach, each speaker has a linguistic organ specialized in the analysis and production of complex structures forming the speech. In other words, most of this knowledge of language is innate, so babies are born wired to acquire language and needs only actually learn the idiosyncratic features of the languages they are exposed to. The second core idea put forward in the theory was creativity of language knowledge; namely, explaining how people can produce and comprehend utterances which they have never heard before. Referring back to what was mentioned about competence, it can be stated that people depend on their language competence in order to generate novel utterances.

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People generate their sentences and structure them on the basis of their knowledge of what is acceptable according to the grammatical systems of the language.

ATTENTION

1.4. THE COMMUNICATIVE VIEW

The communicative or functional view of language proposes that language is actually a vehicle in order to express functional meaning conveyed through structures. In the first place, semantic and communicative aspects of language are emphasized rather than the linguistic units, yet it should be noted that they are not totally neglected. Dell Hymes suggested that linguistic competence was not sufficient for a person to be able to use a language communicatively since it ignored the actual usage of language which is very much affected by contextual factors, such as interlocutors’ relationship, degree of closeness, physical context, age or gender of the interlocutors. Hymes introduced the concept of communicative competence (See Communicative Language Teaching in this chapter for more detailed information) which can be defined as the appropriate and effective use of language in line with the contextual factors influencing the choice of words and structures

2. THEORIES OF LEARNING

2.1. BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism considers learning as habit formation assuming a learner is essentially passive imitator who responds to environmental stimuli. According to the theory, people start learning as a tabula rasa; that’s without any previous knowledge or competence and behavior is shaped by means of positive or negative reinforcement. Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement are used to increase the chance of the behavior to happen again. However, punishment decreases the probability of behavior to occur again. Briefly, followers of this theory completely neglected the importance of mind in the formation of verbal behavior. According to this stimulus-response theory introduced by Skinner, learning is a process of automatic habit formation happening via reinforcement of a mechanical relation between a stimulus and the desirable response. Errors are bad habits interfering in the learning process, so they need to be immediately corrected by the teachers.

1. Reinforcement is act of increasing the probability of a specific behavior in the future by delivering a stimulus immediately after a response/behavior is displayed correctly or desirably. It is divided into two: a. Positive Reinforcement: It refers to

presenting a motivating stimulus to the student after the desired behavior is demonstrated, to make the behavior more likely to occur in the future (e.g., praising the student for doing his/her homework)

b. Negative Reinforcement: It means removing a certain stimulus (often an aversive one) after a particular behavior is displayed to increase the likelihood of that behavior to happen again because of avoiding the negative consequence (e.g., taking away the deadline for the homework).

2 Punishment: It is a process by which an unwanted result immediately follows a behavior that decreases the future frequency of that behavior. There are two types of punishment:a. Positive Punishment: It is presenting a

negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited to make that behavior less likely to occur in the future (e.g., the student talks to his/her friend all the time during the lesson, and the teacher reprimands him/her).

b. Negative Punishment: It refers to removing a certain desired stimulus after a particular unwanted behavior is exhibited in order to decrease the occurrence of that behavior in the future (e.g., cancelling game time when the students haven’t done their homework).

With punishment, always remember that the end result is to try to decrease the undesired behavior. However, in reinforcement, the aim is to increase the likelihood of the wanted behavior to happen again.

ATTENTION

Behaviorism has a tendency to rely on drill exercises to provide the consistent repetition necessary for effective reinforcement of response patterns. Thus, memorization and imitation are at the heart of this theory. The use of positive reinforcements such as verbal praise, good grades, and prizes is also frequent.

2.2. COGNITIVE THEORYThe emphasis here is on the importance of experience, meaning, problem-solving and the development of insights. Different from Behaviorism, in which the language learning is believed to occur as a result of imitation and a lot of repetitions, this theory is based on internal and mental processes in language learning. Second language acquisition can be explained with a description of the interaction between language and cognition. In cognitive

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theory, individuals are said to process information and thoughts involved in this cognitive activity are referred to as “internal processes”. Learning strategies are special ways of processing information that enhance comprehension and learning. The basic tenets of cognitive theory can be given as in the following:• It focuses on transferring, simplification, generalization,

and restructuring that involve second language acquisition.

• Language learning is the result of internal mental activity.

• It emphasizes that knowledge and new learning is organized in a mental structure.

• Learners act, construct, plan and analyze their own learning

• Positive and negative feedback is important for restructuring.

• Once new information is acquired, existing knowledge is reorganized.

• Learning language needs to be meaningful in order to be effective and permanent

2.3. HUMANISM

The humanistic approach tends to regard language learning as a process that engages the whole person and

not just the intellect. It also takes into consideration the emotional and spiritual needs of an individual. According to humanism, the receiver in education is first a human being; the secondary role of the individual is being a learner. It is emphasized that individuals’ basic needs are decided by their potential energy. When and if they cannot satisfy their basic needs physically and psychologically, they will surely fail to completely concentrate on their language learning. Emotions, feelings and attitudes of the learners towards language and language learning, their needs, interests, beliefs and motivations are the core concerns of humanism since they are the premise of the other physical and psychological activities. Therefore, before aiming at teaching the language, preparing the necessary conditions and classroom atmosphere is intended in order to make sure that learners feel relaxed and comfortable. By this way, their purpose is to avoid negative attitudes towards language learning. A humanistic approach in teaching both helps learners easily learn things but also develops their personality in various ways. Self-actualization is at the centre because the only reason for individuals to learn is to satisfy needs of the self-actualization. It follows that the study of the self, motivation, and goals are areas of particular interest. Moreover, the objective of education is to raise open-minded, dynamic and adjustable individuals in a cooperative, supportive environment.

Overview Of Learning TheoriesBehaviorism Cognitive Theory Humanism Constructivism

View of knowledge

Knowledge is a repertoire of behavioral responses to environmental stimuli.

Knowledge systems of cognitive structures are actively constructed by learners based on pre-existing cognitive structures.

Knowledge is formed by the development of the whole person by integrating the cognitive and affective aspects of the learning.

No concern for teaching static knowledge as the aim is to teach how to learn.

Knowledge is constructed within social contexts through interactions with a knowledge community.

View of learning

Passive absorption of a predefined body of knowledge by the learner.

Promoted by repetition and positive reinforcement.

Active assimilation and accommodation of new information to existing cognitive structures.

Discovery by learners.

Function of the whole person and believe that learning cannot take place unless both the cognitive and affective domains are involved

Personal act to fulfill learners’ potential.

Integration of students into a knowledge community.

Collaborative assimilation and accommodation of new information.

View of motivation

Extrinsic, involving positive and negative reinforcement.

Intrinsic; learners set their own goals and motivate themselves to learn.

Intrinsic; learners learn for self-actualization.

Providing active support, encouragement for the individuals to learn from their successes and failures keep them motivated to learn.

Intrinsic and extrinsic.

Learning goals and motives are determined both by learners and extrinsic rewards provided by the knowledge community.

Implications for Teaching

Correct behavioral responses are transmitted by the teacher and absorbed by the students.

The teacher facilitates learning by providing an environment that promotes discovery and assimilation/ accommodation.

The teacher is a facilitator that provides an anxiety-free classroom and comfortable learning to reduce the affective filter

Collaborative learning is facilitated and guided by the teacher.

Group work.

Taken from : http://gsi.berkeley.edu/teachingguide/theories/overview.html

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2.4. CONNECTIONISM

Connectionism is another cognitive framework for the focus on learning

Processes. It differs from most other current frameworks for the study of SLA because it doesn’t consider language learning to involve either innate knowledge or

abstraction of rules and principles. However, it asserts that language learning results from increasing strength of associations (connections) between stimuli and responses.

This framework considers frequency of input an important causative factor in learning. From this input, learners extract the rules of the language through cognitive processes common to other areas of cognitive skill acquisition. As connectionism doesn’t accept innate rules and the existence of any innate language-learning module, L2 input is of huge importance; therefore, input is the source of both the units and the rules of language.

According to Connectionism, language includes units which are intertwined in mind, so acquisition occurs through associating elements or ideas with one another by means of experiences.

çıkmış soru

I. Children are born with a specific innate ability to acquire language acquisition; thus, they are biologically endowed to learn language.

II. Habit formation; that's learning, takes place when children imitate and repeat the language they are exposed in the immediate environment, and their correct responses are reinforced positi-vely.

III. Language includes units which are intertwined in mind, so acquisition occurs through associating elements or ideas with one another by means of experiences.

Which of the following matches is correct regarding first language acquisition theories?

I II III

A) Cognitivist Behaviorist Connectionist

B) Innatist Interactionist Cognitivist

C) Behaviorist Connectionist Interactionist

D) Innatist Behaviorist Connectionist

E) Behaviorist Cognitivist Interactionist

ANSWER: Dil edinimi teorilerinden "innatist" (doğuştan-cılık) çocuğun bir dil edinme mekanizmasıyla doğduğu-nu ve biyolojik olarak dil edinimi için programlandığını savunmaktadır. Soru kökündeki birinci öncül bu teoriyi açıklamaktadır. "Behaviorism" (davranışçılık) dil edini-mini "habit formation" (alışkanlık oluşturma) olarak ta-

nımlayan, çocukların etrafında duydukları dili taklit edip tekrar etmesiyle ve de yetişkinler tarafından pekiştiril-mesiyle oluştuğunu savunur. Sorudaki ikinci öncül bu teoriye aittir. "Connectionism" (bağlantıcılık) dil edinimi-nin, deneyimler sırasında karşılaşılan unsurlar ve fikirler arasında bağlantı kurularak oluştuğunu iddia etmektedir. Bu da soruda verilen üçüncü öncülde ifade edilmektedir.

The answer is D.

3. DEFINITIONS OF TERMINOLOGIES

Before moving on with giving detailed information about each approach and method in language teaching and learning, we need to define and clarify three important, often confusing, terminologies in this field:

Edward Anthony’s (1963) tripartite is the first attempt to make distinction among these terms. In order to define what ‘method’ is, we can consider the distinction of Approach, Method and Technique. According to his definitions, an approach can be considered as the broadest circle which presents a set of assumptions as to the nature and the components of the language and language teaching and learning. It also gives information regarding the necessary conditions for language learning to occur. Approach is also axiomatic, something the truth of which cannot be proven.

An approach can adopt one of the following 3 theories of language:

1. Structural view: According to structural view, language is viewed as structurally related units such as grammatical, phonological and lexical ones.

2. Functional view: In functional view, language is described as a vehicle to express functional meaning.

3. Interactional view: An approach adopting interactional view considers language as a vehicle to establish and maintain interpersonal relationship with other people.

However, method is the overall plan for the organized presentation of language material. It is basically the practical application of theoretical findings and positions. In this sense, it becomes clear that a method needs to be based on an approach. A method is procedural while approach is axiomatic.

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Methods are typically informed by both a theory of language and a theory of language learning. To give an example, it can be stated that audiolingualism took its assumptions from a structuralist model of language and behaviourist learning theory.

ATTENTION

Finally, the smallest circle is the technique which is implementational. It is defined as the activities, practices, and tasks utilized in the classroom. Techniques need to be consistent with a method, and thus in harmony with an approach.

Later on, the concept of method is further explained by Richards & Rodgers (1982) in relation to Approach, Design and Procedure. Different from the distinction made by Anthony, design is described as the term regarding the theories of language and learning to the form and function of teaching materials and activities in the classroom, types of syllabus, and roles of teacher, student and instructional materials. Procedure, however, is related to the techniques and practices utilized in the classroom as a result of particular approaches and designs.

Methodology is the umbrella term and it refers to “pedagogical practices in general and whatever considerations are involved in ‘how to teach’. Approach is defined as the theoretical beliefs and assumptions about the view of language and language learning and teaching while method is the generalized procedures, based on an approach, as to how foreign languages are taught, what the roles of the teacher, student and instructional materials are and what type of syllabus is adopted. Technique, on the other hand, is the narrowest term that refers to the application of the procedures, presented by a method, through activities, practices, tasks and exercises.

ATTENTION

A. BEFORE THE METHODS ERA

1. THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD The Grammar Translation Method is an old and traditional method that was first utilized to teach classical languages like Latin and Greek. The reason why oral language was not the focus of this method can be attributed to the fact that it was used to teach dead languages. It did not follow any approach. The purpose of learning and teaching

a foreign language is to read and understand and appreciate the literary texts (i.e., literature of the foreign language) in the target language so that individual can develop themselves intellectually and strengthen the powers of the mind. The lessons are taught in students’ first language by making use of translation.

• The purpose of learning a foreign language is to read the literary texts in the target language and to develop the learners intellectually.

• Other names given to the method are classical method, traditional method; grammar school method and Prussian method.

ATTENTION

1.1. Learning Theory: Deductive teaching and learning is of great importance in the method. In deductive learning, the learners are given the rules of the target language directly and explicitly and the correct productions of the structures are reinforced through example sentences and exercises. Translation is the main way of learning the language.

1.2. Language Theory: The role of the language is to help learners understand the literature of the target language so that they become more cultured and intellectual. Language consists of abstract grammatical rules and the written language is considered superior over spoken language. Apart from the linguistic structures in the target language, the students also learn the structure of their mother tongue.

1.3. Goals and Objectives: The Grammar Translation Method aims at teaching translation, reading and understanding the literature in the target language, raising the students’ awareness for their native language structure and vocabulary, and to improve students’ mental capacities with grammar practices.

1.4. The Role of Culture: Culture is limited to the literature and the fine arts of the target language; and it is learned through reading the literary texts which are full of complex grammatical structures and translating them.

1.5. The Role of Mother Tongue: The mother tongue of the students has a significant function in teaching vocabulary and grammar. Because oral communication and interaction in the target language are not focused to teach and develop, classroom instructions occur in the first language.

1.6. The Role of the Teacher: Teacher is considered as the only and strict authority in the classroom; thus, the classroom is teacher-centered by not putting the students at the centre of the teaching and learning process.

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1.7. The Role of the Student: Students are regarded as the passive receivers of the new information transmitted from the teacher. The activities are initiated and directed by the teacher. Consequently, the students are expected to be passive, teacher-dependent and memorize the rules and the new vocabulary with mother tongue equivalents.

1.8. Teaching Language Areas: Grammar and vocabulary are primary language areas to be taught. Because the written language is given utmost importance, and the spoken language is neglected, so pronunciation is not focused for development.

1.8.1. Teaching Grammar: Teaching grammar occurs through the use of deductive teaching. Students are supposed to memorize the abstract rules of the linguistic structures. Afterwards, they apply these rules to new examples in the exercises. In the meantime, the teacher compares and contrasts the rules of the structures in the students’ first language and the target language using translation.

Deductive teaching of grammar is an approach to teach the language where the students are taught the rules of the grammar directly and explicitly without using meaningful context. Examples follow the provision of the explicitly given rules.

ATTENTION

çıkmış soru

(“deductive” ve “inductive teaching” ile ilgili çıkan soruya yakın nitelikte örnek soru)

-----teaching involves giving the students examples of language within a meaningful context and working with them to come up with the target grammatical rules, whereas -----teaching begins by giving students the rules and working with them to produce language by applying the rules.

Which of the following best complete the given statement?

A) Direct / implicit

B) Inductive / deductive

C) Discovery / inquiry

D) Deductive / inductive

E) Meaning-based / deductive

ANSWER: “Deductive ve inductive teaching”, genelde gramer öğretiminde bahsedilen iki yaklaşımdır. “Deduc-tive teaching’de dilbilgisi kuralları öğrenciye doğrudan formulize edilerek verilir ve ardından kuralların uygu-lamalı bir şekilde cümle içinde kullanıldığı form-odaklı aktiviteler yapılır. “Inductive teaching”de ise öğretilmesi amaçlanan dilbilgisi kuralları anlamlı bir metin içinde öğ-renciye “present” edilir. Öğrenci kuralı ve anlamını bağ-lamdan çıkarım yaparak buluş yoluyla öğrenir.

The answer is B.

çıkmış soru

Which of the following explanations cannot be true about deductive teaching?

A) It supports the idea that language is rule-based rather than meaning-focused.

B) In deductive teaching rules are given to the students, and they are expected to apply the rules to the examples.

C) Deductive teaching includes interaction, so it is used in the Audio-lingual Method and Communicative Language Teaching.

D) If a teachers first presents the structures of a sentence directly before presenting a text or a dialogue, s/he has selected deductive approach.

E) It might be more suitable to present structures deductively when the students do not possess a specific cognitive style for analyzing the language in the context.

ANSWER: "Deductive approach" dili, yapıları doğrudan açıklayarak öğretme amacı güden, kuralı doğrudan ve-rerek daha sonra cümle içinde uygulatan yaklaşımdır. Bununla ilgili şıklarda doğru olmayan seçenek C'dir. Audio-lingual Method ve Communicative Language Te-aching iletişime odaklandığı ve anlam odaklı olduğu için "deductive approach" kullanılmaz.

The answer is C.

1.8.2. Teaching Vocabulary: The frequently used vocabulary teaching technique is to provide lists of isolated words with their meanings in the students’ first language. The unknown words can also be given with their synonyms and antonyms. Then, the students are asked to memorize them. The new words are never taught in a meaningful context. Another common way to teach words is the use of cognates.

Cognates are the words in two different languages, which have similar spelling and pronunciation.

It is divided into two:

1. True Cognates: These are the words in two languages that have similar spelling and pronunciation and the same meaning (e.g., cinema – sinema; theatre – tiyatro).

2. False Cognates: This time, the cognates have different meanings in the two languages (e.g., complex (meaning complicated in English) – kompleks (spor kompleksi or kompleks).

ATTENTION

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