Peruvian Whistling Vessels

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Im Ethnologischen Museum Berlin, SMB-PK(EMB) befinden sich 326 Pfeifgefe aus unter-schiedlichen vorspanischen Kulturen Perus. Ausge-hend von diesen Objekten, von denen ca. 100 funk-tionsfhig sind, wird der Versuch unternommen, eineSystematik der Pfeifgefe zu erstellen und die kon-struktiven Voraussetzungen fr die unterschiedli-chen Pfeiftne, Triller und Intervallsprnge zuerlutern. Fr die Untersuchung werden Pfeifgefeaus folgenden Kulturen ausgewhlt: Vics, Moche,Chim, Lambayeque und Recuay. Im ersten Teilwerden die Pfeifgefe als Problem archologischerForschung dargestellt. Im zweiten Teil wird eineSystematik der Pfeifgefe unter akustischen Ge-sichtspunkten diskutiert. Im dritten Teil wird dieTechnologie und Akustik der Pfeifgefe untersucht.Im vierten Teil werden die Ergebnisse zusammenge-fasst: In allen Pfeifgefen befinden sich kugelfrmi-ge Pfeifen. Diese Globularpfeifen gehren zur Fami-lie der gedackten Labialflten mit allen typischenMerkmalen dieser Familie, d. h., sie entsprechenihnen in der Tonerzeugung und in der Partialtonrei-he. Pfeifgefe knnen beim Entleeren einer Flssig-keit keinen Ton erzeugen, weil alle akustischen Vor-aussetzungen dafr fehlen. Das Trillern einigerPfeifgefe mit zwei Kammern beruht auf dem dif-ferenzierten Zusammenspiel der Querschnitte vonKernspalt und Verbindungsrhre. Der Intervall-sprung bei einigen Pfeifgefen mit integrierter Pfei-fe entsteht durch die Kopplung der Frequenzen vonPrimrresonator und Sekundrresonator, der dieFunktion eines Helmholtz-Resonators erfllt.

1. WHISTLING VESSELS IN THEARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT

In secondary literature the following terms can befound: Pfeifgef, Pfeiftopf, Pfeifkopf (German),

botella silbato, botella silbadora, silvador, chi-flador, vaso silvador (Spanish). English terms arewhistling vessel, whistling bottle, whistling potand whistling jar. In this essay the term whistlingvessel will be used.

The whistling vessels have been produced for aperiod of around 2000 years in different cultures inMesoamerica and South America. The objects ofour research are whistling vessels of Peru from thefollowing cultures: the Vics, the Moche, theChim, the Lambayeque and the Recuay (Fig. 1).In their specific form they cannot be found in anyother part of the world. While the outer form ofthe whistling vessels is modified in the differentcultures, the acoustic foundations remain un-changed for over 2000 years. There is no informa-tion about the total number of whistling vessels inthe museums all over the world. In the Museumof Ethnology Berlin, SMB-PK (EMB), 326whistling vessels are preserved, around one hun-dred of them still sounding. All of these whistlingvessels were found in tombs, but widely were notrecognised as sounding tools and therefore cleanedonly on the exterior. Soiling, like bits of earthinside the acoustic system of the whistling vessels,is the most common reason why they may beunable to produce a sound. Most objects in themuseums and on the market lack specific informa-tion about the place where the object was foundand the circumstances of the excavation. Theobjects are isolated from their archaeological con-texts, which makes it difficult to date them and toassign their former function to them1. This may bethe reason for the fact that their regional origin,their genealogy and their usage have not been

1 Hickmann 1990, 8.

The Peruvian Whistling Vessels of the Museum ofEthnology BerlinA Research from the Acoustic and Technological Point of View

Friedemann Schmidt

explained convincingly up to now2. In the exten-sive library of ceramics of the Moche, so far noillustrations of whistling vessels have been foundeither. After the fall of the Inka Empire apparentlyonly few objects of this kind were produced and/or used in public. In the Spanish reports, however,they are not mentioned.

Only few reports on the use of the whistlingvessels in our time exist. Andritzky3 mentionsthem in connection with healing ceremonies inPeru. Garrett and Stat4 analyse the psychologicaleffect which happens when several whistling ves-sels of the Chim culture are played simultaneous-ly. Both authors mention the whistling vessels inconnection with shamanistic rituals which aim tochange the state of consciousness. All whistlingvessels are made out of clay. The quality of the clayis poor, the colour of the clay depends on itsregion of origin, whereas the colour of the objectsis not always identical with the colour of the clay,for engobe (a clay suspension) is used for thepainting of the vessels. Usually the painting isensued before the firing of the clay and either areserve technique is used (Vics, Recuay) or thepaint is applied directly with a brush (Moche).With the ceramics of the Moche black outlines areoften found, too, but these are applied after the fir-ing. The objects of the Chim culture are usuallyunpainted. They are produced from dark clay andare probably fired in a reducing atmosphere. Thewhistling vessels are generally polished with care,so that their surface obtains a dull lustre. The ves-sels show very thin walls, which are usually five tosix millimetres thick. The seams observed insidethe vessels indicate that they were produced frommoulds5. The Museum for Ethnology Berlin ownsa completely preserved two-piece mould of theLambayeque culture that is open at the bottom, aform which is typical of the model technique ofthis region (EMB VA 47728, Fig. 2). The whistlingvessels are presumably fired at a low temperature(about 650 to 850 degree Celsius), therefore theclay is porous; it is permeable to water, no matterwhether it is fired in an reducing or in an oxidizingmanner. Whistling vessels consisting of one or twochambers do not exceed the following measures:height and axial width 30 centimetres, depths 15centimetres.

Listing all these problems shows that a lot ofquestions are answered only insufficiently. Thischiefly applies to the questions concerning thepurpose and the use of the whistling vessels in thesocial context. But furthermore, questions con-cerning the acoustics have not been clarified com-pletely either. The secondary literature available isprimarily interested in measuring the frequency,whereas it pays less attention to the question howthe tones are produced depending on the construc-

tional preconditions. Therefore the experimentscarried out in the Museum of Ethnology Berlinfocus on acoustic questions, as these have onlyreceived little attention up to now.

The following questions are to be answered:How exactly is the tone produced with whistlingvessels? Are whistling vessels able to produce atone when a liquid is poured out of them? Why aresome whistling vessels able to trill? Why do somewhistling vessels produce a pitch jump that is tosay two different tones although they only haveone single whistle?

2 Hickmann 1990, 324: Eine chronologische Ordnung derPfeiftpfe ist in Form einer typologischen Seriation nicht zuerstellen. Caso/Bernal/Acosta 1968, 164: The authors dis-cuss the dating and the genealogy. For the authors (citation:Mart 1970, 154) [] ist es schwer zu entscheiden, ob diePfeifgefe in Mittelamerika lter sind als im Andenraum.Dort treten sie in der Proto-Chim-Periode in Erschein-ung, fr die es eine Carbon-14-Datierung von 373 v. Chr.gibt []. The pre-classic period of Monte Alban starts ataround 500 AD, so that the date from the Andean regionmainly agrees with the date of Monte Alban. Schuler 1980:Die Pfeifgefe spielten hchstwahrscheinlich eine Rolleim Kult, jedoch lassen sich nur Vermutungen ber ihregenaue Bestimmung und Bedeutung anstellen. Sollte z. B.durch das Lautgeben das Gef magisch belebt werden odersollten dadurch bei der Darbietung eines Trankopfers Gt-ter oder Tote auf die Gabe aufmerksam gemacht werden?Wei 1979, 108: Das aufmodellierte Tier stimmt mit denPfeiftnen berein. Es ist meistens ein Vogel oder eineMaus. Es wurde festgestellt, da die Tonfrequenz dieserPfeifgefe mit 2400 Hz in einem besonders sensitivenHrbereich liegt, der starke psychologische Effekte aus-lsen kann. Daraus wird geschlossen, da sie rituellen undspirituellen Zwecken dienten. Mart 1970, 154: Explana-tion to image 135, two-chambered whistling vessels: []Form und Verzierung des Gefes werden durch die Nach-bildung der Hohlmuschel als Symbol des Regens bestimmt.Der von dem Instrument erzeugte Pfiff kann demzufolgeals Ruf an die regenbringenden Wolken gedeutet werden[]. Pfeifgefe fanden bei magisch-rituellen Anlssen Ver-wendung und wurden deshalb auch nie in groen Mengenhergestellt.

3 Andritzky 1999, 191 mentions the usage of a whistling ves-sel in the context of a mesa-ceremony. The healer (Rubertofrom Chiclayo) carries on his mesa a pre-Columbian sil-vador that is regarded as an object of power. During asusto-healing rite he makes the whistling vessel sound byblowing at it and he moves it from feet to head across thebody of a patient lying down. The tone of the whistlingvessel is supposed to call on the patients stolen soul askingit to return into the patients body.

4 Garrett/Stat 1977. Stat 1979, 4 is convinced that thewhistling vessels were used to produce psycho-acousticeffects, which result in the human brain from the interac-tion of frequencies situated very close to one another (Bin-aural Beat Technology). If both signals are less then 20 Hzapart from each other, they produce beat effects in thebrain, which can be proved by variations of voltage in theEEG. The beat frequency is the difference of the two origi-nal signal frequencies. Stat uses whistling vessels of theChim culture, which he produces as replicas and makesthem sound in groups consisting of four to seven personswho bring them to sound by blowing at them. The event isdescribed as [] an extreme centering of the conscious-ness or Zenlike state of clarity (Stat 1979, 4).

5 Bankes 1980, 14.

Friedemann Schmidt144

2. CONCEPTION OF A SYSTEM OFTHE WHISTLING VESSELS FROMAN ACOUSTIC POINT OF VIEW

The tone of all whistling vessels is produced by awhistle in the shape of a ball, the so called globularwhistle. This whistle is a reduced form of the glob-ular flute, a type of flute common in MiddleAmerica and South America. It can be found in theform of a vessel-whistle, a vessel-whistle in theshape of a figure and as an ocarina. The tones maybe cross blown or may be generated by an air duct.According to the classification of Hornbostel/Sachs6 the whistling vessels are listed as 4. Aero-phones. Hickmann7 divides the whistling vesselsaccording to their outer form of appearance intothree subgroups: Single-chambered whistling jars413.11, double-chambered whistling jars 413.12and triple-chambered whistling jars 413.13. If oneregards the number of chambers as an essentialfeature, this system seems to be consistent. If onelooks at the whistling vessels from an acousticpoint of view, however, one has to establish a sub-group for the single-chambered-whistling jars andfor the double-chambered-whistling jars respec-tively. In each subgroup the position of the whistlehas to be considered, since its position is the essen-tial criterion for differentiation. Therefore the sys-tem of the whistling vessels from an acoustic pointof view is developed according to the position ofthe whistle. Further features are submitted to thisprinciple, such as the number and the position ofthe chambers, stirrup spout handle and other spe-cial forms which have no principal influence onthe tone.

The whistling vessels show two different posi-tions of the whistles: It is either enclosed orexposed. Objects with an enclosed whistle I willname type A, since they represent the earlier formof the Peruvian whistling vessels8. The enclosedwhistle is placed in a cavity that is often mouldedas the head of a bird. This cavity functions as a sec-ondary resonator and influences the sound of thewhistle. The whistling vessels of different cultures,like the Vir, the Vics and the Moche, belong tothis type.

TYPE A (objects with an enclosed whistle)A 1: One chamber plus an enclosed whistle that is

only able to produce one single tone. Thewhistling vessel is often moulded as a cavity inthe shape of a bird (EMB VA 64767, Vics, Fig.3), the tail is designed as an intake tube. Thewhistle is integrated inside the head. If the cavi-ty is filled with water and blown at by mouth, atrilling resounds.

A 2: Two chambers plus an enclosed whistle thatis able to produce one single tone. The figure

on the whistling vessel has a human shape(EMB VA 64 753, Vics, Fig. 4).

A 3: Two chambers plus an enclosed whistle thatis able to produce a trill on one tone if theinstrument is used as a swinging-vessel. Thistype appears frequently with the Moche andVics culture; the whistling chamber is oftendesigned as a bird (EMB VA 5989).

A 4: Two chambers plus an enclosed whistle pro-ducing a pitch jump and a trill (EMB VA 598,Moche, Fig. 5).

A characteristic whistling vessel of type A 4 consistsof two bottle-shaped cavities, the whistling cham-ber and the intake chamber, which are connected atthe bottom by a lateral tube, and at the top by ahandle (Fig. 6). The whistling chamber is modelledas a cavity and carries a figure on its top. Inside thehead of this figure, a small globular whistle is situat-ed. The head always has air vents, their shape, sizeand arrangement, however, may be very different:e.g. they may be shaped as circular holes (of a diam-eter of about 6 mm) and be situated at the neck orthe back of the head, or they may be irregular open-ings following the shape of the beak. The intakechamber ends at the top in a vertical tube, in somecases the tube has a conic tendency. If you pourwater into the intake chamber, both chambers forma system in the sense of communicating tubes.Filled with water to the half, the liquid may flowfrom one chamber into the other, if the vessel is tilt-ed axially. The water flowing into the whistlingchamber compresses the air which is forced througha narrow canal (the air duct) to the rim (the edge) ofthe circular window of a globular whistle9. Thewhistle sounds as long as the complete liquid hasflown into the whistling chamber and the air com-pression has thus come to an end. If the whistling

6 Hornbostel/Sachs 1914.7 Hickmann 1990, 53.8 Hickmann 1990, 323: Frheste Pfeiftpfe Perus konstru-

ierten Trger der Kultur Vics. Garrett/Stat 1977 look at69 whistling vessels, 20 of them of type A and 49 of them oftype B. The aim of their research is to measure the frequen-cy of the whistling vessels of eight pre-Columbian cultures.The average frequency of Type A, which features objects ofthe Vir, the Vis and the Moche is listed with 1320 Hz.The reference tone would be e with a frequency of 1320Hz. The pitch jump (double-noted whistle) of 14 objectsof this group is not explained any further: Fourteen whis-tles produced two distinct tones depending on the blowingpressure applied at the spout. The average frequency oftype B, featuring objects of the Chim and the Inka is list-ed with 2670 Hz. The reference tone would be e with2637 Hz. The average frequency of Recuay is listed with2000 Hz. The reference tone is h with 1980 Hz. The fre-quencies are interpreted as attributes specific for therespective culture. All the measurements undertaken in theMuseum for Ethnology Berlin stay within the limits of theexperiments of Garrett/Stat.

9 Olson 2002, 129.

The Peruvian Whistling Vessels of the Museum of Ethnology Berlin 145

vessel is moved in a slow axial swinging motion, bothcavities are filled and emptied in turns and a rhyth-mic whistling develops [CD I, sound sample 1]. Thesystem of the connected cavities merely serves toproduce the air compression. The size of the cavitieshas no effect on the sound of the whistle, as Hick-mann assumes10. The air compression depends onthe pace of the movement, therefore we may hearvariations of tone in a scope of around 50 cents.

TYPE B (objects with an exposed whistle)The exposed whistle is visible from outside and itssound may unfold freely in the open space (Fig. 7).It is either integrated in the handle or the body ofan animal, e.g. the body of a monkey or the headof a bird, serves as a globular whistle. Whistlingvessels of later cultures like of the Chim, theLambayeque and the Inka represent this type, butwe find this type also with the Recuay culture11.

B 1: One chamber plus an exposed whistle that issituated under the animal sculpture and has aseparate globular shape. The spout is funnel-shaped. Filled with water and blown at bymouth, a trilling tone resounds (EMB VA48308, Recuay, Fig. 8).

B 2: Two chambers plus an exposed whistle whichis situated in the handle. The object whistles, ifit is filled with water and is moved in a swing-ing motion ( EMB VA 17209, Chim).

B 3: Two chambers plus an exposed whistle insidethe handle producing a trill on one tone (EMBVA 48022, Chim, Fig. 9). Because the con-necting tube is high situated in the center of thechambers you can receive a good sound onlyby blowing.

B 4: Two chambers plus an exposed whistle; at thetop, the whistling chamber carries a plastic fig-ure ( EMB VA 16939, Lambayeque, Fig. 10).The head of the bird is the whistle. The objectmay sound as a swinging-vessel but much bet-ter by blowing at it.

B 5: Whistling vessel consisting of four chambersplus a whistle inside the handle. Sounded byblowing you can hear a trill (EMB VA 65824,Lambayeque, Fig. 11).

B 6: Whistling vessel consisting of a ring-shapedintake chamber plus a whistle inside the handle.Sounded by blowing you can hear a trill (EMBVA 835).

B 7: Whistling vessel in the shape of a ring withfour pigeons sitting on top of the ring whoseheads are modelled as exposed whistles, whichsound one after another, if the water inside ofthe ring is moved (EMB VA 18277).

The whistling vessels described above representonly a small choice of the whistling vessels of the

Museum for Ethnology Berlin. They particularlyillustrate the manifold variants of type 413.12 dou-ble-chambered whistling-jars appearing as type Aand type B. Triple-chambered whistling-jars413.13 and all other types consisting of more thantwo chambers always show an exposed whistleand thus belong to type B.

The analysis of the whistling jars from anacoustic point of view opens up to a dimensionthat is both historical as cultural. The early cul-tures like the Vir, the Vics and the Moche pre-ferred type A. The later cultures like the Chimand the Inka preferred type B.

3. TECHNOLOGY AND ACOUS-TICS OF THE WHISTLING VESSELS

3.1 THE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS FORTHE PRODUCTION OF SOUND INGLOBULAR FLUTES

Globular whistles belong to the family of the labi-al flutes12. Every labial flute consists of threeparts13: (a) of an air duct where the air is mouldedinto a sheet of air, (b) of an edge where the sheet ofair oscillates periodically, and (c) of a resonator,which limits the standing wave and thus designatesthe frequency of the tone essentially. (a) togetherwith (b) form the initiator of vibration, which getsthe energy it needs to build up a standing wave bythe air pressure the player of the whistle producesby blowing at it14. The initiator of vibration (theedge-tone) is nothing but a white noise, becauseno frequency is selected on the cavity of a res-onator. (c) is the producer of vibration which seesto it that the periodical vibrations, which havedeveloped inside the resonator, may unfold in theopen air, reach the eardrum and may be thus per-ceived as a tone.

All whistling vessels show globular resonators.The window is always circular, the air duct may besickle-shaped (with whistles of the Moche) or cir-cular (with whistles of the Chim, the Recuay andthe Lambayeque). The angle in which the sheet of

10 Hickmann 1990, 436: You can hear deep tones if the intakechamber is sounded by cross blowing. Tiefe, dunkle Tneerklingen, die m. E. nicht ohne Einflu auf die gesamteKlangentwicklung sein knnen. Eventuelle Wechsel-wirkungen mit der Tonerregung im Pfeifenaufsatz sindbisher nicht untersucht.

11 Hickmann 1990, 324: Und scheint auch die verdecktePfeifvorrichtung frher als offene konstruiert worden zusein, so ist doch festzustellen, da beide Arten derKlangerzeugung in verschiedenen Kulturen nebeneinandervorkamen (Bahia, Moche, Chim).

12 Stauder 1990, 81.13 Ruf 1991, 392.14 Stauder 1990, 82; Fletcher/Rossing 1991, 433.


air hits the edge is very difficult to perform withglobular whistles15. The shape and the cross-sec-tion of the air duct influence the sound. The sick-le-shaped air duct common with the Moche resultsin a softer vibration of the tones than commonwith Chim whistles. The sound spectrum of thiskind of whistles may be compared to the sound ofthe stopped organ-pipes, which means that alluneven partials may be formed within the soundspectrum, while all even partials are suppressed16.Especially the dominance of the third and the fifthpartial add a hollow, gloomy and dull character tothe sound. The keynote always sounds one octavelower than with an open flute having the same res-onator volume.

In secondary literature we often find the asser-tion that a whistling vessel is also able to produce atone if the liquid is poured out17. This assertion,which apparently goes back to Squier, has alreadybeen contradicted by Wilson18. With all thewhistling vessels tested in the Museum of Ethnol-ogy Berlin and with all the replicas, no tone couldbe produced by pouring out water either. If thewhistling chamber is emptied no tone is produced,because the physical conditions for the productionof a tone are lacking. The gurgling noises and thesucking in of air via the narrow air duct that onecan hear during the emptying of the whistlingchamber must not be denoted as a concrete tone. Itrather sounds like the noisy breathing of a livingcreature19. The process of sound production is notreversible with globular whistles, because the initi-ation of vibration always has to precede the pro-duction of vibration.

3.2. THE SHAPING OF SOUND INWHISTLING VESSELS

The air compression inside the whistling chamberis the precondition for the tone of the whistlingvessels. If the whistling vessels are moved whenfilled with water, the air compression is regulatedby the air duct and the diameter of the connectiontube. A large air duct in combination with a wideconnection tube is able to produce a single shorttone only. A large cross section of the connectiontube in combination with a narrow air duct isresponsible for the trilling of the whistling vessels.The trilling is produced because the air accumu-lates in the whistling chamber and then, in period-ic turns, recedes backwards into the intake cham-ber. The air escapes in bubbles and this process isaudible as a trilling, since the continuous compres-sion is interrupted. This principle holds both withexposed whistles (EMB VA 7687, Chim) as withenclosed whistles (EMB VA 62149, Moche). Awhistling vessel may also be brought to sound, if it

is blown at the intake chamber by mouth. Theduration of breath decides the length of the tone.If the intake chambers are half-filled with water, allwhistling vessels trill, no matter in which mannerthey are constructed. Whistling vessels with onechamber were probably always brought to soundin this manner only, as, by the mere movement ofwater in one chamber, no continuous air compres-sion may be produced20. Because of their specialtype of construction featuring a narrow air duct,all whistling vessels may as well be blown by cir-cular breathing21. Using this technique, the airpressure produced by blowing at the whistlingvessel can be maintained for a fairly long period oftime, so that the whistling vessels are whistling ortrilling for minutes without interruption. In addi-tion to that, the sound may be shaped additionallyby simultaneous singing, talking and rhythmicpulsating of the breath [CD I, sound sample 2].

Another possibility to generate sound is to boilthe water inside of a whistling vessel. Then, the

15 Hickmann 1990, 53.16 Ruf 1991, 150.17 EMB, object number 12 of the Gildemeister collection

shows a whistling vessel of the Chim culture, a double-chamber with the head of a parrot: Beim Ausgieen vonFlssigkeiten wird durch die Luftfhrung im Inneren desGefes ein Pfeifgerusch erzeugt. Display box: Artisantechniques in pre-Spanish Peru. Object number 5, Vicsculture: In das Doppelgef ist ein Mechanismus einge-baut. Beim Ausgieen erzeugt die eindringende Luft einenPfeifton. Schuler 1980. Im Kopf der Figur ist eine Pfeifeeingearbeitet, ber die beim Fllen oder Entleeren desGefes und beim Bewegen des Flssigkeitsspiegels imInneren die Luft in einem scharfen Luftzug hinwegstreichtund dadurch Tne erzeugt. Inka-Peru 1992, 138: DerPfeiflaut entsteht beim Ausgieen von Flssigkeiten durchdie dabei auftretende Luftzirkulation in einer bestimmtenVorrichtung im Kopf des Tieres. Anton 2001, 22: EineKuriositt in allen Perioden sind die Doppelgefe mitPfeifvorrichtung, Silvador genannt. Beim Ein- oder Aus-gieen des Wassers wird die Luft verdrngt, bzw. sie strmtein und erzeugt dabei einen leisen Pfeifton.

18 Squier 1877, 179. [] so that, in pouring water out of thevessel, air is not only admitted to supply the vacuum, but inpassing in or out often causes a sound imitating the note orcry of the bird or animal represented. Wilson (1898, 653)contradicts this statement: [] the author has not beenable to obtain any sound by pouring the water out. Wil-son notes that [] their sounds or notes are given whilethe air is forced out by the incoming water.

19 Olson 2002, 132.20 Ransom 1998, 12. Garrett/Stat 1977 are convinced that the

whistling vessels (filled with water or containing no water)were brought to sound by blowing at them by mouth, forunder these conditions only the authors concept of thepsycho-acoustic relevance of the whistling vessels may berealised. To measure the frequencies, they therefore use amechanic blowing construction. In this way, however, theyoversaw the fact that many whistling vessels of differentcultures are able to produce a trill in an autonomous man-ner, if the air compression is produced by the movement ofthe water.

21 One should note, however, that the use of circular breath-ing has not been proved yet with pre-Spanish cultures.


steam escapes through the air duct and generates asound such as in a tea kettle. The technique can beapplied to whistling vessels with two or morechambers and type A and type B whistles.Whistling vessels with a single chamber do notshow the effect, as the steam escapes through theinfill tube. This phenomenon of generating soundswith steam has been studied recently with replicasof Moche and Lambayeque whistling vessels.

3.3 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY RESO-NATORS AS A COUPLED SYSTEM

The pitch depends on the volume of the resonatorof the whistle, and with integrated whistles inaddition to that, on the volume of the secondaryresonator where the whistle is located. If a whistleis added to the secondary resonator, this results ina rise of frequency of around 100 cents, a phenom-enon that was noted with the replication ofwhistling vessels of the Moche culture22. The emit-ted sound does not have the frequency of thewhistle, but its frequency is the coupling frequen-cy of the producer of vibration and the secondaryresonator. The secondary resonator thus influ-ences oscillating motion of the sheet of air at theedge of the labium. All primary resonators ofwhistling vessels have a very small volume. Smallresonators generate fast oscillations, and thusresult in a high-pitched sound. The pitches rangefrom the fourth octave to with objects of theChim to the third octave with objects of theMoche.

A characteristic feature of all wind-instrumentsis their selective resonance; which means that inthe resonator only one single tone can be ampli-fied. With some whistling vessels of the integratedtype, however, we hear a second tone. Variousauthors observed this pitch jump, but found noexplication for it23. The air contained in a cavity ofany shape when set in vibration will give a tone. Ifa whistling vessel is supposed to produce a secondtone, the globular whistle has to be placed into asecondary resonator that starts to resonate, if aperiodic force builds up to a vibrating system thathas the natural frequency of the volume of the sec-ondary resonator. This secondary resonator fol-lows the principle of the Helmholtz resonator24,which is characterised by an unspecific resonance;it also amplifies tones that are neighbouring itsnatural frequency25. With a low blowing pressure,first of all, in the primary resonator, only the socalled low Maultne26 build up, which lie beneathits actual initiating frequency. The second tone ofsome whistling vessels of the Moche which isoften a major third or approximately a fifth lowerthan the first tone results from the natural tone

of the secondary resonator that is generated by theMaultne. If the blowing pressure goes up, thelower tone that was produced with less energy, issuperimposed by the higher tone and finally extin-guished. If we look at the relation between the sin-gle tones of the pitch jumps, we note that theyoften obey the laws of the harmonic series. Withglobular whistles the Maultne also include theuneven frequency components of the partials ofthe primary resonator. Mainly the fifth and thethird as third partial and fifth partial includingtheir octaves produce dominating components inthe frequency group of the Maultne. If the sec-ondary resonator of a whistling vessel is blown atlike an ocarina27, the low tone of the pitch jumpresounds. This observation proves the thesis of thefunction of the secondary resonator which startsto sound if a periodic force builds up to a vibrationin the field of its natural frequency. No pitchjumps less than a third or more than a fifth weremeasured. If the frequency of the primary res-onator is more than a fifth or less than a major

22 Rawcliffe 1992, 61: The pitch of the primary whistle isusually flattened when placed into the secondary cham-ber.

23 Wilson 1898, 656; Garrett/Stat 1977; Rawcliffe 2002, 258.Wilson 1898, 656: The author describes a whistling vesselof type A: The whistle is inside the head of a parrot. Thedocumented pitch jump is that of a major third (ce).The pitch jump happens [] without any intermediatesound. Rawcliffe 2002, 258 describes a whistling vessel ofthe enclosed type: This whistle within a chamber is thus apitch jump whistle. Rawcliffe 1992, 50: My own experi-ments with sound production in these instruments lead tothe hypothesis that the pitch of the generating whistle mustbe at an appropriate frequency to activate one of the sec-ondary chambers partials.

24 Helmholtz 1863, 6. Ausgabe 1913, 7376.25 Pierce 1985, 39: Wenn die Schallquelle Frequenzkompo-

nenten erzeugt, die weitgehend mit der Resonatorfrequenzdes Hohlraumresonators bereinstimmen, dann wird erdiese Harmonische verstrken und man hrt nur noch sie.Wood 1965, 27: We have seen that if a series of tuning-forks is held successively over the air in a bottle theresponse is greatest to the fork whose pitch is that of the airin the bottle. But if we try the experiment out carefully weshall find that the resonance is not sharp i.e., we not onlyget a response to the correctly tuned fork, but we get aresponse, less marked it is true, but quite appreciable, toforks a semiton, a tone, or even a third or fourth from thecorrect pitch..

26 Stauder 1990, 82: Ist der Winddruck sehr schwach, soertnen zunchst nur die tiefen sogenannten Maultne,deren Hhe mit steigendem Winddruck ebenfalls ansteigt,bis die tiefste Eigenfrequenz der Rhre (i.e. hier desPrimrresonators) erreicht ist.

27 Fletcher/Rossing 1991, 449: [] the ocarina, an instru-ment in which the resonator is a globular vessel that acts asa single-mode Helmholtz resonator the frequency of whichis raised as holes are opened, []. The tone is producedby using a flexible air duct (e.g. a straw) and by blowing atthe edge of an air vent or at the edge of the opening in thebeak.


third above the natural tone of the secondary res-onator, no standing wave is build up inside the sec-ondary resonator, because the components of thefrequency lie beyond the natural tone of the sec-ondary resonator. The air vents inside the sec-ondary resonator fulfil a double function: theyallow the tones to escape into the surroundingspace28, and at the same time, they decide the nat-ural tone of the secondary resonator. If single airvents are closed, the natural tone gets lower. Witha whistling vessel of type A (EMB VA 589), for thesecondary resonator a is listed, the pitch jump isae. When both air vents on the neck are closed,F sharp is measured with the secondary resonatorand just the tone e resounds. The secondary res-onator consequently is not able to start to res-onate, as the distance from its natural tone is morethan a fifth, and thus the secondary resonator losesits function as Helmholtz resonator. The pitchjump does not take place and the whistling vesselsolely produces the tone of the enclosed globularwhistle.

The primary resonator and the secondary reso-nator form a coupled system which is very proneto disturbance and only allows minor changes ofits constituting factors. This connection has to betaken into account when producing replicas of thewhistling vessels. Whistling vessels of type A withpitch jump we find in the cultures of the Vics andthe Moche. The accordance of the natural tone ofthe secondary resonator with the low tone of thepitch jump was observed with various originalobjects in the Museum of Ethnology Berlin(EMB VA 598, EMB VA 5662, EMB VA 48118).This connection was also noted during the replica-tion of whistling vessels (Fig. 12). Both observa-tions can be taken as a confirmation of the thesisthat the pitch jump can be explained on the basisof Helmholtzs analysis of the resonance ofacoustic systems29.

4. SUMMARY

At the end of this paper, let us sum up the resultsof the analysis:

The globular whistles belong to the family ofthe stopped labial flutes and share all the charac-teristic features of this family, which means thatthey correspond with the stopped labial flutes intheir way producing sound and in their partials.

Whistling vessels with two chambers cannotproduce a sound by pouring out water, because forthis effect the acoustic conditions are lacking.

The trill of the double-chambered whistlingvessels is based on the differentiated interplay ofthe cross sections of the air duct and the connec-tion tube.

The pitch jump results from the coupling of thefrequencies of the primary resonator and the sec-ondary resonator, which functions as a Helmholtzresonator.

Analysing the whistling vessels we realised thatwe are dealing with very complex systems. In theirproduction not only ceramic know-how isrequired, but also knowledge of the interaction ofthe constructional measures and of their acousticeffects.

If one wants to analyse a complex system, it isessential to develop a concept whose constitutingelements can be looked at separately. Thereforewith type A an experimental whistling vessel wasproduced (Fig. 13). The whistles and the sec-ondary resonators may be exchanged. Thus allpossibilities of how to produce a tone may bedemonstrated with this one object. In a pilotscheme different constructional conditions arecombined which produce different tones by inter-action: When a whistle is built inside the sec-ondary resonator, the frequency rises around 100cents, no matter which tone was measured withthe whistle beforehand. If we put a whistle with awide air duct inside the secondary resonator, wereceive a simple tone. If we put a whistle with anarrow air duct inside the secondary resonator, wereceive a tone with a trill. A whistle whose differ-ence in frequency to the natural tone of the sec-ondary resonator fulfils the conditions of the fifth third, produces a second tone inside the sec-ondary resonator. We hear a pitch jump. This con-nection could only be noted with whistles whosefrequency lies in the field of the third octave.

Replicating instruments of sound, their specificsound always has to be in the foreground. Theartisan must be able to differentiate between essen-tial and marginal elements of an instrument. Con-cerning whistling vessels only two possibilities forthe production of sound exist (type A or type B),in spite of the great diversity of their outer shape.The different functionality of these two typesforms the essential difference of these instrumentsof sound. The instrument builders credo (in Ger-many) is: Erst kapieren, dann kopieren (first ofall, understand it, then copy), which means thatonly the person who has understood the construc-tion and the physical precondition of the sound isable to produce a copy.

Although moulds were used, the production ofthe thin-walled cavities without a potters wheeland connecting these cavities with a tube and ahandle is a technical and artistic performance on avery high level. The different shrinkage of the cav-

28 Olson 2002, 129.29 Pierce 1985, 3839.


ities and of the massive elements has to be takeninto account when connecting the single parts. Thejoining of the single elements (cavity, massive han-dle or stirrup handle, connection tube, globularwhistle) can only take place in a leathery stage ofthe clay, otherwise the thin-walled cavities wouldbe deformed. The connection was probablyrealised using a kaolin clay suspension, a specialsuspension produced from coloured clay. This sus-pension also forms the basic material of the paint-ing. For the production of globular whistles onecould probably refer to handed down knowledge.This knowledge included the right conduction ofair through a tubular air duct plus the right blow-ing angle in which the air hits an edge of the circu-lar window. The whistles of the Recuay, theChim and the Inka follow this principle. Thewhistles of the Moche, however, seem to have beendeveloped particularly for their own characteristicwhistling vessels of the enclosed type. With theirwhistling vessels, the air duct is sickle shaped slitand the sheet of air is conducted very flatly abovethe circular window. This constructional meansresults in a soft, keynote sound. Apart from thewhistling vessels, this variant of globular whistlehas not been found anywhere else. The describedconstruction simplifies the production of a whis-tle, and besides that, the shrinking processes effectonly a minor influence on the cross section of theair duct. As an integrated whistle cannot be modi-fied after it is placed into the secondary resonator,the construction described above provides a highmeasure of certainty that the whistling vessels dofunction after the firing. The question, whether atechnological problem or an ideal of sound is thereason for this construction, cannot be answereddefinitely. With another phenomenon of thewhistling vessels of type A, the speculation thatthe ceramist wanted to fulfil an ideal of soundcomes to ones mind. The phenomenon referred tois the pitch jump. It is quite possible that theacoustic conditions for a pitch jump happened byaccident during the production of whistling ves-sels. The pitch jump may be witnessed with manywhistling vessels30; therefore we can assume that inpre-Spanish Peruvian cultures there already exist-ed some knowledge of the causal connectionbetween the constructional proportions andacoustic phenomena. All the whistling vessels inthe Museum for Ethnology Berlin with a pitchjump from the culture of the Moche have furtherfeatures in common: the head of a parrot in theirouter shape and their ability to trill31. The idea thatthere might be a connection between the soundand the animal figure shaping the whistling vesselscomes to ones mind. This assumption was dis-cussed in detail with an ornithologist of the Zoolo-gischer Garten, Berlin, but it could not be con-

firmed. Thus we cannot assume an imitating inten-tion. With all other whistling vessels there is noconnection between sound and the depicted ani-mal or other figure either32.

We started from the idea that the double cham-bered whistling vessels were brought to sound bythe movement of liquid inside of them33. If welook at the constructional conditions of this typeof sound production, which is based on the move-ment of liquid and the compression of air insidethe whistling chamber, we note that with somewhistling vessels of the Moche culture, this con-structional challenge was solved particularly well.In this case, we can suppose that their form wasdeveloped from their function, which is to say thatform followed function. This type is representedin different collections by various objects34. Char-acteristic features are the small intake chamber, thelarge whistling chamber, the whistle placed highup inside the head and the stirrup spout (EMB VA62140, Fig. 14). The liquid inside the small intakechamber never reaches the whistle high up insidethe head; even if the vessel is tilted extremely, thewater never pours out of the stirrup spout. Thisconstruction thus avoids all the problems whichmay happen while the vessel is swung back andforth by hand. Here a deliberate idea of design thatcared for the optimal function of the instrumentseems to have produced this special form ofwhistling vessel. It would be interesting to provein a comparing investigation if all these soundingtools can be assigned to one and the same ceramist.

When we compare type A to type B, we realisethat on the whole a development from complex tosimple can be noted. This holds both for theacoustic conditions as for the ceramic production.Type A with its integrated whistle is far more diffi-cult to produce, for in its production complexacoustic conditions have to be considered. Andfurthermore, type A is painted with great care, andthus its production takes more time than the pro-

30 Garrett/Stat 1977 report on fourteen whistling vessels withpitch jump. In the Museum of Ethnology Berlin fourobjects of type A with a pitch jump are preserved. The con-structional conditions for trilling might have been discov-ered by accident, too. When replicating whistling vessels,the author of this paper became aware of the connectionexplained in the text merely by accident.

31 Four of these whistling vessels are in the EthnologischesMuseum Berlin: EMB VA 48118, EMB VA 5662, EMB VA62140, EMB VA 598. One whistling vessel Wilson 1898,656 describes belongs to this type as well: The whistle isinside the head of a parrot.

32 Amaro 1996, 133; Olson 2002, 130: Very dissimilar figuressuch as, for example, human beings, felines, monkeys,ducks or parrots emit very similar sounds.

33 Olson 2002, 132.34 Hickmann 1990, 209, Fig. P 67: In the Museum of Ethnol-

ogy Berlin three objects of this type are preserved: EMBVA 62140, EMB VA 48118, EMB VA 18249.


duction of type B. With type B of the Chim cul-ture and the Lambayeque culture, the cavities arejoined together from single ready-made moulds.The Chim whistling vessels demonstrate nopainting, as the surface has already been designedas a relief when moulded and during the firingprocess a uniform black colour of the objects isachieved. By individual manual labour only thehandle with the whistle inside of it is joined inbetween the intake chamber and the whistlingchamber. Because of its simple production tech-nique, the type described above is suitable formass production. In the Museum of EthnologyBerlin the majority of the 326 whistling vesselsbelongs to type B; only 76 belong to type A. Withtype B the traces of modelling are very oftenremoved only carelessly, while in contrast to thatthe surface of type A is treated with great care.

The differences between type A and type B canbe explained on the basis of technological andacoustic differences. Further research is necessary,however, if one wants to find the reasons whichled to the changes of the different types.

METHODS

All frequencies were measured with a KORG AT-1, 440 HZ A-calibrated. When moving the vesselin slow axial swinging motions, the generatedsound often wavers in a range of approximately100 cents. In this case, the tone of the highest airpressure was recorded.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I owe special thanks to Dr. Manuela Fischer of theMuseum of Ethnology Berlin and Dr. Adje Bothfor the interest in my project and their great sup-port in all matters.

ABBREVIATIONS

SMB-PK Staatliche Museen zu Berlin-Preui-scher Kulturbesitz

EMB Ethnologisches Museum Berlin

EISLEB, D. 1987Altperuanische Kulturen IV: Recuay. Verf-fentlichungen des Museums fr VlkerkundeBerlin, Neue Folge 44. Berlin.

FLETCHER, N. H./ROSSING TH. D. 1991The Physics of Musical Instruments. New York.

GARRETT, S./STAT, D. K. 1977Peruvian Whistling Bottles, Journal of theAcoustical Society of America, Vol. 62, No. 2,449453.

HELMHOLTZ, H. VON 1863Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen. Braun-schweig. Zitiert nach 6. Ausgabe 1913, Nach-druck 1983. Hildesheim.

HICKMANN, E. 1990Musik aus dem Altertum der Neuen Welt.Frankfurt/Main.

HORNBOSTEL, E. M. VON/SACHS, C. 1914 Systematik der Musikinstrumente. Ein Ver-such, ZfE, 46. Jg., H. IV und V, 553590.

INKA-PERU 1992 3000 Jahre indianische Hochkulturen. Kata-log. Haus der Kulturen der Welt Berlin. Ber-lin.

JORALEMON, D. 1984 Symbolic Space and Ritual Time in a PeruvianHealing Ceremony. San Diego Museum ofMan, Ethnic Technology Notes, No. 19. SanDiego.

MARONN, E. 1964 Untersuchung zur Wahrnehmung sekundrer

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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ANDRITZKY, W. 1999 Traditionelle Psychotherapie und Schamanis-mus in Peru. Berlin.

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ANTON, F. 2001Die Bedeutung der Mochica innerhalb der pr-kolumbischen Kulturen Alt-Perus, in: Goldaus dem alten Peru: Die Knigsgrber vonSipan, 1038. Bonn.

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CASO, A./BERNAL, I./ACOSTA, J. 1968La cermica de Monte Alban. Mxico.

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Fig. 1 Five prehispanic cultures of Peru, where whistling vessels investigated in this paper were produced; drawings: F. Schmidt.


Fig. 2 Two-piece mould of the Lambayeque culture. The moulds were produced with the help of analready existing vessel: The clay was pressed around the pot and divided in two pieces when it was dry

enough; SMB-PK (EMB V A 47728); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

Fig. 3 One-chambered whistling vessel of type A from the Vics culture with ten air vents in thesecondary resonator; SMB-PK (EMB V A 64767); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.


Fig. 4 Double-chambered whistling vessel of type A produced by the Vics culture. The eyeholes arethe air vents of the secondary resonator; SMB-PK (EMB V A 64753); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

Fig. 5 Double-chambered whistling vessel of type A. The white ornament on red clay is typical of theMoche culture. A cross section of this sounding tool is shown in Fig. 6; SMB-PK (EMB V A 598); pho-

tograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.


Fig. 6 Type A cross section of a double-chamberedwhistling vessel with an enclosed whistle. The air ventsin the neck and in the beak tune up the own proper

pitch of the secondary resonator.

Fig. 7 Type B cross section of a whistling vessel with ex-posed whistle in the flat handle. This type is characte-ristic of objects of the Chim culture as shown in Fig. 9;

drawings: F. Schmidt.

Fig. 8 This one-chambered whistling vessel of type B belongs to the Recuay culture. The globularwhistle is situated separately between the legs of the little animal; SMB-PK (EMB V A 48308); photo-

graph: F. Schmidt, 2005.


Fig. 9 Type B double-chambered whistling vessel typical of the Chim culture. The exposed whistle issituated in the handle; SMB-PK (EMB V A 48022); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

Fig. 10 Type B double-chambered whistling vessel of the Lambayeque culture. The head of the littlebird serves as a globular whistle; SMB-PK (EMB V A 16939); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.


Fig. 11 Whistling vessel of the Lambayeque culture with four connected chambers and an exposedwhistle in the handle; SMB-PK (EMB V A 65 824); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

Fig. 12 Replica of a whistling vessel of the Moche culture made by F. Schmidt emitting a trill and apitch-jump. Six replicas of this Moche whistling vessel are sounded experimentally [CD I, sound

sample 1]; photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.


Fig. 13 With this experimental set the whistles and the secondary resonators can be exchanged. Fur-thermore a whistle can be tested separately before the insertion in the secondary resonator; photograph:

F. Schmidt, 2005.

Fig. 14 Double-chambered whistling vessel of the Moche culture with stirrup spout handle. In the largeair vent of the secondary resonator you can see the enclosed globular whistle; SMB-PK (EMB V

A 62140); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.


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Peruvian Whistling Vessels