Power Sentences Modifier - Wordiness - Double Negative - Essential/Non-Essential Elements Incorrect Verb Tense, Sequence, and Mood - Vague or Ambiguous Pronoun Improper Pronoun Case

Power Sentences™

A Common Errors Approach

to Writing Effective Sentences

Janice E. Arrowsmith

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Grammar: Sentence Analysis

Verbs - Nouns - Modifiers (Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositional phrases)

Dependent Clauses - Verbal Phrases

Common Errors: Clarity and Style

Usage

Fragment - Run-on/Comma-Splice - Lack of Agreement (Subject-Verb, Pronoun-Antecedent)

Misplaced Modifier - Wordiness - Double Negative - Essential/Non-Essential Elements

Incorrect Verb Tense, Sequence, and Mood - Vague or Ambiguous Pronoun

Improper Pronoun Case - Lack of Parallelism - Words Commonly Confused

Dangling Element - Faulty Comparison

Punctuation Comma - Semicolon - Colon - Apostrophe - Quotation Marks - Italics/Underlining

Composing: Writing for Reinforcement Writing Practice and Challenges

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How does Power Sentences help writers? Student writers learn to recognize and to use consciously those word groups that previously they have used automatically. Conscious use of form and function gives writers control of their sentences … and of their writing. Why should we study grammar, usage, and punctuation? We study the sentence and its parts in order to gain a sense of control over our own writing. We get pleasure from crafting sentences deliberately. This creative and analytical control over sentence-writing expands our paragraph writing ability. When we are comfortable using Standard Written English, we open doors for future opportunities in our lives. �

Power Sentences™ is a trademark of Power Sentences. Product and company names mentioned herein may be the trademarks of their

respective owners. The example names, people, places, and events depicted herein are fictitious; no association with any real person, place,

or event is intended or should be inferred.

Cover: A Mobius band is a surface with only one side. To make a Mobius band, cut a strip of paper, twist it once,

and tape it together. When you run a pencil-line along the center of the strip, you write on both sides of the paper!

What was inside is now outside, and vice versa. This curiosity was discovered independently by the German

mathematicians August Ferdinand Möbius and Johann Benedict Listing in 1858. In studying grammar and usage,

the more you know about the inside of a sentence, the more skillfully you can phrase your thoughts. Form and

function, convention and style, analysis and synthesis, logic and creativity: All are elements along a continuum.

ISBN 978-0-9760343-2-2 September 2007

Copyright © 2007 by Janice E. Arrowsmith. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any

electronic or mechanical means, including photocopying, without permission in writing from the copyright holder.

www.PowerSentences.com

[email protected]

1

Part One: Basic Level

Chapter 1 - Grammar Sentence Awareness

Effective writers learn to see the sentence from various points of view. Chapter 1 emphasizes “seeing” the sentence

as an independent structure and as a composite of main parts.

A Sentence = A Complete Thought

The Sentence is an Independent Structure

A sentence is a complete thought.

A sentence is the expression of a single idea.

Recognizing sentences: The following word groups are sentences. They all express complete thoughts. Read them

aloud to hear their completeness.

1. Philip is a doctor.

2. Open the door.

3. The student played hockey.

4. Are you going to the game?

5. The package was opened by the teacher.

Note: In all Composing exercises, write simple, direct sentences that are similar to the sentences in the examples.

Avoid using pronouns as subjects (he, she, they) - nouns are interesting.

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1. book

2. clock

3. car

4. drive

5. swing

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1. Keep a daily journal. Record in a single sentence the most significant fact, idea, or concept that you have

learned each day.

2. Create a quotation booklet. Record ten significant sentences you hear or read.

Chapter 1 - Grammar

2

3. Design a sentence collage focusing on an abstract concept such as truth, beauty, loyalty, friendship. Include

both pictures and favorite one-sentence quotations about the concept.

4. Write a dialogue in which two characters discuss a problem. Compose the dialogue using complete sentences.

The Sentence is a Composite of Main Parts

How is a sentence composed? Every sentence has two main parts:

something or someone talked about: traditionally, it is called the subject.

an action or state of being: traditionally, it is called the verb.

The verb is a word or word group that shows action or being. examples: Andrea jumps high. Jose is here.

The verb is usually the first element that you locate.

The subject is the part talked about. examples: Andrea jumps high. Jose is here.

The subject usually answers the question who? or what? about the verb.

s v

The boy throws the ball

verb: throws - shows action

subject: boy - answers the question “Who throws?”

s v

A hobby is enjoyable.

verb: is - shows being

subject: hobby - answers the question “What is?”

A sentence contains a verb and its subject and expresses a complete thought.

Recognizing verb and subject: Identify the verb and subject. Put v and s over the identified words.

1. With sad eyes, the defendant appealed to the jury.

2. The worker tossed the trash into the dumpster.

3. Into the wide river swam the hungry crocodile.

4. The Mexican restaurant was an immediate success.

5. At the edge of the forest were three houses.

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1. (use the sense of touch)

2. (use the sense of taste)

3. (use the sense of smell)

Sentence Awareness

3

4. (use the sense of hearing)

5. (use am, is, or are)

Is a single word ever a sentence? Yes, a single verb sometimes represents a sentence. Its subject is not expressed.

The subject is understood. v example: Stop.

verb: Stop - shows action

subject: You (understood) - answers the question “Who stops?”

Recognizing v-s: Identify with v the verb without a subject. Write the understood subject on the line.

1. The swim coach shouted, “Go!” ___________________

2. The trainer turned to her dog: “Stay.” ___________________

3. “Charge!” said the excited shopper. ___________________

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1.

2.

3.

Is every group of words that contains a verb and its subject a sentence? No, some groups of words that contain

a verb and its subject do not express complete thoughts.

s v

That Harry ran. incomplete thought (sentence fragment)

s v

When you are ready. incomplete thought (sentence fragment)

Recognizing fragments: Underline the word groups that look like sentences but are not complete thoughts.

1. The box was so heavy. That the delivery person needed a hand-cart.

2. Being interested in making films. Brent saved money to buy a video recorder.

3. The beggar stayed on the bench all night.

4. Talking only about taxes. The politician ignored other issues.

5. When the lights came up. The audience went to the snack table.

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Chapter 5 - Grammar Noun, Pronoun, Preposition

The Six Noun Functions

What is a Noun?

A noun is a word or word group that names a person, place, thing, quality, idea, or action.

Recognizing nouns: Complete the chart with your own examples of each type of noun.

Type of noun Example Example Example Example

Person sky-diver

Place stadium

Thing jellyfish

Quality happiness

Idea journey

Action running

How can a noun be identified in a particular sentence?

It can be identified with any of the Five Test Questions for Nouns.

Five Test Questions for Nouns

1. Is the sentence element something (or someone) that can be “talked about”?

Use the nouns you wrote into the chart above. Put each noun into the blank on this sentence:

“I can talk about (a, an, the) ______________________.”

2. If the sentence element is one word, can you put a, an, or the in front of it?

The truth is evident. Noun: truth names a quality.

One can talk about truth. One can say The truth is clear.

Hiking is invigorating. Noun: hiking names an action.

One can talk about hiking. One can say The hiking was a treat.

3. Can you replace the noun with it, something, or someone? These words can be substituted for a noun.

Honesty is important. = It is important. = Something is important.

Noun, Pronoun, Preposition

53

4. Does the element answer a noun question (who, whom, or what)?

Anything that answers who, whom, or what is a noun.

examples: The dentist is a specialist. [Who is a who?]

The woman arrived with her daughter. [Who arrived with whom?]

The office seemed enormous. [What seemed enormous?]

5. Does the element serve one of the six noun functions (S, PN, APP, DO, IO, OP)?

Note: Nouns are used in only six ways. Here are the six noun functions:

S subject APP appositive IO indirect object

PN predicate noun DO direct object OP object of the preposition

Any sentence element that is used as a noun is a noun!

Form and Function: If the form (word, phrase, or clause) functions as a noun, it is a noun.

Practice with the six noun functions (s, pn, app; do, io+do, op)

1. Subject (s) - A noun that tells who or what is or does.

s lv pn s av do

Tim is a sailor. Tim ties knots.

(=)

2. Predicate noun (pn) - A noun that follows a linking verb and renames the subject.

s lv pn s lv pn

Tom is a soldier. Tom’s vehicle is a tank.

3. Appositive (app) - A noun that directly follows another noun and renames it.34

s app av s av do app

Ginger, my collie, performs many tricks. Don watered the plant, a butterfly bush.

4. Direct object (do) - A noun that tells whom or what after an action verb.

s av do

Robin swatted the fly.

5. Indirect object (io) - A noun that tells to/for whom or to/for what after an action verb.

s av io do

Mary gave Tim the sandwich.

An indirect object always comes between an action verb and a direct object.

6. Object of preposition (op) - A noun that answers the questions what or whom after a preposition.

s av do op

Mary won the award (for accuracy). (Place parentheses around a preposition and its object.)

s av do op

Ms. Ginn handed the hall pass (to Rasheed).

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Punctuation: An appositive is usually set off by commas. An exception to this rule occurs when a proper name is an

appositive. For example, the two appositives in the following sentence do not need commas: The poet Dylan Thomas inspired

songwriter Bob Dylan to change his name from Robert Zimmerman.

Chapter 5 - Grammar

54

Recognizing the six noun functions: In each sentence, identify the verb and subject. Then identify the underlined

noun function.

1. Subject (s) - A noun that tells who or what the sentence is about:

a. My dog, Jake, is a poodle.

b. We saved money for our vacation.

c. Around the corner is a newspaper stand.

2. Predicate noun (pn) - A noun that follows a linking verb and renames the subject:

d. My dog, Jake, is a poodle.

e. This morning is the time for good news.

f. The structure at the back is a red shack, a tool shed.

3. Appositive (app) - A noun that directly follows another noun and renames it:

g. My dog, Jake, is a poodle.

h. At the back is a little red shack, a tool shed.

i. The band conductor distributed the music, a famous march.

4. Direct object (do) - A noun that tells whom or what after an action verb:

j. We saved money for our vacation.

k. Sam asked Jill the first question.

l. Mario gave Maureen the pizza.

5. Indirect object (io) - A noun that tells to/for whom or to/for what after an action verb. Remember that an indirect

object always comes between the action verb and a direct object:

m. Jill gave Sam the right answer.

n. Inez passed Julia a note.

o. The IRS gives everyone tax forms.

6. Object of preposition (op) - A noun that answers the questions what or whom after a preposition.

p. We saved money (for our vacation).

q. (Around the corner) is a newspaper stand.

r. Mario gave the pizza (to Maureen).


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What are Prepositions?

Prepositions are words that show relationships, especially relationships in time and space.35

This shortcut identifies many prepositions: A preposition is anywhere a cat can go!

A cat can go on the desk, around the desk, under the desk,

over, near, by, below, on top of the desk, and so on.

There are about forty prepositions. Prepositions can also be two or three words long. Each is still considered to be

one preposition. Practice saying these common prepositions in phrases:

Example: about the hurricane! above the stage!

about at but* in onto toward along with

above before by inside out under because of

across behind concerning into outside until according to

after below down like over up in case of

against beneath during near past upon next to

along beside except of since with

among between for off to within

around beyond from on through without

(*Note: but is a preposition when it means except. example: “Everyone but Sue arrived late.”)

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and a noun. Sometimes the noun has words that describe it.

Each prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun.

The noun which follows a preposition is always the object of the preposition (op).

Note: From now on, in all sentences that you analyze, identify the verb/subject and place

parentheses around every prepositional phrase.36

Finding prepositions and their objects: Put parentheses (…..) around the prepositional phrases in the paragraph

below. The first one is already marked. Reminder: Identify the v-s first.

Marty asked (for help) with math. The problems in the book were difficult for Marty. With extra practice,

Marty knew the material. By working with the teacher for three sessions after school, Marty felt

confident. On the test at the end of the chapter, Marty received a B+. He accepted this mark with pride.

How many prepositional phrases are in these six sentences? __________

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35

The word preposition comes from the Latin pre plus posit meaning “to place before.” To “pre-position” the noun is to attach

the noun to a sentence because that noun has an important connection to another word in the sentence. 36

Instructor: Here is another requirement that makes sentence analysis manageable both now and later when the sentences

become complicated. Students learn that adjective and adverb prepositional phrases (placed in parentheses) and adjective and

adverb clauses [placed in brackets] can be stripped from a sentence to reveal the basic sentence pattern of Subject-Verb-

Complement. Thus, from now on, make certain that students put parentheses (around prepositional phrases).

Chapter 5 - Grammar

56

Recognizing prepositional phrases: Put parentheses around the prepositional phrases in each sentence. Remember

always to identify verbs and subjects.37

op s v op op

example: (In the spring), we walk (along the canal) (next to our neighborhood).

1. The messenger for the company stopped several times along the route.

2. With the radar gun at her window, the police officer sat at the side of the highway.

3. From the car we could hear the chirps of the frogs in the pond.

4. The kitten with the crooked tail came into my room and slept by my bed.

5. A pilot in a yellow plane flew over the beach during the afternoon.

Bonus: 6. Read aloud each sentence above, but omit all prepositional phrases. Tell what you notice.

7. In sentence 3, why is there no comma after the introductory phrase from the car?

8. How are sentences 1-5 more interesting than sentences in previous pages?

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Recognizing the six noun functions: Identify these sentence parts. Be sure to proceed in the following order:

1. The verb (v); then the subject (s); then decide whether the verb is action (av) or linking (lv).

2. Any prepositional phrases.

3. Any complements: do, io+do, pn, pa.

4. Any remaining noun functions: app or op.

(Remember to put parentheses around prepositional phrases and to write v-s above verbs and subjects.)

s av op

example: The dancers perform (on the stage).

1. The conversation is long. [Notice that, from now on, you are accountable for all six noun functions.]

2. Ian helped the family in Brazil.

3. The team traveled across the state.

4. Paulette questioned Lamar about the movie.

5. Mrs. Truett, a judge, lives in the neighborhood.

6. Pam gave Vince a ride.

37

Instructor: Some students can find prepositional phrases more easily than they can locate verbs and/or subjects. So be it! The

point is to see that prepositional phrases are never subjects, verbs, or complements. Also, students begin to see that the basic

sentence (S-V-Complement) can stand alone, without the added information provided by prepositional phrases. Soon, students

realize that modifiers add meaning to a sentence but are not essential to the basic sentence pattern. Power Sentences

recommends that students find S-V-Complements first and then find modifiers second; however, if your students like to locate

prepositional phrases first, then allow them to do so.


57

7. Pam gave a ride to Vince.

8. The writing on the container is tiny.

9. Norm showed Meg the frog.

10. The notebook, a study tool, is a valuable item.

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To create and to check your sentences, always identify each verb and its subject, then any prepositional phrases,

then any complements, and then any appositives. The six noun functions are: s, pn, app, do, io+do, op

s av do

example: s - av - do The swimmer accepted the award.

1. av - do

2. av - io - do

3. av - op

4. lv - pn - app

5. lv - pa

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1. s - op - av - do

2. s - av - do - op

3. s - lv - pn - op

4. s - lv - pn - op - app

5. op - s - av - io - do - op

What is a Pronoun?

A pronoun (pro-noun) literally means standing FOR a noun. A pronoun takes the place of a noun.

noun pronoun

example: The fox looked outside. Then she emerged from the den.

Since a pronoun is a type of noun, a pronoun functions as any of the six noun functions.

A pronoun can do whatever a noun can do.

Recognizing pronouns: Analyze S-V-Comp and prepositional phrases in each sentence.

On the line write how the underlined pronoun is used.

s av do op

example: do Seth asked her (to the game).

92

Chapter 8 - Common Errors Misplaced Element

Apostrophe

Common Error F: Misplaced Element (Placement of Modifiers and Appositives) (misp)

Principle: Word, phrase, and clause modifiers should be placed as close as possible to the words that they

emphasize or modify. Appositives should be placed as close as possible to the words that they rename.

Problem: Word, phrase, and clause modifiers function incorrectly or illogically because they have been misplaced.

Appositives rename illogically because they have been misplaced.

Misplaced sentence parts can be amusing and are usually distracting. When the modifier or appositive is placed

correctly, the sentence has focus, clarity, and power.

F1. word

Rule: An emphasizing modifier such as only, just, or even should be placed as close as possible to the word(s)

emphasized.

error: I only saw Shirley at the game, no one else.

analysis: I only saw Shirley at the game, no one else.

Clue: The expression no one else indicates that Shirley should be emphasized:

The speaker saw only Shirley, not Shirley and Henry and Avery.

correct: I saw only Shirley at the game, no one else.

error: I saw only Shirley at the game, not at the party.

analysis: I saw only Shirley at the game, not at the party.

The speaker saw Shirley only at the game: Maybe Shirley did not attend the party!

The speaker wants to emphasize that the game is the only place he/she saw Shirley.

Clue: The expression not at the party indicates that the similar phrase at the game

should be emphasized.

correct: I saw Shirley only at the game, not at the party.

Read the following sentence several times, moving the word only from one asterisk to the next. Decide what new

meaning each sentence conveys.

* Oscar * asked * Kayla * to the dance * .

Only Oscar asked Kayla to the dance. = ________________________________________________

Oscar only asked Kayla to the dance. = ________________________________________________

Oscar asked only Kayla to the dance. = ________________________________________________

Oscar asked Kayla only to the dance. = ________________________________________________

Oscar asked Kayla to the dance only. = ________________________________________________

Note: Other commonly misplaced words include just, almost, hardly, nearly, exactly, merely, scarcely.

Misplaced Element, Apostrophe

93

Recognizing F1: Identify s-v and circle or box any misplaced modifiers. Then revise the sentence to correct the

error. On the line, write the word the modifier describes.

______ 1. Charlie only entered the tunnel to find Paul, not the crystals.

______ 2. The army just contained five hundred soldiers, not five thousand.

______ 3. A hard worker, Gabriel almost had enough money to buy the motorboat.

______ 4. The warm weather barely was enough to compensate for the loud noises on the beach.

______ 5. Miguel only learned English last fall when he arrived in the United States.

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* Baseball team owners * say that * high salaries * motivate * players. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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2.

3.

4.

5.

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1. error:

correct:

2. error:

correct:

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F2. appositive

Principle: An appositive should be placed as close as possible to the noun(s) it renames.

Reminder: An appositive (app) is a noun that directly follows another noun and renames it.

s av do op app

example: The mailman gave the package (to the neighbor), Walter.

analysis: Walter renames neighbor and comes immediately after neighbor.

challenge: Identify the sentence parts and label the appositive in this revision:

The mailman gave the package to Walter, the neighbor.

What do you realize about the appositive and the noun it renames?

Chapter 8 - Common Errors

94

Remember: An appositive should be placed as close as possible to the word it renames.

error: Mostly sparrows, the new birdhouse attracted many birds.

app s av do

analysis: Mostly sparrows, the new birdhouse attracted many birds. sparrows = birds

correct: The new birdhouse attracted many birds, mostly sparrows.

reason: The appositive phrase mostly sparrows renames birds.

Recognizing F2: Box the appositive or appositive phrase and place it next to the noun it renames. Write that noun

on the line.

___________ 1. The computer aids countless business workers, an important modern tool.

___________ 2. The elephant fascinated scientists and the general public, a huge animal with gentle ways.

___________ 3. A help to mankind, people everywhere in the world value electricity.

___________ 4. A Dilbert doll sat on Don’s computer for years, Don’s favorite cartoon character.

___________ 5. A crystal-clear liquid spray, the optician gave Jan a purse-size container of lens cleaner.

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1. error:

correct:

2. error:

correct:

F3. prepositional phrase

Rule: A prepositional phrase should be placed as close as possible to the word(s) emphasized.

error: We saw an advertisement for a student who can type on the bulletin board.

s av prep. phrase

analysis: We saw an advertisement for a student who can type (on the bulletin board).

The sentence suggests that the student will sit on the bulletin board to type!

correct: We saw an advertisement on the bulletin board for a student who can type.

Recognizing F3: Identify s-v. Box misplaced modifiers and place them as close as possible to the words they

modify. On the line, write the noun modified.

___________ 1. Fred bought a wrench with a twelve-inch handle at the hardware store.

___________ 2. Reggie and Anun saw an advertisement for a person who sells cars in the newspaper.

___________ 3. My dog barked at the robin on the tree branch with his tail wagging.

___________ 4. The narrator said that most snakes are poisonous on television.

___________ 5. Aunt Kate asked a question about the cake recipe on the telephone.

115

Part Two: Advanced Level

Chapter 10 - Grammar Incorrect Verb Form

Dependent Clause

Verb Form: Verbs change form as they function to show correct tense (time) and mood (manner) of an action or a

state of being.

Principle Parts of a Verb

The principal parts of a verb are the infinitive, present participle, past, and past participle. They are used to create

verbs and verbals.

Infinitive Present Participle Past Past Participle

(to) be being was (have/had) been

(to) work working worked (have/had) worked

(to) see seeing saw (have/had) seen

Irregular verbs: In English, most verbs form their four principal parts as in work above. However, many

commonly used verbs have irregular endings in their past and/or past participle forms, as in be and see above. A

speaker/writer must take care to use the correct form. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.

Awareness of irregular verbs: Circle or box the correct verb and write its infinitive, past, and present participle.

example: I was sad because it (begun, beginned or began)to rain. to begin began have begun

1. Haven’t you (wrote or written) the directions yet?

__________ __________ ______________

2. I haven’t (swum, swam, or swimmed) in the pool yet this year.

__________ __________ ______________

3. The child (burst, bursted, or busted) the balloon.

__________ __________ ______________

4. After I had (see, saw, or seen) the construction, I was amazed.

__________ __________ ______________

5. After the bell had (rang, rung, or ringed), the fighters stood up.

__________ __________ ______________

6. We should have (went or gone) when we had the chance.

__________ __________ ______________

7. The team had (beat, beated, or beaten) their opponents every time.

__________ __________ ______________

8. The deer (sprung, springed, or sprang) across the road.

__________ __________ ______________

9. After the accident, Sal’s ligaments were (teared, tore, or torn).

__________ __________ ______________

10. Have you (chosen, choosen, or choosed) the winners yet?

__________ __________ ______________

11. I loved the way that they (singed, sang, or sung) at the concert.

__________ __________ ______________

12. The lake was (frozen, froze, or freezed) over by mid-December.

__________ __________ ______________

Chapter 10 - Grammar

116

13. We have (drank, drinked, or drunk) all the soda.

__________ __________ ______________

14. She has (rode, ridden, or rided) this horse many times.

__________ __________ ______________

15. Mark has (bringed, brang, brung, or brought) me a present.

__________ __________ ______________

More practice with irregular verbs. Complete the chart using correct forms of these verbs. Notice the dialog

prompts that help your ears hear the right form - but be sure you are right!

Infinitive Present Participle Past Past Participle

“to ……..” “today, I am ….ing” “yesterday, I …..” “often, I have ……”

drag

draw

fall

fly

grow

know

speak

swing

take

Six troublesome verbs: lie/lay, sit/set, rise/raise. These three commonly misused pairs of verbs are important to

learn and use correctly. Pay special attention to the past and past participle forms.

Meaning Verb Present

Participle Past

Past

Participle Takes a direct object? (Yes/No)

recline lie lying lay have lain No - Yesterday, I lay down.

place it lay laying laid have laid Yes - Yesterday, I laid it down.

go up rise rising rose have risen No - The sun rose yesterday.

lift it up raise raising raised have raised Yes - The person raised it high.

sit! sit sitting sat have sat No - We sat down.

put it set setting set have set Yes - We set it down.

� Make a chant to help memorize these commonly misused verbs:

LIE means RECLINE! lie, lying, lay, have lain!

LAY means PLACE! lay, laying, laid, have laid!

RISE means ASCEND! rise, rising, rose, have risen!

RAISE means LIFT! raise, raising, raised, have raised!

SIT means SIT! sit, sitting, sat, have sat!

SET means PUT! set, setting, set, have set!

Verb Form, Dependent Clause

117

Practice with troublesome verbs. Circle or box the correct verb and write its infinitive form and meaning on the

line.

example: sit-sat Gerry or (sat or set) down in the chair to watch television.

___________________ 1. Please (lie or lay) down and get a good rest.

___________________ 2. The gelatin pudding (lies or lays) in a mold until it is firm.

___________________ 3. Sylvia, our cat, (lay or laid) sleeping in the shade.

___________________ 4. Mary (lay or laid) the boxes on the table.

___________________ 5. The Conleys were (lying or laying) on the deck.

___________________ 6. The landscapers have (lain or laid) the sod on our front lawn.

___________________ 7. Marty has (lain or laid) in bed for three weeks.

___________________ 8. My soufflé (rose or raised) elegantly.

___________________ 9. The director of development must (rise or raise) funds for the college.

___________________ 10. I saw the balloon (rising or raising) in the air.

___________________ 11. The conductor told Hank to (sit or set) the trumpet on the table.

___________________ 12. Every morning, I see the custodian (rising or raising) the flag.

___________________ 13. Geena was tired and needed to (sit or set) her suitcase down.

Verb Tenses

The tense of a verb indicates the time of the action or state of being expressed by the verb.

error: I got home late, and Mom fusses at me for not calling to tell her where I was.

analysis: I got home = past tense

Mom fusses = present tense

where I was = past tense

correct: I got home late and Mom fussed at me for not calling to tell her where I had been.

analysis: I got home = past tense

Mom fussed = past tense

where I had been = past perfect tense

The six verb tenses: Every verb has six tenses.

the simple tenses are present past future

the perfect tenses are present perfect past perfect future perfect


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Function and Form of verb tenses: The chart shows how each verb tense functions and how it is formed.

Tense Function Form

present tense shows action or being happening now I walk.

past tense shows action or being completed in the past I walked.

future tense shows action or being happening in the future

I shall walk.

formula: will or shall +

infinitive form of the verb

present perfect tense shows action or being existing or happening

recently but before the present

I have walked.

formula: have + past participle

form of the verb

past perfect shows action or being completed before a

specific time in the past

I had walked.

formula: had + past participle

form of the verb

future perfect shows action or being existing or happening

before a specific time in the future.

I shall have walked.

formula: shall have/will have +

past participle form of the verb

Practice with verb tenses: In each sentence pair, identify the verb and subject. On the line, write the verb tense. Be

prepared to discuss the shade of meaning implied by the tense.

__________________ 1a. I visited my aunt for several summers.

__________________ 1b. I have visited my aunt for several summers.

__________________ 2a. Mr. Ling was the principal for twenty years.

__________________ 2b. Mr. Ling has been the principal for twenty years.

__________________ 3a. The president has left everything up to our committee.

__________________ 3b. The president had left everything up to our committee.

__________________ 4a. We will take the first plane to Chicago.

__________________ 4b. We will have taken the first plane to Chicago.

__________________ 5a. I remember that I have promised to go.

__________________ 5b. I remembered that I had promised to go.

More practice with verb tense: Change the tenses of the italicized verbs as indicated. Then discuss how the

meaning of the sentence changes.

_________________________________ 1. When the bell rings, I will finish. [change to future perfect]

_________________________________ 2. Ivan worked there for a year. [change to past perfect]

_________________________________ 3. Is she waiting? [change to present perfect]

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Agreement: Verb in a Dependent Clause

Misplaced Clause Wordiness Double Negative

Incorrect Verb Form (tense, sequence, mood)

Quotation Marks and Italics

Final Review: Punctuation

Common Error D. Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement (agr) (continued)

D6. verb in a dependent clause

Principle: The verb in a dependent clause agrees with the subject of that clause.

Problem: The writer may have to look at the antecedent of the subject of the clause to determine whether the

subject of the clause is singular or plural.

error: Alice is one of those students who receives a trophy.

analysis: Alice is one (of those students) [who receive/receives a trophy].

The adjective clause [who receive/receives a trophy] refers to the noun, students.

Since students is plural, then the pronoun who is plural and its verb is plural.

The correct S/V is who receive.

Think: Students receive a trophy.

They receive a trophy.

Students who receive a trophy … .

Alice is one of those students who receive a trophy.

correct: Alice is one of those students who receive a trophy.

Recognizing D6: Read the sentence and write v-s above the verb and subject. Identify the clause and find its

antecedent. Decide if an error is present. Correct the sentence and then identify the error using the following codes: D. Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement


C. Correct Sentence

______ 1. John is one of the boys who is able to hit from either side of the plate.

______ 2. Katrina is one of the hurricanes that is featured in Storms of This Century.

______ 3. John Denver is one of the famous musicians who lives on in their music.

______ 4. A birdbath is one of the features that attracts birds to a garden.

______ 5. This workshop is one of many meetings that inspires me.

exception: Suppose 5 says, “This workshop is the only one of the many meetings that inspires me.”

analysis: If the word only appears in the sentence pattern, the logic of sentence is that only one

meeting inspires me. Thus, the antecedent of the adjective clause that inspires me is the

phrase only one.

correct: This workshop is the only one of the many meetings that inspires me.

Practicing with only: Read the sentence and write v-s above the verb and subject. Identify the clause and find its

antecedent. Decide if an error is present. Correct the sentence and then identify the error using the following codes: D. Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement


C. Correct Sentence


134

______ 1. A sparrow is the only one of the local birds that fit into the new birdhouse.

______ 2. The guitar is the only one of the instruments that sound off-key.

______ 3. Canvas is one of the painting surfaces that appeals to the artist.

______ 4. Canvas is the only one of the painting surfaces that appeals to the artist.

______ 5. Felicia is one of those fans who always talks about sports.

______ 6. Felicia is the only one of the cheerleaders who has three years’ experience.

______ 7. Give me one of those dishes which has a chip on the side.

��

1. error with one of:

correct:

2. error with the only one of:

correct:

Common Error F. Misplaced Element (misp) (continued)

F4. misplaced clause

Principle: A modifying clause should be placed as close as possible to the word(s) that it modifies.

Problem: A misplaced clause causes confusion in a sentence.

error: Dad gave Mom a weekend cabin in the mountains, which he had built himself.

analysis: The clause which he had built himself sounds like it’s describing the mountains.

correct: Dad gave Mom a weekend cabin, which he had built himself, in the mountains,

Recognizing F4: Read the sentence and write v-s above the verb and subject. Decide if an error is present. Correct

the sentence and then identify the error using the following codes: F. Misplaced Element

F4. clause

C. Correct sentence

______ 1. We saw the plane taxi onto the field that would soon be leaving for Chicago.

______ 2. The man lifted the rock with a net which was heavy.

______ 3. John waved to his ninety-year-old neighbor who was skateboarding briskly down the street.

______ 4. Aunt Tilsa placed the vase in the room which she had just purchased.

______ 5. Yolanda ate lunch near the fountain which consisted of cheese sandwiches, chips, and soda.

Note: Did you feel that, in some sentences, you were moving a phrase rather than a clause? In a quiz or test, those

sentences could be considered either F3 (prepositional phrase) or F4 (misplaced clause).

Agreement, Misplaced Clause, Wordiness, Double Negative, Verb Form, Quotation Marks, Italics, Final Punctuation Review

135

��

1. error:

correct:

2. error:

correct:

Recognizing D6, F4: Read the sentence and write v-s above the verb and subject. Decide if an error is present.

Correct the sentence and then identify the error using the following codes: D. Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement


F. Misplaced Element

F4. clause

C. Correct Sentence

______ 1. Spring is one of the seasons that fills me with pleasure.

______ 2. The day soon turned dismal that began bright and clear.

______ 3. General Busker is one of the leaders who teach the geography class.

______ 4. At the hardware store, Felix bought a hammer that was offering a half-price sale.

______ 5. Mysteries are the only type of books that interest Phil.

______ 6. Julia repaired her car carefully that needed new ignition wires.

Common Error G. Wordiness (wdy)

Principle: Effective writing is concise.

Problem: Unnecessary repetition in words, phrases, or clauses obscures the meaning of a sentence.

error 1: In my opinion, I think that you should attend summer school.

error 2: Every single individual student in this class should study diligently.

error 3: Often, Jane stopped by our house frequently, about four days a week.

��+�� +�� +�� +��

1.

2.

3.

Wordiness 1: Double-Talk error: The day was unforgettable. I will never forget it.

better: The day was unforgettable. [or] I will never forget the day.

Wordiness 2: Unnecessary Words error: Will you please go and check my backpack for me?

better: Will you please check my backpack?

151

Chapter 12 - Grammar Verbal Phrase

Final Grammar Review

Verbal Phrases: Gerund, Participial, and Infinitive

What is a verbal? A verbal is an interesting sentence element. It is a verb form that functions in a sentence as a

noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Although a verbal can never function alone as the verb in a sentence, it does retain

certain verb characteristics: it can have complements and adverb modifiers. There are three types of verbals: the

gerund, the participle, and the infinitive.

What is a verbal phrase? A verbal phrase consists of a verbal and any related complements and modifiers. There

are three types of verbal phrases: the gerund phrase, the participial phrase, and the infinitive phrase.

The Gerund Phrase

What is a gerund? A gerund is a verbal noun: it names an action or a state of being, and it always ends in -ing.

sentence: Helping is a kind act.

gerund: helping

function: noun used as subject

sentence: The worker was thanked (for having helped).

gerund: having helped (helping verb having plus past participle helped)

function: noun used as object of the preposition for

Practice with gerunds: Identify the s-v-complements. Circle or box any gerund and tell its noun function:

S, PN, APP, DO, IO, OP.

______ 1. Swimming is Cynthia’s sport.

______ 2. Brad’s hobby is whistling.

______ 3. Brad’s hobby, whistling, earned him a place in the state competition.

______ 4. The lacrosse team enjoys practicing.

______ 5. The team gives practicing its full support.

______ 6. The newspaper listed safe conditions for driving.

��

1. driving as S

2. writing as PN

3. drawing as APP

4. cooking as DO


152

5. reading as IO

6. planning as OP

What is a gerund phrase? A gerund phrase is a word group consisting of a gerund and any related complements

and modifiers. Because a gerund is a noun, it can be modified by an adjective. Because a gerund is a verbal, it

retains verb characteristics: it can have adverbial modifiers and complements.

How can a gerund phrase be identified in a particular sentence? It can be identified with the two test questions

for gerund phrases:

Two Test Questions for Gerund Phrases

Hint: From this point on, underline verbal phrases.

1. Does the word group contain a gerund and any related complements and modifiers? s lv pn

sentence: His encouraging others is his strength.

adj ger do

phrase: His encouraging others

gerund: encouraging

complement: others is the direct object answering the question “encouraging whom?”

modifiers: his is an adjective answering the question “whose encouraging?”

2. Does the word group serve one of the six noun functions?

S subject DO direct object s lv

Studying sentences is enjoyable.

s av do

She likes studying sentences.

PN predicate noun IO indirect object

s lv pn

Her hobby is studying sentences.

s av io do

She gives studying sentences her full attention.

APP appositive OP object of the preposition s app lv

A hobby, studying sentences, is fun.

s av do op

She attributes her success to studying sentences.

Working with gerund phrases: After identifying the verb, subject, and complement in each sentence, underline

each gerund phrase and write its function above it. Then write the noun function of the gerund or gerund phrase on

the line.

s av do

example: S Surfing in the evening occupies Kyle’s spare time.

______ 1. Sharing memories is enjoyable.

______ 2. Brent’s pastime is skate-boarding in the courtyard.

Verbal Phrase, Final Grammar Review

153

______ 3. Everyone approves of his practicing the flute.

______ 4. The children enjoy operating a lemonade stand.

______ 5. Henry gives digging for worms his complete attention.

______ 6. Humberto’s task, wiring the electric circuit, requires skill.

Hint: Notice that, as with all other nouns, you can test that an -ing word or phrase is a gerund by substituting the

word something for the -ing word or phrase. Try this test in the sentences above!

Recognizing gerund phrases: After identifying the verb, subject, and complement, underline each gerund or

gerund phrase and write its function above it. Write the noun function of the gerund phrase on the line.

s lv pn

example: S John’s working successfully is key (to his success).

______ 1. Thinking positively about school is Larry’s reason for success.

______ 2. Matee believes in respecting the opinions of others.

______ 3. Revising a composition is usually necessary.

______ 4. Tyreel’s ambition is writing humorous essays.

______ 5. Ramone enjoys finding unusual essay topics.

______ 6. Sylvia’s paragraph assignment, developing specific sentences, was fun.

______ 7. Ed gave Jack’s oral reading his full attention.

______ 8. Knowing the reasons for classroom assignments is important.

______ 9. Tabitha works toward achieving excellence.

______ 10. After completing the assignment, Sara attended a movie.

�� /�� /�� /�� /� �� !!!!��!!!!��

s lv pn

example: a gerund phrase as S Swimming (during the summer) is her hobby.

1. a gerund phrase as S

2. a gerund phrase as PN

3. a gerund phrase as APP

4. a gerund phrase as DO

220

Chapter 16 - Comprehensive Review of Common Errors

The following five reviews reinforce all that you have learned in your study of the common errors of usage.

Use the Common Error codes on the pull-out page at the end of the book.

Comprehensive Review 1: Common Errors A-P

______ 1. The committee were easily able to elect its new chairman.

______ 2. Smiling with glee, the sharks in the aquarium splashed the children.

______ 3. My friend and I are both reading Steven King’s novel, Carrie.

______ 4. Neither the girls nor Elena want to go swimming.

______ 5. Dad had no doubt but that my brother overheated the engine in the car.

______ 6. Through history, scholars have shown that achieving peace was difficult.

______ 7. Running for the train. Norma slipped and fell.

______ 8. William has finished his two-mile run an hour ago.

______ 9. Raising a hand, the child waited her turn to speak.

______ 10. Each of the flowers were blooming in brilliant red.

______ 11. Bob said that he would leave at nine on the telephone.

______ 12. Aunt Betty went shopping after she saw each of the grandchildren.

______ 13. The student delayed doing her homework. A research project and a science lab report.

______ 14. The deadly, fatal plague killed thousands of people in four countries.

______ 15. Neither of the boys had ever mentioned their difficulties.

______ 16. Pierre finally finished culinary school, which pleased him.

______ 17. Lee installed the ceiling speakers in the living room he wanted surround-sound.

______ 18. Send the tickets directly to Esperanza and they.

______ 19. We just visit the shore in the summer, not in the winter.

______ 20. Brett was jealous of Steven, therefore, their friendship dissolved.

233

Study Sheet for Grammar When you understand the correct answers to these questions, you understand basic grammar.

What are the major sentence functions? ________________________________________________________

What are the major sentence forms? ___________________________________________________________

What is the most important question to ask about a verb? _________________________________________

What are the possible complements of a verb? ___________________________________________________

What are the six noun functions? ______________________________________________________________

What are the three noun questions? ___________________________________________________________

What is an adjective? ________________________________________________________________________

What are the four adjective questions? _________________________________________________________

What is an adverb? _________________________________________________________________________

What are the five adverb questions? ___________________________________________________________

What is a modifying phrase? _________________________________________________________________

What is the Chart of Complements? ___________________________________________________________

What is a dependent clause? __________________________________________________________________

What are the three kinds of dependent clauses? __________________________________________________

What is a verbal? ___________________________________________________________________________

What is a verbal phrase? _____________________________________________________________________

What are the three kinds of verbal phrases? _____________________________________________________

What are the coordinating conjunctions? _______________________________________________________

What are the correlative conjunctions? _________________________________________________________

Remember to use the following identification marks:

v-s over verb-subject; io, do, pn, pa, over complements; op and app over other nouns; adj, adv over modifiers

double-underline verbs and verb phrases

(…) parentheses around prepositional phrases; adj or adv above them

[…] brackets around dependent clauses; n, adj, adv above them

underline verbals and verbal phrases; n, adj, or adv above them

a box or circle around expletives and conjunctions, especially correlative conjunctions, and any other

elements that signal a possible common error.

234

Study Sheet for Common Errors

A. Sentence Fragment A1. appositive

A2. dependent clause

A3. participial phrase

A4. infinitive phrase

B. Run-On/Comma Splice B1. run-on with no punctuation

B2. comma alone

B3. comma before conjunctive adverb

B4. comma with quotation marks

D. Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement D1. verb with compound subject

D2. verb after an expletive

D3. verb with a collective noun

D4. verb after a prepositional phrase

D5. verb with an indefinite pronoun


E. Lack of Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

F. Misplaced Element

F1. word

F2. appositive

F3. prepositional phrase

F4. clause

F5. verbal phrase

G. Wordiness

H. Double Negative

I. Essential/Non-Essential Element I1. appositive phrase

I2. adjective clause

I3. participial phrase

J. Incorrect Verb Form (tense, sequence, mood)

J1. should use past tense

J2. should use present perfect tense

J3. should use past perfect tense

J4. should use correct infinitive

J5. sequence in dependent clause

J6. subjunctive mood

K. Vague or Ambiguous Pronoun K1. vague

K2. ambiguous

L. Improper Pronoun Case

L1. subject of the verb

L2. predicate pronoun after a linking verb

L3. object of a preposition

L4. direct or indirect object

L5. possessive before a gerund

L6. subject of an infinitive

L7. predicate pronoun after to be

M. Lack of Parallel Structure M1. improper series

M2. misplaced correlatives

M3. phrase-clause

M4. unnecessary shift in person and voice

M5. infinitive-gerund

N. Words Commonly Confused

O. Dangling Element O1. participial phrase

O2. infinitive phrase

O3. gerund phrase

O4. elliptical clause

P. Faulty Comparison P1. illogical comparison

P2. incomplete comparison

P3. double comparison

C. Correct Sentence

R. Comma R1. two independent clauses w/coordinating conjunction

R2. items in a series

R3. introductory element

R4. interrupting (non-essential) element

R5. date or address

S. Semicolon

S1. two independent clauses

S2. two independent clauses with a conjunctive adverb

S3. items with commas in a series

T. Colon T1. two independent clauses (second explains first)

T2. never after a verb or preposition

T3. introducing a list

T4. long, formal quotation

U. Apostrophe U1. possessive case (noun)

U2. possessive case (pronoun)

U3. contraction

U4. never use

W. Quotation Marks and Italics/Underlining W1. title

W2. special word

W3. direct quotation

W4. interrupted quotation

W5. quotation within quotation

Documents

Power Sentences Modifier - Wordiness - Double Negative - Essential/Non-Essential Elements Incorrect Verb Tense, Sequence, and Mood - Vague or Ambiguous Pronoun Improper Pronoun Case