7/27/2019 pp 121

1/5

8 THE NCPADI L

0

posive a [) wc n o accut a e i not iffe s-vis i ri t its tr. ngative s i relo t s/f, s o eqay ndeenent lt a tbon s ccun bt he sm m ctl eate, it s t a ts poe ts aon to a ogs to t, nl te ot 8ot oh, thf re e ost onitio boh re -tml he

Iame An th are te am r-hms, t nce h is the uat of h other n o l s a esu he go t e rud.J oth!wr esei inco, distcti f its s mdatel

o ti o tel fro tl; t tero cotans h e s esei is e ons eer ie oedstinco in and r l-A sf f etion ea exresse quly as l wh telf; n is p is rese h ih nis h On nd its Oh both ' and ppos with tel T bin-in-self o sene ein in th ay o

() ROUD 2

Gu utyof tn tcon th h of wt cio 1 ident son heeles o , he inwrd reecion js etoioanoher n ver lt pste asttaty.

pcp gu rad "Evrytng h ts co"9 e he te essl of somethi s o the dtermnaton o a ea or a , a mr tv o a merel nee b e c hat h t eg an 1thr whc (a th dentca-wth-f log o )b eece lter l i n brc reeion n but recon t ath Gron s t se tat is wth s, att i sal gron a is ound only a it e

rou o ometi of a ohe.

A When w ta groud is nty f e a dct, ms ot b e ba d for en e old jut hva m o a o tat i once m a e o e-a. ,' zu Gde. l I-

Cpg m1

7/27/2019 pp 121

2/5

i n g w h i c h w e h a v e r e c o g n i s e d t o b e u n t r u e . S o , i n o r d e r t o c o u n t e r t h i s m i s u n d e r -s t a n d i n g , w e c a n a l s o s a y th a t g r o u n d is n o t o n l y t h e u n i t y b u t e q u a l l y t h e d i s t i n c -t i 0 n o f i d e n t i t y a n d d i s t i n c t i o n , t o o . G r o u n d , w h i c h w e e n c o u n t e r e d f ir s t a s t h es u b l a t i o n o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n , t h e r e f o r e m a k e s i ts a p p e a r a n c e a s a n e w c o n t r a d i c t i o n .B u t , a s s u c h , i t i s n o t w h a t a b i d e s p e a c e f u l l y w i t h i n i t s e l f , b u t i s r a t h e r t h e e x p u l -s i o n o f i t se l f f r o m i ts e lf . G r o u n d i s g r o u n d o n l y i n s o f a r a s it g r o u n d s ; b u t w h a t h a sc o m e f o r t h f r o m t h e g r o u n d is t h e g r o u n d i t se lf , a n d h e r e i n l i es t h e f o r m a l i s m o fg r o u n d . T h e g r o u n d a n d w h a t is g r o u n d e d a r e o n e a n d t h e s a m e c o n t e n t ; a n d t h ed i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m i s t h e m e r e d i s ti n c t i o n o f f o r m b e t w e e n s i m p l e r e l a t i o nt o s e l f a n d m e d i a t i o n o r p o s i t e d n e s s .

W h e n w e a s k a b o u t t h e g r o u n d s o f t h i n g s , t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y th e s t a n d p o i n t o fr e f l e c t i o n t h a t w e m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r ( 1 1 2 A d d i t i o n ) ; w e w a n t to se e t h e t h i n g i nq u e s t i o n d u p l i c a t e d a s i t w e r e : f i r s t i n i t s i m m e d i a c y a n d s e c o n d l y i n i t s g r o u n d ,w h e r e it i s n o l o n g e r i m m e d i a t e . T h i s i s i n d e e d t h e s i m p l e m e a n i n g o f t h e s o - c a l l e dp r i n c i p l e o f s u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n o r g r o u n d . T h i s p r i n c i p l e o n l y a s s e r t s t h a t t h i n g sm u s t e s s e n t i a l l y b e r e g a r d e d a s m e d i a t e d . M o r e o v e r , i n s e t t i n g u p t h i s l a w o ft h o u g h t , f o r m a l l o g i c g i v e s t h e o t h e r s c i e n c e s a b a d e x a m p l e , s i n c e it a s k s t h e m n o tt o t a k e t h e i r c o n t e n t a s v a l i d i n i t s i m m e d i a c y ; w h i l e , f o r i t s o w n p a r t , i t s e t s u p t h i sl a w o f t h o u g h t w i t h o u t d e d u c i n g it a n d e x h i b i t i n g i t s p r o c e s s o f m e d i a t i o n . W i t ht h e s a m e r i g h t t h a t t h e l o g i c i a n a s s e r t s w h e n h e m a i n t a i n s t h a t o u r f a c u l t y o ft h i n k i n g h a p p e n s t o b e s o c o n s t i t u t e d t h a t w e m u s t a l w a y s a s k f o r a g r o u n d , t h ed o c t o r c o u l d a n s w e r th a t p e o p l e a r e s o o r g a n i s e d t h a t t h e y c a n n o t li ve u n d e r w a t e rw h e n h e is a s k e d w h y a p e r s o n w h o f a l l s i n t o t h e w a t e r d r o w n s ; a n d in t h e s a m ew a y a j u r i s t w h o i s a s k e d w h y a c r i m i n a l is p u n i s h e d c o u l d a n s w e r t h a t c iv i ls o c i e t y i s s o c o n s t i t u t e d t h a t c r i m e c a n n o t b e a l l o w e d t o g o u n p u n i s h e d .

B u t e v e n if w e p r e s c i n d f r o m t h e d e m a n d , a d d r e s s e d t o l o g i c , t h a t it s h o u l df u r n i s h a g r o u n d i n g f o r t h e p r i n c i p l e o f s u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n o r g r o u n d , s ti ll it m u s t a tl e a st a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h a t i s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d b y " g r o u n d " . T h e u s u a le x p l a n a t i o n , t h a t a g r o u n d i s w h a t h a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , a p p e a r s a t f ir s t s i g h t t o b em o r e i l l u m i n a t i n g a n d a c c e s s i b l e t h a n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h i s c o n c e p t t h a t w a sg i v e n a b o v e . B u t i f w e g o o n t o a s k w h a t a c o n s e q u e n c e is , a n d w e g e t t h e a n s w e rt h a t a c o n s e q u e n c e i s w h a t h a s a g r o u n d , t h e n i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e a c c e s s i b i l it y o f t h i se x p l a n a t i o n c o n s i s t s o n l y i n t h e f a c t t h a t w h a t i n o u r c a s e h a s b e e n r e a c h e d a s t h er e s u l t o f a p r e c e d i n g m o v e m e n t o f t h o u g h t i s s i m p l y p r e s u p p o s e d i n t h a t e x p l a n a -t i o n . I t i s p r e c i s e l y t h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e L o g i c , h o w e v e r , t o e x h i b i t t h e t h o u g h t s t h a ta r e m e r e l y r e p r e s e n t e d , a n d w h i c h a s s u c h a r e n o t c o m p r e h e n d e d n o r d e m o n -s t ra t e d , a s s t a g e s o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n i n g t h i n k i n g , s o t h a t t h e s e t h o u g h t s c o m e to b eb o t h c o m p r e h e n d e d a n d d e m o n s t r a te d .

I n o r d i n a r y l i f e , a n d e q u a l l y i n t h e f i n i t e s c i e n c e s , w e v e r y f r e q u e n t l y e m p l o yt h i s f o r m o f r e f l e c t i o n w i t h t h e a i m o f f i n d i n g o u t , b y i t s u s e , w h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n o ft h e o b - j e c t s u n d e r e x a m i n a t i o n r e a l l y is . A n d a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s n o t h i n g w r o n g w i t ht h i s w a y o f l o o k i n g a t t h i n g s , s o l o n g a s i t i s o n l y a m a t t e r o f t h e i m m e d i a t eh o u s e k e e p i n g n e e d s o f c o g n i t i o n , s o t o s p e a k , s t i l l i t s h o u l d b e n o t e d a t o n c e t h a tt h i s m e t h o d c a n n o t p r o v i d e d e f i n i t i v e s a t i s f a c t i o n , e i t h e r i n a t h e o r e t i c a l o r i n ap r a c t i c a l re g a r d . T h i s i s b e c a u s e t h e g r o u n d s til l h a s n o c o n t e n t t h a t i s d e t e r m i n e d

7/27/2019 pp 121

3/5

i n a n d fo r i t se l f; a n d i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h a t , w h e n w e c o n s i d e r s o m e t h i n g .g r o u n d e d , w e o b t a i n o n l y t h e m e r e d i s t i n c t i o n o f f o r m b e t w e e n i m m e d i a c y a rm e d i a t i o n . T h u s , f o r i n s t a n c e , w h e n w e s e e a n e l e c t r ic a l p h e n o m e n o n a n d a sk fi t s g ro u n d , w e re c e iv e t h e a n s w e r t h a t t h e g ro u n d o f t h i s p h e n o m e n o n i s e l et r i c i t y ; b u t t h i s i s s im p ly t h e s a m e c o n t e n t t h a t w e h a d b e f o re u s im m e d ia t et ra n s la t e d in t o t h e f o r m o f s o m e t h in g in t e rn a l .

N o w , o f c o u rs e , t h e g ro u n d i s a l s o n o t j u s t w h a t i s s im p ly id e n t i c a l w i t h i t s e l f ;i s a l s o d i s t in c t , a n d f o r t h a t re a s o n v a r io u s g ro u n d s c a n b e o f f e re d f o r o n e a n d ts a m e c o n t e n t . So , in a c c o rd a n c e w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f d i s t in c t io n , t h a t d iv e rs i t yg r o u n d s n o w l e a d s t o o p p o s i t i o n i n t h e fo r m o f g r o u n d s fo r a n d against the sanc o n t e n t . Su p p o s e , f o r e x a m p le , t h a t w e c o n s id e r a n a c t io n , l e t u s s a y , f o r a rg 'm e n t ' s s a k e , a t h e f t . T h i s is a c o n t e n t in w h ic h a n u m b e r o f a s p e c t s c a n b e dt i n g u i s h e d . P r o p e r t y h a s b e e n v i o l a t e d b y t h e t h e f t ; w h i l e t h e th i e f, w h o w a s :n e e d , h a s o b t a in e d t h e m e a n s f o r t h e s a t i s f a c t io n o f h i s w a n t s . I t m a y b e t h e c a st o o , t h a t t h e p e r s o n f ro m w h o m t h e t h e f t w a s m a d e d id n o t m a k e g o o d u s e o f hp ro p e r t y . W e l l , i t i s c e r t a in ly c o r re c t t h a t t h e v io la t io n o f p ro p e r t y w h ic h h a s t a k (p la c e i s t h e d e c i s iv e p o in t o f v ie w b e f o re w h ic h t h e o t h e rs m u s t g iv e w a y ; b u t t hd e c i s io n i s n o t e n t a i l e d b y t h e p r in c ip le o f t h o u g h t a c c o rd in g t o w h ic h e v e ry t h i rm u s t h a v e a g r o u n d .

I t i s c e r t a in ly t h e c a s e t h a t a c c o rd in g t o t h e u s u a l v e rs i o n o f t h i s l a w o f t h o u g hw h a t i s m e a n t i s n o t m e re ly a n y g ro u n d b u t a sufficient o n e ; a n d o n e m ig h t t h i rtherefore tha t , in the case of the act ion tha t has been ment ioned as an example , thp o in t s o f v ie w b r o u g h t f o rw a rd , o t h e r t h a n v io la t io n o f p ro p e r t y , a re g ro u n d s , b e s u re , a l t h o u g h t h e y a re n o t s u f f i c i e n t g ro u n d s . B u t w h a t h a s t o b e s a id a b ot h a t i s t h a t w h e n p e o p l e s p e a k o f a s u f fi c i e n t g ro u n d , t h e p re d ic a t e i s e i t h e r o t io so r e l s e i t i s o n e w h ic h t ra n s c e n d s t h e c a t e g o ry o f g ro u n d a s s u c h . T h e p re d ic a t" s u f f i c i e n t " i s o t io s e a n d t a u t o lo g ic a l i f i t i s s u p p o s e d t o e x p re s s o n ly t h e c a p a c it o g ro u n d s o m e t h in g , s in c e a g ro u n d o n ly i s a g ro u n d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t p oses ses th i s capaci ty . I f a so ldie r run s aw ay f rom a ba t t le in or de r to save h is li f e , ha c t s in a w a y t h a t i s c o n t ra ry t o h i s d u t y , o f c o u rs e ; b u t i t c a n n o t b e m a in t a in e d t ht h e g ro u n d w h ic h h a s d e t e rm in e d h im t o a c t in t h i s w a y w a s in s u f f i c i e n t , f o r i fw a s h e w o u ld h a v e s t a y e d a t h i s p o s t .

H o w e v e r , i t m u s t a l s o b e s a id t h a t , j u s t a s o n t h e o n e h a n d , a l l g ro u n d s asuf f ic ient , so , on the oth er hand , no gr ou n d is su f f ic ien t as such . This i s bec au se , w e h a v e a l re a d y re m a rk e d , t h e g ro u n d d o e s n o t y e t h a v e a c o n t e n t t h a t i s d e t e rmn a t e in a n d f o r i t s e l f ; a n d c o n s e q u e n t ly i t d o e s n o t a c t o f i t s e l f a n d b r in g f o r t h . I tt h e Concept t h a t w i l l s o o n s h o w i t s e l f t o b e a c o n t e n t o f t h i s k in d , o n e t h a td e t e rm in a t e in a n d f o r i t s e l f , a n d h e n c e a c t s o n i t s o w n ; a n d t h a t i s w h a t Leibnizc o n c e r n e d w i t h w h e n h e s p e a k s o f a "sufficient r e a s o n " o r " g r o u n d " a n d i n s i s t s cc o n s id e r in g t h in g s f ro m t h i s p o in t o f v ie w . W h a t L e ib n i z p r im a r i ly h a d in m inh e r e w a s t h e m e r e l y m e c h a n i c a l a p p r o a c h t h a t m a n y p e o p l e a r e st il l s o a t t a c h e d Ie v e n n o w ; a n d h e r ig h t ly d e c la re d t h a t i t i s in a d e q u a t e . F o r in s t a n c e , w h e n t ho rg a n ic p r o c e s s o f c i r c u la t io n o f t h e b lo o d i s t ra c e d b a c k t o t h e c o n t ra c t io n o f thh e a r t , t h i s i s a m e r e l y m e c h a n ic a l in t e rp re t a t io n ; a n d t h e t h e o r i e s o f c r im in a l la 't h a t c o n s i d e r t h e p u r p o s e o f p u n i s h m e n t t o b e t o r e n d e r t h e c r i m i n a l h a r m l e s s , o

7/27/2019 pp 121

4/5

t o d e t e r , o r t o l i e in o t h e r s u c h e x t e rn a l g r o u n d s a r e s im i la r ly m e c h a n ic a l . I t i s v e ryu n j u s t t o L e i b n i z t o s u p p o s e t h a t h e c o n t e n t e d h i m s e l f w i t h s o m e t h i n g s o l a m e a st h e f o rm a l p r in c ip le o f re a s o n o r g ro u n d . T h e m o d e o f c o n s id e ra t io n t h a t h ea s s e r t e d a s v a l id i s p re c i s e ly t h e re v e rs e o f t h e f o rm a l i s m t h a t l e t s t h e m a t t e r re s tw i t h m e r e " g r o u n d s " w h e r e w h a t is a t i s su e is a c o g n i t i o n t h a t c o m p r e h e n d s . I nt h i s r e g a r d , L e i b n i z c o n t r a s t e d causae efficientes a n d causae finales, a n d r e q u i r e d t h a tw e s h o u ld n o t s t o p a t t h e f o rm e r b u t p re s s o n t o t h e l a t t e r . A c c o rd in g t o t h i sd i s t i n c t i o n , l i g h t , h e a t , a n d m o i s t u r e , f o r e x a m p l e , m u s t c e r t a i n l y b e c o n s i d e r e d a scausae efficientes, but not as the causa finalis o f t h e g r o w t h o f p l a n t s t h e causafina lis b e in g n o t h in g e l s e b u t t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e p la n t i t s e l f .

W e m a y a l s o re m a rk a t t h i s p o in t t h a t t o g o n o f u r t h e r t h a n m e re g ro u n d s ,e s p e c ia l ly in t h e d o m a in o f l a w a n d e t h ic s , i s t h e g e n e ra l s t a n d p o in t a n d p r in c ip leo f t h e S o p h i s t s . W h e n p e o p l e s p e a k o f " s o p h i s t r y " t h e y f r e q u e n t l y u n d e r s t a n d b yi t j u s t a m o d e o f c o n s id e ra t io n w h ic h a im s t o d i s t o r t w h a t is c o r re c t a n d t ru e , a n dq u i t e g e n e ra l ly t o p r e s e n t t h in g s in a f a l s e l ig h t . B u t t h i s t e n d e n c y i s n o t w h a t i sim m e d ia t e ly in v o lv e d in s o p h is t ry , t h e s t a n d p o in t o f w h ic h i s p r im a r i ly n o t h i n g b u tt h a t o f a b s t r a c t a r g u m e n t a t i o n . T h e S o p h i s t s c a m e o n t h e s c e n e a m o n g t h e G r e e k sa t a t im e w h e n t h e y w e re n o lo n g e r s a t i s f ie d w i t h m e r e a u t h o r i t y a n d t ra d i t io n int h e d o m a in o f re l ig io n a n d e t h ic s . T h e y f e l t t h e n e e d a t t h a t t im e t o b e c o m ec o n s c i o u s o f w h a t w a s t o b e v a l i d f o r t h e m a s a c o n t e n t m e d i a t e d b y t h o u g h t . T h i sd e m a n d w a s m e t b y t h e S o p h i s t s b e c a u s e t h e y t a u g h t p e o p l e h o w t o s e e k o u t t h ev a r i o u s p o i n t s o f v i e w f r o m w h i c h t h i n g s c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d ; a n d t h e s e p o i n t s o fv ie w a re , in t h e f i r s t in s t a n c e , s im p ly n o t h in g e l s e b u t g ro u n d s . A s w e re m a rk e de a r l i e r , h o w e v e r , s in c e a g ro u n d d o e s n o t y e t h a v e a c o n t e n t t h a t i s d e t e rm in e d ina n d f o r i t s e l f , a n d g r o u n d s c a n b e f o u n d f o r w h a t i s u n e t h i c a l a n d c o n t r a r y t o l a wn o le s s t h a n f o r w h a t i s e t h i c a l a n d la w f u l , t h e d e c i s io n a s t o w h a t g ro u n d s a re t oc o u n t a s v a l i d f a l l s t o t h e s u b j e c t . T h e g r o u n d o f t h e s u b j e c t ' s d e c i s i o n b e c o m e s am a t t e r o f h i s in d iv id u a l d i s p o s i t io n a n d a im s . I n t h i s w a y t h e o b j e c t iv e b a s i s o fw h a t i s v a l id in a n d f o r i t s e l f , a n d re c o g n is e d b y a l l , w a s u n d e rm in e d , a n d i t i s t h i sn e g a t iv e s id e o f s o p h is t ry t h a t h a s d e s e rv e d ly g iv e n i t t h e b a d n a m e re f e r re d t oabove .

A s i s w e l l k n o w n , So c ra t e s f o u g h t t h e So p h is t s 1 0 on all f ronts ; but he did not dos o j u s t b y s e t t in g a u t h o r i t y a n d t ra d i t io n a g a in s t t h e i r a b s t ra c t a rg u m e n t a t io n , b u tra t h e r b y e x h ib i t in g t h e u n t e n a b i l i t y o f m e re g ro u n d s d ia le c t i c a l ly , a n d b y v in d ic a t -in g a g a in s t t h e m t h e v a l id i t y o f w h a t i s j u s t a n d g o o d , t h e v a l id i t y o f t h e u n iv e rs a lg e n e ra l ly , o r o f t h e c o n c e p t o f w i l l in g . W e p re f e r t o g o t o w o rk o n ly in a n a b s t ra c t lya rg u m e n t a t iv e w a y n o w a d a y s , n o t o n ly in d i s c u s s io n s a b o u t s e c u la r t h in g s , b u ta l s o in s e rm o n s . T h u s , f o r e x a m p le , a ll p o s s ib le g ro u n d s f o r g ra t i t u d e t o G o d a reb ro u g h t f o rw a rd . So c ra t e s , a n d P la t o , t o o , w o u ld n o t h a v e s c ru p le d t o d e c la re a l lt h i s t o b e s o p h is t ry , s in c e s o p h is t ry i s p r im a r i ly a m a t t e r n o t o f c o n t e n t , w h ic h m a yw e l l b e tru e , b u t o f t h e f o rm o f [a rg u in g a b o u t ] g ro u n d s , a n a r g u m e n t a t io n b yw h ic h e v e ry t h in g c a n b e d e f e n d e d , b u t a l s o e v e ry t h in g c a n b e a t t a c k e d . I n o u rt im e , r i c h a s w e a re in re f l e c t io n , a n d g iv e n t o a b s t ra c t a rg u m e n t a t io n , s o m e o n ew h o d o e s n o t k n o w h o w t o a d v a n c e a g ood g r o u n d f o r e v e r y t h i n g , e v e n f o r t h ew o rs t a n d m o s t p e rv e rs e v ie w s , c a n n o t h a v e c o m e f a r . E v e ry t h in g in t h e w o r ld t h a t

7/27/2019 pp 121

5/5

h a s b e e n c o r r u p t e d , h a s b e e n c o r r u p t e d o n g o o d g r o u n d s . W h e n a n a p p e a l is m a d et o " g r o u n d s " p e o p l e a r e a t f i r st i n c l i n e d t o g i v e w a y t o t h e m ; b u t i f t h e y h a v e h a de x p e r i e n c e o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e , t h e y w i l l t u r n a d e a f e a r a n d n o t l e t t h e m s e l v e s b ei m p o s e d u p o n a n y f u r t h e r .

1 2 2At first, essence is shining and mediation within itself; but as totality ofmediation, its unity with itself is now posited as the self-sublation of dis-tinction, and so of mediation. This, therefore, is the restoration of imme-diacy or of being, but of being inasmuch as it is mediated through the subla-tion ofmediation:existence.

Gro und doe s not yet have any content that is determined in and foritself, nor is it purpose. So it is neith er active nor productive; instead,an existence simply emerges from the ground. The determinateground is therefore something formal; it is any determinacy at all,insofar as it is posited as related to itself (i.e., as affirmation) in itsrelationship to the immediate existence that is connected with it .Precisely because it is ground, it is also a good ground [or reason]:for "good", in its entirely abstract use, means no more than some-thing affirmative, and every determinacy is good which can beexpressed in any way at all as something admitted to be affirma-tive. Hence, it is possible to find and to indicate a ground foreverything; and a good ground (for instance, a good motive to act)may be effective or not, it may have a conseq uence or have none. Itbecomes a motive that produces something, for instance, by beingtaken up by someone's will, which is what first makes it active anda cause.

B . EX I STEN CE

1 2 3Existence is the immediate unity of inward reflection and reflection-into-another. Therefore, it is the indeterminate multitude of existents as in-wardly reflected, which are at the same time, and just as much, shining-into-another, or relational; and they form a world of interdependence and ofan infinite connectedness of grounds with what is grounded. The grounds