101
Predmet: Sintaksa proste i složene rečenice Semestar : VI Predavač : doc. dr. Nadira Aljović (Akademska 2008./2009. godina) Literatura: Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, 1990. A Student's Grammar of the English Language, Longman. Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, 1973. A University Grammar of English. Longman. Riđanović, M. 2007. Praktična engleska gramatika. Drugo izdanje. Sarajevo: Šahinpašić. Topics: 1. The verb and its complementation: Phrasal vs. Prepositional Verbs 2. Obligatory and optional elements of the sentence: Adjuncts vs. Complements a. Sentence adjuncts and VP adjuncts b. Adjuncts in VP/TP/CP: "adverbials" c. Connecting adverbials: conjuncts; peripheral adverbials: disjuncts; sentence internal adverbials: "adjuncts". 3. Compound vs. complex sentences a. Coordination b. Subordinate clauses (syntactic and semantic classes, internal structure) c. Complex transitive complementation: clausal analysis 1

Predmet: Sintaksa Proste i Složene Rečenice Predavač

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Page 1: Predmet: Sintaksa Proste i Složene Rečenice Predavač

Predmet: Sintaksa proste i složene rečenice Semestar : VI Predavač : doc. dr. Nadira Aljović (Akademska 2008./2009. godina)

Literatura: Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, 1990. A Student's Grammar of the English Language, Longman. Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, 1973. A University Grammar of English. Longman. Riđanović, M. 2007. Praktična engleska gramatika. Drugo izdanje. Sarajevo: Šahinpašić.

Topics:

1. The verb and its complementation: Phrasal vs. Prepositional Verbs

2. Obligatory and optional elements of the sentence: Adjuncts vs. Complements

a. Sentence adjuncts and VP adjuncts

b. Adjuncts in VP/TP/CP: "adverbials"

c. Connecting adverbials: conjuncts; peripheral adverbials: disjuncts; sentence internal adverbials: "adjuncts".

3. Compound vs. complex sentences

a. Coordination

b. Subordinate clauses (syntactic and semantic classes, internal structure)

c. Complex transitive complementation: clausal analysis

4. Topic, focus: preposing, clefting, pseudo-clefting; extraposition.

5. Comparing English and Bosnian: Questions; Existential sentences; Negation; Agreement; Ellipsis.

6. Complex noun phrases

a. determiners

b. semantic aspect of noun modification; premodification,

c. postmodification

d. complements and adjuncts in noun phrases: X-bar theory of phrase structure; DP.

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1. The verb and its complementation: Phrasal vs. Prepositional Verbs

look at the girl prepositional verbsrun up the hill

ring up a friend phrasal verb

If we say that „at“ and , „up“ from the first two examples are prepositions then [at the girl] is a PP.

[At the girl] he was looking.

[Up the hill] he ran.

[At the girl] and [Up the hill] behave like full constituents (prepositional phrases).

BUT :

He [rang up] a friend.

*[Up a friend] he rang.

whom? phrasal *Up whom did you ring? verb

Whom did you ring up?

ring up } functioning together

Phrasal verbs consist of two words. They are multi-word verbs, and they count as a single head (one phrase).

Let's take a look at the possible analysis of a sentence containing a prepositional verb :

S V DO S V A1. He looked at the girl. 2. He looked at the girl. (Randolph Quirk)at the girl } according to R. Quirk; Adverbial

Adverbials optional elements. In this case [at the girl] is not an optional element.

Complements obligatory elements that complete the meaning of the verb

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a) [at the girl] is not an adverbial, it is not optional A COMPLEMENTthis is the 1st reason to reject the analysis above.

b) this kind of analysis cuts the sentence in a wrong way :

looked at } it is not a verbal part

This can be proved by empirical evidence

BUT :

S V O O PP PNP He looked at the girl.

Now, let's consider the following examples to make a contrast between phrasal and prepositional verbs.

a) * She called up the girl and up the boy.b) She looked at the girl and at the boy.

[up the boy] and [up the girl] are not constituents

Similar strings of words cannot be coordinated!BUT :

[call up the girl] is a constituent

She [called up the girl] and [called up the boy]. [call up] PHRASAL VERB

I look at the girl. look at the verb + preposition PREPOSITIONAL VERB look at her *look her at. The pronoun cannot come before the preposition. The pronoun is A COMPLEMENT of a preposition.

look at her

prep. verb complement of a preposition

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The preposition must preceede the complemet.

It is possible to separate the preposition and the verb but only by inserting

an ADVERB.

I looked strangely at the girl.

They called early on their friends.

Adverbs never split phrasal verbs.

I rang up the girl. rang up PHRASAL VERB (syntactic unity)

*rang up her The pronominal of the phrasal verb splits the verb rang her up It must be inserted betwen the verb and preposition.

V + PP or V + Adv + PP

PREPOSITIONAL VERBS

V + NPPHRASAL VERBS the verbal part is COMPLEX Phrasal verbs are the verb + particlefollowed by NPcomplemetation! the verb + particle + NP

V + NP

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Prepositional and Phrasal verbs : SIMILARITIES

- These verbs can usually get a „new“ (idiomatic) meaning.

both prepositional and phrasal verbs have sometimes a specific meaning.

listen to the particle „to“ doesn't change the meaning of the verb. (compositional meaning)

look after } look + after PREPOSITIONAL VERB (non - compositional meaning)

new meaning

look after someone (take care of someone)

PP look after their children

*look their children after *look them after

There is a syntactic process when prepositional verbs seem to behave like phrasal verbs.

Sometimes PREPOSITIONAL and PHRASAL verbs look very much alike. The most striking similarity between phrasal and prepositional verbs occurs with passivization.

When passivizing, it is IMPOSSIBLE TO MOVE the PP, but only its COMPLEMENT.

Take a look at the examples below :

They called on their friends this morning .

PASSIVE : Their friends were called on this morning.

Their friends were [called [on NP ] ] this morning. PREPOSITIONAL VERB (visit)

PREPOSITIONAL STRANDINGPrepositional verbs resemble phrasal verbs.

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He called up his friend early.

PASSIVE : His friend was called up early

His friend was [called [up NP ] ] early. PHRASAL VERB (summon) (up stays with the verb)

Prepositional stranding does not occur with Phrasal Verbs.

PREPOSITIONAL VERBS WITH DOUBLE OBJECTS (DITRANSITIVE)

V + NP + PP

accuse of congragulate on introduce to punish foradvise about deprive of persuade of sentence tocharge with explain to prevent from suspect ofcompare with inform of protect from thank for

In general, ditransitive verbs require double complementation (they take two objects). Only the first object can become the subject of a passive sentence.

- to remind someone of something

Someone is reminded of something.*Something is reminded of someone

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MIXED VERBS : PHRASAL – PREPOSITIONAL VERBS

Phrasal – prepositional verbs have besides the lexical verb, both an adverb and a preposition as particles.

a) I am looking forward to your party this weekend. S V DO A

b) We had to put up with a lot of teasing at school.

c) We put our success down to hard work. S S V DO O2

S S V DO O2 S NP PRN We V put down (phrasal) DO NP our success O2 PP P NP

d) He thinks he can get away with everything.

The passivization is possible. With ditransitive verbs (c), only the active direct object can be made a passive subject :

e) Our success can be put down to hard work.

We had to put up [with something]

PHRASAL PP VERB

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2. Obligatory and optional elements of the sentence: Adjuncts vs. Complements

VERB TYPE SUB. FRAME EXAMPLE FUNCTIONINTRANSITIVE [ ] compl. not poss. John snores. S [ V ]

COPULA AP NP ___ PP

She is happy.She is a girl.She is in a good mood.

S [ V Pc ]

MONOTRANSITIVE

NP ___ S (TP/CP)

Susan loves Bill.Mary says that Susan...

S [ V DO ]

DITRANSITIVE NP + NP ___ NP + PP

She gave John the money.She have the money to John

S V DO IO IO DO

(copula) intr. + Ac adverbial compl.

PP ___ AdvP obligatory

She is in London.She is upstairs.

S [ V Ac ]

trans + Ac PP __ NP AdvP

He put the money in a box. S [V DO Ac]]

COMPLEXTRANSITIVE

AP ___ NP NP

She called him foolish.She called him a fool.

S [V DO Pc]

Predicational complement vs. Adverbial complement

Ac Adverbial complement the meaning is adverbial-like. It is not just an adverbial, it is obligatory, therefore it is ADVERBIAL COMPLEMET.

Pc Predicational complement instead of object complement – The complement of the predicate and not of the object.

Adjuncts : elements that are not required to appear in the sentence, they are optional. They provide addittional information about process, time, etc. If they are left out, the sentence remains grammatical.

SENTENCE ADVERBIALS Sentence adverbials are adverbs that often appear at the beginning of the sentence, followed by acomma, although they can also be used in other positions.

They can be realized by : adverbs and prepositional phrases

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In my opinion , she was one of the greatest singers.

Certainly , she was one of the greatest singers.

SENTENCE ADVERBIALS and VP ADVERBIALS

FOCUSINGSentence adverbials can't be focused, while VP adverbials can be focused.

He walked down the road slowly, not quickly. } VP ADVERBIAL

*She arrived home before dark fortunately, not unfortunately. } SENTENCE ADVERBIAL

- He could do something about it, however. S ADVERBIAL

*He could do something about it however not morever.

FOCUSING BY WH QUESTIONS

Q : How did he walk down the road? VPA: Slowly. ADVERBIAL

Q: How was she a very unreasonable girl? SENTENCEA: *Certainly. ADVERBIAL

VP Adverbials can be focused by WH questions.It is impossible to ask questions for sentence adverbials. Therefore, sentence adverbials cannot be focused by WH questions!

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CLEFTING

IT + BE + FOCUS ELEMENT + CLEFT CLAUSE

Sentence adverbials cannot be focused.*It is only fortunately that she arrived home before dark.It is only recently that I saw him. / VP advebial / can be clefted.

THE POSITION OF VP ADVERBIALS

1. [William [walked slowly down the road.]]

inside the VP

2. Down the road, [William [walked slowly].]

Outside the TP, but it is somehow 'attached' to it.

3. Slowly, [William [walked down the road.]]

4. He should dislike the girl intensely.*He should dislike intensely the girl.

Normally, adverbials cannot split the sequence V – Complement (V-DO)

*

V AdvP DP

There are cases when an adverbial can split the Verb – Complement sequence : when the DP is too long.

We considered briefly the longterm solution to the problem. (very long and heavy complement)

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English prefers the word order when a shorter adverbial preceedes the complement :

*[He intensely should dislike the girl.] vs. [He should intensely dislike the girl.]*[He always is asking odd questions.] vs. [He is always asking odd questions]

TP

S T'

* these adverbials * Aux VP are 'above' T 'The examples of the possible positions that a VP adverbial can occupy in a sentence :

1. He should dislike the girl [intensely].

VP Adv V DP

2. [Intensely], he should dislike the girl [ ] (The adverbial was moved)

TP Adv S T '

T VP

3. He should [intensely] dislike the girl. 11

VP adverbials must be attached to the VP. They can be moved, but the connection with the VP must not be lost.

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VP (possible in certain cases) Adv V DP

Adverbials are optional elements that do not combine the operation of merge(r). Adverbials do create a larger constituent, but the constituent remains of the same type.The process (operation) of combining and joining adverbials (adjuncts) to create a larger constituent is called ADJUNCTION.

THE POSITION OF SENTENCE ADVERBIALS

Sentence adverbials are detached from the VP. These adverbials are attached to other elements which are positioned on higher level in the tree-diagram.

1. [Certainly], he should ask the question.

SENTENCE ADVERBIAL

2. He should [certainly] ask the question.

*He should ask [certainly] the question. cannot split the verb and its complement.

3. He should ask the question, [certainly].

It is possible to split verb – complement sequence only if the complement is long and heavy.

CONJUNCTS, DISJUNCTS, ADJUNCTS

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Connecting adverbials: conjuncts; Peripheral adverbials: disjuncts;

Sentence internal adverbials: adjuncts

CONJUNCTS (Connecting adverbials)

As their name implies, conjuncts serve to conjoin two utterances or parts of an utterance, and they do so by expressing at the same time the semantic relationship obtaining between them.

a) She is a student. At the same time, she works in a pizzeria.

These adverbials connect two separate sentences.

b) So you're feeling better again, Bill!

Conjuncts can be the discourse initiators.

c) I see her regularly because she is, by the way, a friend of my brother's. Conjuncts can semantically endorse a connection already expressed by grammatical subordination.

SEMANTICS OF CONJUNCTS :

LISTING : In the first place, the economy is recovering, and secondly .... She has the ability, the experience, and above all the courage to tackle the problem. ... In addition to this problem, we have to admit that the mistake will not be repeated.

... On top of that, I believe that this man is more than perfect for this job.

SUMMATIVE: The professor was in a bad bood. All in all, it was a bad day for the students. We had lost a huge sum of money. Therefore, we will not repeat our mistakes.

APPOSITIVE : I will compare his stlye, for example, one of the greatest American authors. She was beautiful, in other words, he had to keep his eyes on that woman.

RESULTIVE : I got there very late, so I missed the party. I thought that everything she said was truth. Of course, I didn't know her well.

DISJUNCTS ( Peripheral adverbials)

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Disjuncts are adverbials that are somewhat detached from the sentence.

STYLE DISJUNCTS two classes ofCONTENT DISJUNCTS disjuncts

modality and manner Style respectDISJUNCTS

relating to certainty content relating to evaluation

STYLE DISJUNCTS

Frankly, I am tired.

If I may say so without giving you offence, I think you're not so intelligent. To be frank, I think you're not so intelligent.

CONTENT DISJUNCTS

Disjuncts can be expressed by a wide range of adverb phrases, prepositional phrases or clauses.

The play was written by Shakespeare.

perhapsThe play was undoubtely written by Shakespeare. apparently

Wisely, Mrs. Jensen consulted her lawyer.Naturally, my he husband expected me home by ten.Predictably, they have lost the match. Hopefully, we will see the show.

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Full clausal form(usually non-finite)

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To my regret, she did not come to see me.What was especially fortunate, the child was unhurt.We were not, which is surprising, invited to meet the new members of the staff.

1. John will come back soon as far as I know. DISJUNCT

ATTACHED TO TP – it is not a VP adverbial

2. Philip doesn't like it here, if I'm not mistaken. DISJUNCT

'ADJUNCTS' – ( Sentence internal adverbials: ‘adjuncts’)

Adjuncts are a class of adverbials that are integrated into the structure of the clause , unlike disjuncts and conjuncts which are peripheral to it.

Several contexts reveal the way in which adjuncts differ from disjuncts and conjuncts :

- Negation:eg.: *Quickly they didn't leave for home. (adjunct)

To my regret, they didn't leave for home (disjunct)

- Questions:eg.: Does he write to his parents because he wants to (or because...)?

*Does he write to his parents to my regret or to my relief.

Adjuncts can be realized by:

1. Adverbial phrases: eg. slowly

2. a noun phrase: eg. last week

3. a prepositional phrase: eg. on Monday

4. non-finite clauses: a. infinitive cl. : Peter was playing to win.

b. –ing clause: Wishing to encourage him, they asked him to sing.

c. –ed participle cl.: If urged by our friends, we will go to their party.

d. verbless clause: Peter was playing, unaware of the danger.

Semantic classes:

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1. Viewpoint adjunct (form: A-ly, from a A point of view): - Linguistically, these texts are closer to the Middle Ages than to the 20th century.

2. Focusing: alone, just, merely, only, simply...; chiefly, especially, mainly, mostly, in particular...; also, either, neither, even, nor, too, ....

3. Intensifiers : (three semantic classes)

emphasizers: actually, certainly, clearly...;

amplifiers: completely, absolutely...;

downtoners: kind of, quite, rather, ...;

4. Process adjuncts: a. manner: quickly, in the way I like,...

b. means: by car...

c. instrument: (examine) microscopically ...

5. Place adjuncts : in a small village (position); from the desk, down, backwards... (direction)

Coocurence: direction – position : The children are running around upstairs. (*upstaris around)

6. Time adjuncts: a. Point of time: today b. length of time : briefly c. frequency: daily, twice d. others: usually, often, already

Adjuncts have grammatical properties resembling the following sentence elements :SUBJECT, COMPLEMENT and OBJECT. Like these elements, adjuncts can be the focus of a cleft sentence.

obligatory predicationADJUNCT optional sentence

PREDICATION ADJUNCTS

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The relation of these adjuncts is not with the whole sentence, but with its predication.

Take a look at the following examples :1) She put the letter on the table.2) She found the letter on the table.

We can notice that in the first example, the adjunct [on the table] is obligatory, because its omission would lead to an ungrammatical sentence *[She put the letter].

The adjunct in the second example is optional and can be omitted, meaning that its omission will not cause the ungrammaticality of the sentence [She found the letter].

Predication adjunts usually occupy the final position, but they can appear immediately after the main verb if another post-verb element is lengthy and complex.

a) They wrote a book about Bosnian pyramids. FINAL POSITION

b) She put on the table an amazing book that they have written. iE POSITION

Predication adjuncts can also appear at I position, in order to highlighten a balance or contrast.

c) From Australia he came and to Australia he has returned. I POSITION

SENTENCE ADJUNCTS

Sentence adjuncts seem to have a relatively peripheral relationship with the rest of the sentence. Sentence adjuncts are usually separeted by comma, occupying the first or the final position.

Let's take a look at the following examples to draw a contrast between PREDICATIONAL and SENTENCE ADJUNCTS.

a) I found the letter in the kitchen.b) I found the letter, in the kitchen. or In the kitchen, I found the letter.

Besides the comma, sometimes, a further context must be used to determine whether we are dealing with a sentence or a predicational adjunct.

More on Conjuncts, Disjuncts, Adjuncts :

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From a syntactic point of view, we can recognize three types of adverbial in English, namely adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts. Of these, adjuncts are more closely integrated in the structure of the clause, whereas disjuncts and conjuncts are peripheral to the clause.

Disjuncts are primarily used to provide some kind of comment on what is expressed in the clause, as in

Fortunately, I found the ticket in time.

Conjuncts are used to specify the semantic relation between the proposition expressed by the clause in which they occur and the proposition expressed by another clause in the text, as in the example

John loves Cajun food; Mary, on the other hand, can’t stand it,where the conjunct on the other hand expresses the contrast between the two propositions.

Adjuncts provide information about the circumstances in which the event took place (time, place, reason, manner, etc.), or modify the meaning of the whole, or part of the, proposition:

After saying goodbye, she walked hesitantly towards the door.The first adjunct in the example above indicates when the event took place (time), the second adjunct indicates the manner in which the action was performed, and the third adjunct indicates the direction of her movement (place).

The greater degree of integration of adjuncts in the structure of the clause can be shown in several ways. It is only among the adjuncts that we find adverbials that are syntactically obligatory (cf. the discussion of verb complementation types in lecture 14). Examples of this type are

The milk is in the fridge. We keep the milk in the fridge.

Unlike disjuncts and conjuncts, most adjuncts are affected by clause negation and can be the focused part in cleft constructions. In the examples below, D, C, and A represent disjunct, conjunct, and adjunct, respectively.  

D C               A                                   A                             Fortunately,  however,  she got  to Harrods  before they closed.Fortunately,  however,  she didn’t get  to Harrods  before they closed.

  Note that the meaning of the disjunct remains constant: in both cases, Fortunately indicates that the speaker regards the content of the following clause (regardless what that is) as 'a good thing'. The only way to negate the disjunct is by adding the prefix un- to the adverb. Similarly, the

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conjunct however also remains unaffected by the clause negation: in both cases, it indicates that there is some contrast between the current clause and an earlier part of the text (a natural lead-up to the first example might be She left home much later than she had intended, to the second, She had been spending far too much money during her day in London).

The two adjuncts, on the other hand, are clearly affected by the negation: the second example above may be interpreted either as 'she got to Harrods, but not before they closed' or as 'she got to some other department store before they closed, but not to Harrods'.  

Adverbial positions

In the presentation of clause patterns in lecture 14 only obligatory adverbials, that is, valency adverbials, were included. The reason for this was that other adverbials can occupy so many different positions in the clause that we cannot specify these as easily as we can specify the internal order of the core clause elements such as Subject, Verb, indirect Object, direct Object, and so on.

The following diagram summarizes the information on adverbial positions given in EGTU:    

 

 

The major positions are labelled Initial, Medial, and End. Initial here means a position before the Subject, Medial anywhere between the Subject and the last obligatory clause element, and End a position after the obligatory clause elements. The superscripts 1–4 have been added in the diagram to distinguish between different variants within the general Medial position. If there are no auxiliaries in the verb phrase, there will only be two possible Medial positions. If there are no obligatory clause elements after the Verb (i.e. the main verb is a one-place intransitive verb), there can be no M4 position.

Initial position is typical of Disjuncts, as in

Fortunately, no lives were lost in the fire.

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In Initial position we also often find Conjuncts, as in John left early. Nevertheless, he had seen more than he liked.

Here we may also find Adjuncts which specify the background setting for an event, as in In the summer of 1991 John went back to Trinidad.

Medial position is, generally speaking, typical of many adjuncts, as in Peter serenely accepted the offer. (M1) You never can tell. (M1) He might never have met her. (M2) She is being jealously guarded by her husband. (M3) He was still suspicious. (M4)

but we may also find Disjuncts and Conjuncts here:

They have probably never heard about you. (M3) John left early. He had, nevertheless, seen more than he liked. (M3) This is perhaps unnecessary. (M4)

End position can be seen as the neutral position of, among others, time and place adverbials, from which they can be fronted, for example in accordance with the Information Principle (more of this in lecture 17). In other words, if they provide given information, or information that is backgrounded, they tend to be placed in Initial position.

Have you seen my new car? I bought it in London last month. (new information) Last month I bought a new car. (backgrounded)

The M4 position can be regarded as the position where adverbials in End position end up when an obligatory clause element, such as the direct Object, has been postponed, typically in accordance with the principle of end weight.We may compare the following two examples:

He denied the rumour vigorously.with the adverbial in End position, and

He denied vigorously the rumour that he was about to resign.

where the heavy postmodified direct Object noun phrase has been postponed, so that the adverbial ends up in M4 position.

The question of the actual placement of adverbials is a large and complex one, which can’t be treated adequately within the space of this lecture.  

Semantic categories of adverbials

All the three major types of adverbials — adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts — can express a number of different semantic categories, or meaning categories. The group of adjuncts exhibits 20

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the greatest amount of variation in this respect: of the fourteen different semantic categories of adjuncts recognized in EGTU, some have a number of important subcategories, so the total number of subcategories will be even greater than fourteen.  

Adjuncts

The major semantic categories of adjuncts are:

Time adjuncts are used to specify various temporal characteristics of the event or situation represented by the clause, such as its location or extension in time. Thus we can recognize time adjuncts which refer to definite points in time or limited periods of time, as in

He first met her in 1982.Other time adjuncts specify a time span in relation to the speech moment, either backward in time or forward in time, as in the example

I’ve been here since last Friday, and I’m staying until Tuesday.Time adjuncts expressing duration, by contrast, are not oriented towards the speech moment:

Mary lived in Sheffield for eight years.Time adjuncts can also be used to indicate frequency, that is, how often something happens, as in

They go to Brighton every summer.

Place adjuncts are used to specify the location of an event or a situation, as in They live in a small village.

or to specify various features of movement, such as source (or starting-point), path, distance, and goal. In the example

They walked from the church along the river to the market square.we find three space adjuncts expressing source, path and goal, respectively.  

Under the heading process adjuncts we may gather several subcategories which specify various important characteristics of the action expressed by the verb phrase. Thus within the category of process adjuncts we find adjuncts expressing manner, instrument, means, and agent, as in the following examples:

He wiped his hands carefully on the towel. (manner) By spreading some nasty rumours he tried to discredit his opponent. (means) He signed the letter with a leaking fountain-pen. (instrument) Last year, 16 sheep were killed by wolverines here. (agent)

Manner adjuncts are obligatory after normally transitive verbs (ergative verbs) when these are used intransitively to ascribe a permanent property to the referent of the subject, as in

Her skin bruises easily. The poem reads well.

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Similarly, under the heading contingency adjuncts we may gather four important categories, namely adjuncts of reason, purpose, condition, and concession. These adjunct types are usually realized as subclauses: finite, non-finite and verbless (more about these clause types in lectures 19–22). The characteristic subordinating conjunctions that signal these adjunct types are because, since, and as for reason, in order to + infinitive (or just a to-infinitive) for purpose, if or unless for condition, and although or though for concession:

Sue stayed at home, because she had a cold. (reason) John stopped to catch his breath. (purpose) If necessary, repeat the procedure. (condition) It was cold, though the sun was shining. (concession)

Degree adjuncts are used to indicate what we may call the intensity of the verbal action, either strengthening it or weakening it. This strengthening effect, or scaling upwards, is found with adverbs such as much, fully, highly, badly, as in

John needed the money badly.The weakening effect, or scaling downwards, is found with adverbs such as little, slightly, somewhat. Little can be fronted, in which case the clause must undergo Subject-Auxiliary inversion, as in

Little did he know what the future held in store for him.

Focusing adjuncts are used in order to focus attention on a particular part of the clause, or to restrict the reference of the focused element. There is a fairly small class of adverbs that can be used as focusing adjuncts, e.g.:

restrictive: alone, exclusively, just, merely, only, solely; chiefly, especially, mainly, notably, primarily, specifically additive: also, equally, even, likewise, similarly, too.

The focused element often receives nuclear stress, as in

Even Jòhn appreciated the smoked oysters.Viewpoint adjuncts are used to specify a particular point of view from which the proposition is to be seen. In the example

Scientifically, the project was a huge success.the adverbial scientifically can be paraphrased as ‘from a scientific point of view’.

Adverbs formed by adding the suffix -wise to a noun are commonly used as viewpoint adjuncts in informal English, especially American English:

How are you doing, moneywise?

Respect adjuncts are realized by prepositional phrases or subordinate clauses of the type as far as X is concerned. They serve to indicate in what respect the action described in the clause is/was/will be carried out, or in what respect a characterization is true. These adjuncts are easily moved to Initial position.

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As far as travelling facilities are concerned, we have obviously made a popular decision; but with respect to the date, many people are expressing dissatisfaction. He was in a thoroughly sound condition as regards intellect.

Disjuncts

The semantic categories of disjuncts are:

Fact-evaluating disjuncts are used to express the speaker’s evaluation, in emotional terms, of an event or situation that is taken be a fact, as in

Fortunately, no lives were lost in the fire. Sadly, they never met again after the war.

Modal disjuncts, on the other hand, are used to express the speaker’s views on how likely it is that the proposition is true; hence they are sometimes called truth-evaluating disjuncts. The meaning of modal disjuncts comes close to the meaning of modal auxiliaries expressing epistemic modality. Typical examples would be

Apparently, they never received your letter. Obviously, he must have misunderstood you. She may possibly be at home.

As the last two examples show, it is possible for a modal, or truth-evaluating, disjunct to co-occur with a modal auxiliary expressing the same epistemic modality.   Subject-evaluating disjuncts are used to express the speaker’s subjective evaluation of the actions of the referent of the subject:

He sensibly refrained from further comments.Adverbs used as subject-evaluating disjuncts can be related to adjectives functioning as subject Predicatives with a clausal subject:  

                                                        S                                                                 V PcThat he refrained from further comments  was  sensible.

Style disjuncts are used to express the speaker’s comment on how the message is worded or how the utterance is to be interpreted. As examples of the first use we may find expressions such as briefly, to put it gently, not to put too fine a point on it, and so on. Examples of the second type would be frankly, honestly, seriously, etc.   The term comment disjunct will be used here for those disjunct types that lack a label in EGTU: comment clauses and sentential relative clauses. Both clause types will be taken up in greater detail in later lectures; for our present purposes we may note that both types allow the speaker to insert a clause element that provides a comment on the content of the rest of the clause. Comment clauses are often short, formulaic expressions:

You know, I don’t think this is correct. Why are you so late? Well, you see, my car broke down, so I had to walk.

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A clause introduced by as can be used to comment on the communicative status of the utterance (already known to hearer, already stated by speaker, etc.):

John has resigned, as you may have heard. As I keep saying, we can’t solve these problems without increased funds.

A sentential relative clause, finally, allows the speaker/writer to insert any kind of comment on the content of a clause:

John said he couldn’t help me, which is ridiculous. She forgot to sign the letter, which she was to regret later.

 

Conjuncts

Conjuncts differ from other adverbials in that their impact goes beyond the individual clause or sentence; thus they serve to mark semantic relationships between propositions expressed by different clauses, or between larger sections of a text. In this respect their function resembles that of conjunctions (co-ordinating and subordinating), although there is greater positional variation to be found among the conjuncts. Most of the children wanted to go to the beach, 

but Mary preferred to stay at home. (conjunction) 

Most of the children wanted to go to the beach.

However, Mary preferred to stay at home. (conjunct) Mary, however, preferred to stay at home.Mary preferred to stay at home, however.

Conjuncts can be used to express the semantic relationship between propositions: comparison (similarly, likewise), contrast (on the other hand), concession (however, nevertheless), reason (therefore, because of that), result (consequently, in consequence, as a result).

Conjuncts can be used to indicate the organization of a text: addition (in addition, furthermore), enumeration (first, secondly, finally), transition (by the way; meanwhile, in the meantime).

3. Compound vs. complex sentences

COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION

Coordination and subordination linking of units

COORDINATION linking of elements that are on the same syntactic level24

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example : They are my neighbors, but I don't know them well. Two clauses linked by a coordinator. Each can be Coordinator an independent clause!

SUBORDINATION one of the elements is a constituent of a superordinate unitexample : I don't know where they are staying, The subordinate 'where-clause' is the direct object. There is one independent clause, Subordinator and one subordinate clause.

SYNDETIC COORDINATION : the elements are linked by a coordinator e.g.Slowly and carefully, he crept towards the victim.ASYNDETIC COORDINATION : coordinators are not present but can be insertede.g.Slowly, carefully, he crept towards the victim

CORRELATIVES

Either . . . or, both . . . and , neither . . . nor

endorsing item coordinator25

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a) Either the room is too small or the piano is too large. b) You may either sit down or stand up.

a) David both loves Mary and wants to marry her.b) Both Jane and John washed the dishes.

c) David neither loves Mary nor wants to marry her.d) Neither Jane nor John washed the dishes.

With the scope of negation, [either . . . or] is quivalent to [neither . . . nor]. These two might be similar in meaning : He hasn't met either her mother or her father. He has met neither her mother nor her father.

The use of correlative coordinators is unaccaptable when there are three or more conjoins :

? We are both willing, able, and ready to carry out the survey. ? Either the Minister, or the Under-Secretary, or the Permanent Secretary will

attend the meeting.

Correlatives should introduce parallel units, ie units of equivalent function.

*I admire both the drawings of Rembrandt and of Rubens. I admire both the drawings of Rembrandt and those of Rubens. I admire the drawings of both Rembrandt and Rubens.

NEITHER / NOR AS NEGATIVE ADVERBS

Nor and Neither, followed by the subject – operator inversion can be used without being a correlative pair. They generally presupose that a previous clause is explicitly or implicitly negative.

He did not do his task, neither was he punished for it. People barely know the causes of global warming. Nor the education is provided.26

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NOR morphologically : or + not ; semantically : and + not

All the students were obviously very miserable. Nor were the teachers satisfied with the conditions at the school.

All the students were obviously very miserable. And (also) the teachers were not satisfied with the conditions at the school.

The negative adverbs neither and nor can be linked to a preceeding clause by and or but :

They never forgave him for the insult, (and ) ( neither ) could he rid himself of his feelings.They never forgave him for the insult, ( but ) ( nor ) could he rid himself of his feelings.

SIMPLE COORDINATION

A single clause or clause constituent is linked to others that are parallel in meaning, function and (generally) in form.

CONJOINS the coordinated elementsCONJOINT the resulting combination

1. COORDINATION OF CLAUSESComplete independent clauses may be coordinated

The spring had come at last, and the flowers blossomed. Subordinate finite clauses may be coordinated, if they belong to the same function class

If you pass your exams and if you get the money, we can go to Paris.

Adverbial clauses The presidents believes that the economy is recovering and that the future is prosperous.

Nominal THAT – clauses I didn't know who she was or what she was.

For more examples : Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, 1990. A Student's Grammar of the English Language, Longman. P. 272 ; Coordination

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2. COORDINATION OF PREDICATES AND PREDICATIONSThis type of coordination is very common :

John ate the fruit and drank the beer. The subject isMargaret is ill, but will soon recover. sharedMost people will have read the book or seen the film.

Predication coordination is preferred over the predicate coordination (auxiliaries are repeated)

Most people will have read the book or will have seen the film.

3. COORDINATION AND THE SCOPE OF ADVERBIALSAdverbials, as more peripheral elements of the clause often stand outside the structure of coordination.

Yesterday, [the sun was very warm] and [the ice melted].Unfortunately, [we missed the train] and [had to wait for six hours].

The more complex coordination takes place within the scope of three adverbials ; one in initial, one in medial and one in final position :

In those days they often used to [shoot the birds], [bring them home], [cook them] and [eat them] on a single day.

4. COORDINATION OF NOUN PHRASES AND THEIR CONSTITUENTS

NP's can be conjoined to form a conjoint NP. Such NP's may function as a subject or an object in the following examples :

- Some of the staff and all the students have voted for these changes. (Subject)- On this farm, they keep cows, sheep and a few chickens. (Object)

A conjoint NP may contain a general ellipsis :- Which do you prefer, the red dress, the green or the white ?

COMPLEX COORDINATION

A coordination in which the conjoins are combination of elements rather than single elements. It requires and reinforces the strong parallelism between the conjoins.

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TYPE I Each conjoin consists of contiguous elements and the conjoins are combined in the final position in the clause.

a) IO + DOWe gave William a book on stamps and Mary a book on painting.

b) O + OC (P+A)Jack painted the kitchen white and the bathroom blue.

c) O + AYou should serve the coffe in a mug and the lemonade in a glass.

The parallelism is weaker when one conjoin contains one or more adverbials that the other conjoin lacks :

He wears smart clothes and sometimes a yachting cap at weekends.

TYPE IIIn the second type of complex coordination, the conjoins are not in final position :

Brad Pitt always WAS and always WILL be her favourite Hollywood star.

the second conjoin is separated by intonation in speech.

Richard admires, but Margaret despises, the reality shows.

the second conjoin is separated by punctuation.

The parallelism is weaker when one conjoin contains one or more adverbials that the other conjoin lacks : He is, or at least he was, a major composer of modern classical music. A type of complex coordination in which a second or subsequent conjoin containsGAPPING a medial ellipsis the elements in these conjoins are not contigous.29

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a) S + OOne girl has written a poem, and the other a short story.

b) S + ASmith completed the course in thirty minutes, and Johnson in thirty-five.

c) S + CJane has looked more healthy, and Maurice more relaxed, since their vacation.

APPENDED COORDINATIONoccurs when one element or contigous elements is appended to a previous clause.

John writes extremely well – and Sally, too.My mother plays badminton, and sometimes even tennis.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCEWhen certain sentence elements are realized as clauses we're deling with complex sentences. It is important to differ complex sentences from compound sentences.

A complex sentence main clause + embedded subordinate clauses

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MAIN CL. SUB. CL.

The embedded clauses are on the lower structural level than the main clause.

Examples : complementation of the verb / DO

1. [He] T [felt] [that he should dislike the little girl intenesly.] TP VP embedded clause tense

2. [He] T [decided] [that he should never meet her again.]TP VP embedded clause

The embedded clauses are functioning as complements of the verbs, or more precisely, the DO.As these clauses are the DO's, they can be the subject of the passive sentences :

1. That he should dislike the little girl intensely was felt by him.2. That he should never meet her again was decided by him.

These embedded clauses may function as subjects, but the English language prefers the so-called „IT“ extraposition, because such passivization is grammatical but odd.

It was felt by him [ that he should dislike the little girl intensely]

„IT EXTRAPOSITION“ (the subject is extraposed)

TREE REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX SENTENCES TP

TREE-STRUCTURE T'

VP CP

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TP

PRN T'

He V VP

felt C VP

that PRN

T he T DP

should V dislike D the A little N girl AdvP

intensely. ADJUNCTION (ADJOIN)If an adjunct appears at the beginning of the sentence it should be adjoined to the TP :

EMBEDDED CLAUSES FUNCTIONING AS ADJUNCTS

S V DO A1. [Someone] [approached] [William] [when he was walking down the road.]

A wh-clause (time)32

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S V DO A1 A22. [I] [will meet] [you] [at the station] [if I can.]

A2 if (conditional) clause

Now, we should consider whether these subordinate clauses belong to sentence or VP adverbials:In order to make this analyis, we should use the tests called FOCUSING and CLEFTING , because we have already mentioned that sentence adverbials cannot be focused :

1.Q : When did someone approach William?A : When he was walking.

FOCUSING shows that this adverbial can be focused, and therefore it belongs to the category of VP adverbials.

It was when William was walking down the road when someone approached him.

CLEFTING shows that this adverbial belongs to the category of VP adverbials.

2.

Q : Will you meet william at the station? VPA : If I can. adverbial

CLEFTING is not very elegant in this case.

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

1st CRITERION STRUCTURAL (FORMAL) CLASSES

2nd CRITERION FUNCTIONAL CLASSES OF EMBEDDED CLAUSES

1. STRUCTURAL / FORMAL 33

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nominal function 1. FINITE CLAUSES adverbial function

relative function comparative

nominal function2. NON – FINITE CLAUSES adverbial function

modifying function postmodifying function

3. VERBLESS CLAUSES adverbial function

nominal function

2. FUNCTIONAL CLASSES

NOMINAL MODIFYINGarguments of predicates - Appositive postmodifying clause

S, DO, IO, Pc (relative clauses, non- finite clauses)

- Adverbial clauses

- Comparative clauses (treated separately)

VERBLESS CLAUSES / SMALL CLAUSES

FINITE

1. John believes [that the prisioner is innocent.]

NON - FINITE

2. John believes [the prisioner to be innocent.]34

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VERBLESS CLAUSE

3. John believes [the prisioner innocent.]

The reduced version of non – finite clause, sometimes called the

SMALL CLAUSES

clauses without the verbal part

1. I want the dress ready by 5 o'clock.a) I want the dress to be ready by 5 o'clock.b) I want that the dress is ready by 5 o'clock.

2. He expects me in his office at 12.a) He expects me to be in his offlice at 12.b) He expects that I am in his office at 12.

3. He considered the girl a good student.a) He considered the girl to be a good student.b) He considered that the girl should be a good student.

S V DO OC / Pc predication complement[They] [considered] [the girl] [very beautiful.] But : S V DO[They] [considered] [the girl very beautiful.]

DO small clause S (V) Pc in this example the verbless clause is ...............................................................................................................an ARGUMENT

(nominal function) [The children being at school,] we can't take our vacation when we want to. NON – FINITE CLAUSE with SUBJECT + ADVERBIAL FUNCTION

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION

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When NON – FINITE CLAUSES with subject appear in adverbial function, they are considered to be ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS.

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In this case, these non – finite clauses can appear with COMPLEMENTISERS with and without.

With children being at school, we can't take our vacation when we want to.

COMPLEMENTISER (not a preposition)

NOMINAL CLAUSES

NOMINAL THAT CLAUSES

S ; DO ; SC ; APPOSITIVE ; ADJECTIVAL COMPLEMENTATION

SUBJECT :[That the invading troops have been withdrawn] has not affected the government.

OBJECT :I noticed [that he spoke English with an American accent.]

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT : My opinion is [that the interest rates will soon fall.]

APPOSITIVEYour criticism, [that the play is completely ambigious], is fully justified.

ADJECTIVAL COMPLEMENTATION :We are glad [that you are able to to join us.]When the nominal THAT - clause is DO, COMPLEMENT or EXTRAPOSED

the conjuction THAT can be omitted.

I noticed [ ___ he spoke English with an American accent.]

But, the conjuction THAT cannot be omitted in a subject clause or in nonrestrictive appositive clause :

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* You don't know English is pity.* Your criticism, the play is completely ambigious, is fully justified.

WH INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES

S ; DO ; SC ; APPOSITIVE; ADJECTIVAL COMPLEMENTATION ; PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT

SUBJECT :[How the book will sell] depends on the readers.

OBJECT : I don't know [what they want with your number.]

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT :The problem is [who will feed my dog when I go to London.]

APPOSITIVE :The man, [who usually helps my mother] left the country.Your question, [why he did not do it], is completely ridiculous.

ADJECTIVAL COMPLEMENTATION:I am not sure [which she prefers].

PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT :They did not consult us on [whose names should be put forward.]

An infinitive WH – clause can be formed with all wh – words, though instances with „why“ are very rare :

I don't know [what to say]. vs. I don't know what I should say.YES – NO and ALTERNATIVE INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES

S ; DO ; SC ; APPOSITIVE; ADJECTIVAL COMPLEMENTATION ; PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT

YES – NO clauses are introduced by subordinators WHETHER or IF

- Do you know [whether/if the banks are open?]

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ALTERNATIVE clauses are introduced by subordinators WHETHER ... OR or IF ... OR

- I can't find out [whether the flight has been delayed or cancelled.] - I asked them [if they wanted meat or fish.]

The subordinator is repeated only if the second unit is a full clause :

- I can't find out [whether the flight has been delayed or whether it has been cancelled.]

NOTE : IF is more restricted sintactically than whether :- It cannot introduce a subject clause :

Whether she likes the present it is not clear to me.* If she likes the present it is not clear to me.

- It cannot introduce an infinitive clause :I don't know whether to see my doctor today:*I don't know if to see my doctor today.

- It cannot be directly followed by or not :I don't know whether or not he'll be staying at the hotel.* I don't know if or not he'll be staying at the hotel.

NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES

They resemble wh – interrogative clauses, because they are also introduced by a wh element. In nominal relative clauses, the antecedent is understood, it is contained within the relative pronoun. These clauses behave like noun phrases, and therefore can occupy the same range of positions within a sentence as regular noun phrases :

S ; DO ; IO ; SC ; OC; APPOSITIVE; PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT, ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT

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SUBJECT :[What I want] is a cup of tea. or [What she wrote] was a mistery.

DIRECT OBJECT : You should see [whoever deals with complaints.]

We need to know [where you live in term time.]INDIRECT OBJECT : He gave [whoever asked for it ] a copy of his latest book.

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT :April is [when the lilacs bloom.]

OBJECT COMPLEMENT :You can call me [whatever you like.]

APPOSITIVE :I'll pay you the whole debt : [ What I have originally borrowed and what I owe you in interest.]

PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT :You should vote for [whichever candiate you think best.]

Like NP's, nominal relative clauses require prepositions for adjective complementation:

He is aware of [what I write.]

TO INFINITIVE CLAUSES

S ; DO ; SC ; APPOSITIVE; ADJECTIVAL COMPLEMENTATION

SUBJECT :[To be neutral in this conflict] is out of question.

Extraposition usually occurs with subject clauses :

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It is out of question [to be neutral in this conflict.]

The presence of subject in to-infinitive clauses normally requires the presence of preceeding for. When the subject is pronoun that distinguishes subjective and objective cases.

[For our country to be neutral in this conflict] is out of question. EXTRAPOSED : It is out of question [for our country to be neutral in this conflict.]

[For us to take part in the discussion] would be a conflict of interest. EXTRAPOSED: It would be a conflict of interest [for us to take part in the discussion.]

DIRECT OBJECT :He likes [to relax.]He likes everyone [to relax.]

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT :The best excuse is [to say that you have an examination tomorrow.]

APPOSITIVE :Your ambition, [to become a farmer], requires the energy that you certainly have.

ADJECTIVAL COMPLEMENTATION:I am very eager [to meet her.]

-ING CLAUSES

S ; DO ; SC ; APPOSITIVE; ADJECTIVAL COMPLEMENTATION

SUBJECT :[Watching television] keeps them out of troubles.

DIRECT OBJECT : He enjoys [playing practical jokes.]

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When the clause is the direct object, for is generally absent before the subject.

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SUBJECT COMPLEMENT :Her first job had been [selling computers.]

APPOSITIVE :His current research, [investigating attitudes to racial stereotypes], takes up a lot of time.

ADJECTIVAL COMPLEMENTATION:They are busy [preparing the barbecue.]

When the –ing clause has a subject, it may be in the genitive case or in objective case (for those pronouns having an objective case) or common case (for all other heads of noun phrases):

GENITIVE : I object to his / Jeremy's receiving an invitation. OBJECTIVE: I object to him / Jeremy receiving an invitation.

BARE INFINITIVE CLAUSES

1. The most common function : subject or subject complement in pseudo – cleft sentences.

[Turn off the heater] was all I did.What the plan does is [(to) ensure a fair pension for all.]

2. These clauses may also function as object complements with relatively few superordinate verbs.

They made her [pay for the damage].

3. These clauses may also follow the preposition of exception :

She did everything but [make her bed].NOMINAL THAT CLAUSES vs. RELATIVE CLAUSES

That clauses are a type of nominal subordinate clause introduced by the conjunction that or Ø.A that-clause typically functions as a subject or a direct object (but can also function as an apposition in a noun phrase, as a predicative, or as a complement of an adjective).

1. It is apparent [that no acceptable formula has been found.]2. The mayor said [(that) he would run for re-election.]3. The reply was [that they would agree to attend.]

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4. I am afraid [(that) they will knock over my ink.]

These nominal that-clauses can be easily distinguished from relative clauses introduced by that by trying to replace that by which or who.

The reply was that they would agree to attend.* The reply was which they would agree to attend.* The reply was who they would agree to attend.

A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun , or in other words, these clauses give more information about nouns. Relative clauses are introduced by a relative pronoun.

Traditionally : relative clauses refer to a noun (antecedent)

I saw the house whose roof is damaged. ‘the house’I saw the house that he built last year. the antecedent

The relative pronouns in English who, whom, whose, which, whomever, whatever, and that.

the man who wasn’t thereNP RELATIVE CLAUSE

1. The present which he bought me is beautiful.2. The man who has started an English course is from Spain.3. The company that she works for is based in London.4. The students, who had revised hard, passed the exam.

COMPARATIVE CLAUSES

CORRELATIVE ELEMENT (COMPARATIVE ELEMENT)

I love you [ more deeply [than I can say.] ]

LICENSER comparative clause

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COMPARATIVE SENTENCE

LICENSER – implies the existence of the comparative clause.

more [ clause ]

CORRELATIVE ELEMENT can be a comparative adjective, an adverb or a quantifier.Even if the clause is not present, the meaning can be understood.

John is more clever [than Bill] (is clever)

omitted in speech, but syntactically present S V Pc

a) Jane is as healthy as her sister (is)

S = S V Pc Pc AP AdvP (corr. el) A Comparative cl. AdvP Adv as

A healthyComp. cl. sub S (V) (Pc) sub as S NP Det N Det her N sister

S V Pcb) Jane is healthier than her sister (is).

S = S V Pc Pc AP A (corr. el) Comparative cl. (V) S V A

c) She smokes as hard as she ever did.S = S V A

A AP AdvP (corr. el) + Adv + Comparative cl.43

healthy – STANDARD OF COMPARISON

(usually omitted in comparative clause, and sometimes it must be omitted)

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AdvP Adv as Adv hard Comp. cl. sub S A V sub as S NP she A AdvP Adv ever V did

S V DO Ad) He eats vegetables more than any other food.

S = S V DO A A AdvP Adv (corr. el) + Comparative cl.

Adv more (comparative) Compar. cl. sub (S) (V) DO

sub than (S) NP Prn he (V) eats (present, transitive)

DO NP Det A N Det any A other

N food

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CLAUSE FUNCTIONS OF THE COMPARATIVE ELEMENT (CORR. ELEMENT)

SUBJECT :[More people] use this fluid than (use) any other window-cleaning fluid.

DIRECT OBJECT : She knows [more history] than most people (know).

INDIRECT OBJECT : This toy has given [more children] happiness than any other (toy) (has).

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT :Mary is [more relaxed] than she used to be.

OBJECT COMPLEMENT :She thinks her children [more obedient] than (they were) last year.

ADVERBIAL :You've been working [much haeder] than I (have).

PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT:She applied for [more jobs] than Mary (has (applied for))

[More people] use this fluid than (they use) any other window-cleaning fluid. CORRELATIVE comparative clause ELEMENT (detached from the subject)

IO DO comp-clause

This toy has given [more children] happiness than any other (toy) (has).

S V Ac AdvP

I weigh more than 200 pounds. more than 200 pounds It goes faster than 100 mph. PP postmodifier of an Adv

STANDARD OF COMPARISON

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He loves his dog more than his children. AMBIGUITY IN

1. He loves his dog more than his children love his dog. INTERPRETATION2. He loves his dog more than he loves his children.

S V PcThey are rich enough to own a car.S = S V Pc

Pc AP rich enough to own a car AP A AdvP

A rich AdvP Adv to inf. cl (postmodifier)

Adv enough to inf. cl (S) V DO

S Ø V to own

DO NP Det N Det a

N carS V PcIt is so good a movie that we mustn’t miss it.S = S V Pc

Pc NP AP Det N that-cl. AP AdvP A

AdvP Adv so A good

Det a N movie

S V A It flies so fast that it can beat the speed record.S = S V A

A AdvP AdvP + Adv + that-cl. AdvP Adv so (corr. el) Adv fast

that-cl sub S V DO sub that S Prn it

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V aux + main lex verb aux can main lex verb beat (f., pres., transitive)DO NP Det + PrM + N

Det the PrM NP (det) + N

Det Ø N speed

N record

S V IO DOYou can ask whoever you want to help you.S = S V IO DO

IO Nom Rel. Cl. DO S V DO Rel. Prn. Whoever S Prn you V want (f., pres.)

DO To-inf. clause (S) V DO S Ø

V to help DO Prn you

SENTENTIAL RELATIVE CLAUSES

They modify the whole sentence they refer to the whole sentence their antecedent is the whole sentence.

He said he wanted to leave early which was a surprise for me.

SENTENTIAL RELATIVE CLAUSE / ADVERBIAL

In English, they are introduced by WHICH.

S V DO A

He said he wanted to leave early which was a surprise for me. S = S V DO A

A Sent. Rel. Clause S V Pc S NP Rel. Prn. Which

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S V DO AHe said he wanted to leave early, in which case I could see him off the airport.S = S V DO A

A Sent. Rel. Cl A S V DO A A PP P NP

P in NP Det N

Det which N case

S NP Prn I V Mod aux + lex verb

Mod aux could Lex verb see

COMPLEX TRANSITIVE COMPLEMENTS

AP NP NP

1. [Obama] [set] [the prisoners] [free] S V DO Pc + Ac VP NP AP

2. [Obama] [flung] [the door] [open]]. S V DO Pc + Ac VP NP AP

IT DEFINES THE VERB (looks like an adverbial)

[set] [the prisioners] [free] Pc + Ac REFERS TO THE DO PREDICATIVELY

Pc + Ac Pc } it relates to the DO, Ac} it relates to the verb and looks like an adjunct but it is not, it is obligatory

Complex transitive verbs require 2 complements :1. A direct object2. An adverbial with relation to the verb

a predicative function relating to the DO

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Pc + Ac

[She] called her baby George. VP NP NP

*She called her baby. [She] called the proposal absurd. (with this meaning) VP NP AP

Pc + Ac

More examples of such complementation :

1. The secretary left all the letters unopened. S V DO Pc + Ac2. I have often wished myself a millionare. S V DO Pc + Ac3. The long walk made us hungry. S V DO Pc + Ac

PASSIVIZING :When passivizing sentences with complex transitive complementation, it is important to be aware of the fact that only the first complement can become the subject of the corresponding passive sentence :

1. She called her baby George.Her baby was called George.* George was called her baby.

Now, let's consider the following examples : OPTIONAL

1. They have painted the house (red).

P + A OPTIONAL (PREDICATIVE ADJUNCT)2. She married (young).

There is a similarity between the following sentences : P+A

1. They have painted the house red. [red] - OPTIONAL but :

2. Obama has set the prisoners free. [free] - OBLIGATORY

They have painted the house.*Obama has set the prisoners.

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[ painted the house (red) ]

[red] – not a complement, it is OPTIONAL. P + A

There is a semantic, but not syntactic relation between [red] and [the house]. Therefore, [red] is semantically related to the direct object, [the house].

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Pc+Ac and P+A complements

1. They have peinted the house, and more specifically they have painted it red.2. * Obama set the prisioners, and more specifically he sat them free.3. If they have painted the house red, they have painted the house.4. *If they set the prisoners free, they set them.

Predicative adjuncts may have predicative relation with the subject too : P+A- She married (young). PREDICATIVE ADJUNCT

P + A- He left his house angry with his wife.

AP

P + A- Unaware of the danger, he walked into the building. AP

V DO Pc + Ac OBLIGATORY

V DO P + A OPTIONAL

There is another structure where a DO is followed by an element – adverbial complement (Ac).

S V DO Ac ADVERBIAL

[He] [put] [the money] [in the box]. COMPLEMENT

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S V DO Ac

1. [I] [slipped] [the key] [into the lock.]

S V DO Ac

2. [You] [should take] [your hands] [out of your pockets.]

3. May I see you to your seat?4. They talked me into it.5. He stood my argument on its head. 6. Always keep your eyes on the road when driving.

DIRECT OBJECT AND TO – INFINITIVE CLAUSE

Complex – transitive complementation ; some verbs take a DO and a TO- INFINITIVE

CLAUSE.

S V DO

[John] [believed] [the stranger to be a policeman.]

UNITARY CLAUSAL ANALYSIS

1. John considered that Mary was exceptionally clever.

that – clause is a complement of the verb 'consider'

BUT :

2. John considered Mary to be exceptionally clever.

TRADITIONAL ANALYSIS : S V DO OC

to – inf. clause

MODERN ANALYSIS : [Mary to be exceptionally clever] – 1 INFINITIVAL CLAUSE

John considered [Mary to be exceptionally clever.]

The advantages of such analysis :51

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V + COMPLEMET (the grammar is more simple)

- structural paralelism the verb 'consider' selects the same structure :

consider finite or non-finite clause

According to Quirk and Greenbaum, the problem with such analysis lies in the claim that [Mary

to be exceptionally clever] is not a full constitutuent.

We can prove the opposite :

1. John considered Mary to be exceptionally clever.

2. John considered the girl to be exceptionally clever.

* John considered girl to be exceptionally clever.

The movement test proves that [Mary] is a constituent. We can also prove this claim with the

coordination test :

1. John considered [Mary to be exceptionally clever] and [Peter to be exceptionally

stupid].

4. Topic, focus: preposing, clefting, pseudo-clefting; extraposition.

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TOPIC the old information (usually the first part of the sentence)

FOCUS the new information

Focusing with special information :

- Who wrote this letter?

- Mary wrote it.

FOCUSED

FRONTING / PREPOSING

Pc S V1. [John] [his name] [is]. (John)

Pc+Ac S V DO2. [Holiday] [you] [call] [it] (holiday)

DO S V A3. [Really good cocktails] [they] [made] [at the hotel].

Pc S V 4. [Rich] [I] [may be].

Ac S V A S V

5. [In London] [I] [was born], and [in London] [I] [will die.]

S-V INVERSION :

A S V[Away] [he] [goes]. A V S with lexical verb[Away] [goes] [the girl].

S – OPERATOR INVERSION :There are negative elements that demand the inversion of the auxiliary :

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Hardly had I arrived home.

The negative element (when fronted) demands the verb – auxiliary inversion!

1. Should you change your plan, please send me a notice.

The inversion of the auxiliary and the main verb hypothetical sense

2. Keen though I am, I will not accept the proposition to go there.

PREPOSED (concessive clause)

CLEFTING

IT + BE + FOCUS + that – cl.

S ; O; A – time ; A- place ; A-IO ; Adv – cl ; P + A

John have this book to Bill on Saturday.

1. It was John who gave this book to Bill on Saturday. SUBJECT

2. It was this book that was given to Bill on Saturday. OBJECT

3. It was on Saturday that John gave this book to Bill. ADVERBIAL OF TIME

4. It was in the library that John gave this book to Bill. ADVERBIAL OF PLACE

5. *It was to Bill that John gave this book on Saturday. IO } when realized by NP cannot be focused.

6. It was because of his birthday that John gave this book. ADV-CLAUSE

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We consider Mary very beautiful. Pc + Ac *It is very beautiful that we consider Mary. cannot be focused

7. We painted the fence dark blue.It was dark blue that we painted the fence. P + A can be focused

Pc if realized by an adjective + if it appears after the verb BE

CANNOT BE FOCUSED

They are very successful businessman.* It is very successful that they are businessmen.

But : Pc when realized by NP, can be focused :

He became a linguist.It was a linguist that he became.

When CLEFTING : It is I… (formal)It is me (less formal)

ANALYSIS :

It was John who gave this book to Bill on Saturday.

CLEFT SENTENCE

Cleft S S + V + focus + “Rel” – cl. S it (expletive it) V was

focus NP (S) John must be indicated

Rel. Cl. Rel. Prn (S) V DO IO A

There is one element that cannot be focused in cleft sentences, but can be focused in similar constructions - PSEUDO CLEFT SENTENCES

John gave this book to Bill on Saturday.What John did was give this book to Bill on Saturday

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PSEUDO – CLEFT SENTENCE

Pseudo – cleft sentences most frequently appear with nominal relative clauses introduced by WHAT. NOMINAL REL. CLAUSE

What Bill will do is have a quick shower before he leaves. S V Pc

What I’m doing is trying to clean up the mess. CONCORD

In pseudo – cleft sentences, the VP is focused.

PSEUDO - CLEFT SENTENCE Nominal Rel. Cl. V Pc

S V PcWhat Ann did was open the box and take out the gun.

ANALYSIS :

What Ann did was open the box and take out the gun.

Pseudo – cleft sent. S V Pc S nom. rel. Cl. rel. Prn (DO) S V

V was (copula, p. time) Pc VP V DO

V open DO NP Det N Det the N box

As stated above, pseudo – cleft sentences most frequently appear with nominal relative clauses introduced by WHAT, but there are possibilities to use WHERE and WHEN only with a specific word – order : Here is where the accident took place. THE ONLY POSITION OF SUCH

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* Where the accidient took place is here. NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES IS THE POSITION OF Pc.

S V PcSpring is when the trees are most beautiful.* When the trees are most beautiful is spring.

S V Pc[What happened] [was] [that Anne opened the box.]

There is a possibility to use ALL instead of WHAT :

What I want for Christmas is a new coat.

All I want for Christmas is a new coat.

SUBJECT CANNOT BE FOCUSED WITH PSEUDO – CLEFT SENTENCES :

* Who needs a good rest is us. BUT :We are those who need a good rest.

EXTRAPOSITION

A movement with a substitution / it (expletive)

It can concern SUBJECT and OBJECT (clauses functioning as SUBJECT or OBJECT)

S CLAUSE V …

replaced by “IT”

1. To insult one’s friend is unacceptable.

It is unacceptable to insult one’s friend.

NOTIONAL SUBJECTIt is unacceptable to insult one’s friend.

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ANALYSIS :

S S V Pc S (extraposed)

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S S V Pc S (extraposed) S It (expletive) V is (copula, pres.) Pc AP A unacceptable S to – inf. cl. (S) V DO S Ø V insult DO NP

It was easy answering those questions. very informal

EXTRAPOSED SUBJECT (-ing clause)

It is no use crying over spilt milk.

To teach her is a pleasure.

It is a pleasure to teach her. (extraposed subject)

She is a pleasure to teach.

S V PcShe is [a pleasure to teach.]

It looks like as if the object became the subject of the main clause.

S S V Pc Pc NP to-inf. clause

NP det N deta Npleasureto-inf.clause (S) V (DO)

DO related to the S (she)

S V Pc

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We are certain to forget the address.S S V Pc SNPPrnWe Vare (copula) Pc AP to inf, clause

AP A certain to inf. cl (S) V DO

S ( ) V to forget

DO NP Det NDet theN address

Extraposition of objectExtraposition of object occurs in the structure where the object is followed by Pc + Ac (object complement).Subject extraposition is usually optional, while object extraposition is obligatory.

S V DO Pc+Ac DO

1. He made it very clear that he wouldn’t be coming back.

S V DO Pc+Ac DO (Extraposed)

expletive IT that clause

S V DO Pc+Ac DO (extraposed)2. He made it his objective not to come back.

* He made not to come back his objective.

S V DO Ac3. He explained it to me that he would not be coming back.

S S V DO Ac

DO Pc+Ac

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-ing clauses are

OPTIONALLY

EXTRAPOSED

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They do not find being in the same office a stress.

DO DO (extraposed)They do not find it a stress being in the same office. S S V DO Pc+Ac DO (extraposed)

POSTPONEMENTOne element is being moved to the end of the sentence (this usually happens with long and heavy constructions)

S V Pc+Ac DOThey pronounced guilty everyone of the accused except the man who had raised the alarm.S S V Pc+Ac DO (postponed)

Postponement is not extraposition; the expletive IT doesn’t appear with postponement.

S V S (disc)The plumber arrived who we had called earlier.

S S V S (discontinuous) S NP Det N … Rel. cl. (disc.)

COMPLEX NOUN PHRASES

The only obligatory element in noun phrases is the head of the noun phrase (a noun).Some nouns require determiners (the others do not), but determiners may be obligatory too.

[a cat with socks]

the HEAD

This NP speaks about the cat, not the socks.The head determines the meaning, and the grammatical properties of the head determine the grammatical properties of the phrase.

MODIFIERS :60

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1. Restrictive

2. Non – restrictive

a) Our tall students like syntax.

When we interprete this sentence : Only tall students like syntax. (RESTRICTIVE MODIFICATION)

OR :

All of our students are tall and they like syntax. (NON – RESTRICTIVE MODIFICATION)

Sometimes modification is necessarily NON – RESTRICTIVE (nouns that are unique)

Come and meet my famous mother.

UNIQUE REFERENCE

Proper names have UNIQUE REFERENCE.

Angela Hunt, who is over there in the corner, wants to meet you. NON – RESTRICTIVE MODIFIER (provides additional information)

Common nouns } usually do not have an unique reference }RESTRICTIVE MODIFICATION

1. Temporary

2. Permanent

Pre-modifying adjectives } PERMANENT PROPERTY

a man who is timid a timid man

a river which is navigable a navigable river

Pre-modifying participles express permanent features of nouns.

*(John was) a reassuring man at the meeting

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The property of being ‘reassuring’ cannot be a permanent characteristic of a man, but a certain

facial expression can be associated with that property permanently.

*She is a smiling person ... She has a smiling face

Post-modifying adjectives } TEMPORARY PROPERTY

The rivers navigable are all inaccessible.

Adjectivees expressing temporary property cannot be used pronominally.

POSTMODIFICATION

Adjectives can appear postnominally in the following cases :

when they express temporary property : The rivers navigable are now inaccessible.

when they have complements : a man proud of his son (*a proud of his son man)

when they are coordinated : a girl timid and shy

when they are modifying adjectives : a man notoriously timid

when they modify pronouns : someone shy (*shy someone)

RELATIVE CLAUSES

- These clauses are noun postmodifiers.

- They modify a noun.

- They appear after a noun.

- They are introduced by relative pronouns.

The form of the relative pronoun depends on certain features :

1. +, - ANIMATE ANTECEDENT

2. SYNTACTIC FUNCTION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WITHIN THE REL. CL.

3. SEMANTIC RELATION (Restrictive or Non – Restrictive)

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ANTECEDENT

used for animate ant. , subject function of the rel. clause

The couple [ who lives next door] have 16 grandchildren.

RELATIVE PRONOUN

(SUBJECT WITHIN THE RELATIVE CLAUSE)

We went to the restaurant [which Jane recommended to us.]

RELATIVE PRONOUN

(OBJECT WITHIN THE RELATIVE CLAUSE)

That’s the man who / whom I met at the party.

(OBJECT WITHIN THE RELATIVE CLAUSE)

This is the man [whose son is your best pupil.]

DETERMINER (+ animate , can refer to inanimate too)

PP

This is the institute [ in which my brother works]

ANTECEDENT (a part of the PP)

This is the institute [which my brother works in.]

A S V A S V A (disc.)[ [in which] my brother works] [ [which] my brother works in]

A PP P Rel. Prn. A PP P(dis) Rel Prn.S NP det N

Det my N brother PREPOSITION STRANDING

V works (the preposition appears separately)

Rel. Prn.

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Rel. Prn.

That is the place [ where my brother works. ]

Adv. of place A S V

A Rel. Prn Adv where

RELATIVE PRONOUN ‘THAT’ AND Ø RELATIVE PRONOUN

The couple who lives next door has 16 grandchildren.

that

We went to the restaurant which Jane recommended.

thatTHAT } can be used when :

the relative pronoun functions as the COMPLEMENT (within the relative clause) or as a place/time/cause adjunct.

- can refer to any antecedent, animate or inanimate

- is used in RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES only!

Ø RELATIVE PRONOUN :

We went to the restaurant (which / that ) Jane recommended us.

We went to the restaurant Jane recommended us.

This is the place where my brother works.* This is the place my brother works.

Ø RELATIVE PRONOUN } when the Rel. Prn. functions as a DO (within the rel. Cl.) COMPLEMENT (within the relative clause)

John is not the man that he was.John is not the man he was.

THAT } omitted

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1. His hair was cut in a thick fringe over his eyes, which had dark circles under them.

S S V A A PP …

2. Even when I see the bridge now, which I do every day, I still can’t believe it.

S A1 A2 S A V DO

EXERCISES :65

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I Present a full syntactic analysis (sentence, clause, phrase constituents, their functions and parts of speech) of the following sentences:

1. To be precise, he perfected a repertoire of bleats that exactly mimicked the stupid comments of a goat in all its various states of mind.

2. It is a very fine animal that takes each goat back to its owner every evening, without Ibrahim the Mad having to do anything at all.

3. Claude emphasized the fact that the writer was a Ph.D. who must know what he was talking about.

4. Nothing I said could make him reconsider the slightest bit of his information.

5. At the same time he liked to describe how, from time to time, in order to avoid the expense and responsibility of domestic staff, he deliberately underwent long periods of undertaking his own cooking.

6. Then all I had to do was grab a thin foam pad and my sleeping bag, walk down the road, over the eroded clay hill where the mantis laid her eggs, along the creek downstream to the motorbike woods, and through the wood's bike trail to the dam.

7. I knew a man, who believed that, if a man were permitted to make the ballads, he need not care who made the laws of the nation.

8. I believe that the man who killed the lady was one of the most important figures of that age.

9. It was sad that there was a smile at the corners of his lips from the moment of his birth, from early boyhood he was a specialist in inappropriate interjections.

10. His most popular bleat, however, was that of a goat that has nothing to say.

11. With the movement of fire investigation from the Sheriff's Department to a county fire investigation team, the investigation of fires determined to be accidental in nature could be completed by volunteer members of the team who at the most would be reimbursed mileage expenses.

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II Give possible reasons why certain noun phrases in the examples below are ungrammatical:

1. (He greeted me with) a very reassuring expression. ... *(John was) a reassuring man at the meeting

2. *She is a smiling person ... She has a smiling face.

3. He was surprised by an approaching train / *the approaching train.

4. *a sold car ... a recently-sold car –

5. *the arrived guests ... the newly-arrived guests –

III Pick out all adverbials in the text below and say what particular category they are realized by.

He was not rich, although his income, in those days, allowed the preservation of a fairly

independent attitude towards the more material side of being an artist. He had once, for

example, turned down the opportunity to decorate the interior of a fish restaurant in

Brighton, where he lived, on grounds that the sum offered was incommensurate with the

demeaning nature of the work demanded. His means had also enabled him to assemble

what was said to be an excellent little collection of hour-glasses, silhouettes, and bric-a-

brac of various kinds. At the same time he liked to describe how, from time to time, in

order to avoid the expense and responsibility of domestic staff, he deliberately underwent

long periods of undertaking his own cooking. When travelling on the Continent he

commonly went on foot with a haversack on his back.

IV Present a full syntactic analysis (clausal, phrasal and word-level constituents, their functions and categorial status (i.e. parts of speech)), of the underlined sentence in the text below.

a) Then all I had to do was grab a thin foam pad and my sleeping bag, walk down the road, over the eroded clay hill where the mantis laid her eggs, along the creek downstream to the motorbike woods, and through the wood's bike trail to the dam.

b) At first it was good fun believing that someone important cared enough to watch us.

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c) The place consisted of a small front office and a large loft on the floor of which I noticed a series of large galvanized tubs half filled with water out of which I noticed protruding the necks of many bottles of various sizes and shapes.

d) After a couple of hours I had a feeling that my thumb nail was going to leave my finger and jump into the cold water in the tub.

e) . At the same time he liked to describe how, from time to time, in order to avoid the expense and responsibility of domestic staff, he deliberately underwent long periods of undertaking his own cooking.

f) To dry the clothes, they were hung with clothespins outdoors on lines for the sun and wind to take out the water. 

g) Actually, when the lake is frozen two to three feet deep, this is a perfect opportunity for people living on islands to transport large objects onto or off the islands.

h) At the same time it is a rather interesting project which went through several different phases before finally becoming a book which still remains unfinished

VI Pick out all noun postmodifiers and state what they are in form.

There were actually flying saucers, Claude told me once, piloted by things from other -

places in the universe, which would eventually destroy the country for what it had done to the

black man. He had run into this room on that occasion, and had brought out a book by a man

who maintained that the government was deliberately withholding from the public overwhelming

evidence of flying saucers and strange creatures from other galaxies that walked among us every

day. Claude emphasized the fact that the writer was a Ph.D. who must know what he was talking

about, and insisted that the politicians withheld the information because they knew that their time

was almost up and if they made it public, the black man would know that he had outside friends

who would help him take over the world again. Nothing I said could make him reconsider the

slightest bit of his information.

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At first it was good fun believing that someone important cared enough to watch us. And

sometimes when the telephone was dead a long time before the dial tone sounded, I would knock

on his door and together we would run through our telephone conversations for that day to see if

either of us had said anything implicating or suspect, just in case they were listening.

VII Pick out all the subordinate (i.e. dependent) clauses in the text stating their function and type.

Ibrahim the Mad was one of our most entertaining when he was young. It was said that there was a smile at the corners of his lips from the moment of his birth, and from early boyhood he was a specialist in inappropirate interjections. To be precise, he perfected a repertoire of bleats that exactly mimicked the stupid comments of a goat in all its various states of mind; a goat that is surprised, a goat that is looking for its kid, a goat that is protesting, a goat that is hungry, a goat that is perplexed, a goat that is in rut. His most popular bleat, however, was that of a goat that has nothing to say. This bleat was the perfect parody of unintelligence, empty-headedness, inanity and harmlessness. If you want to know what it sounded like, just go up past the ancient tombs to where the limepit is. It is in the wild ground near there that Ibrahim the Mad still watches the goats, even though he is no longer sane. You should beware of his great dog. It is a very fine animal that takes each goat back to its owner every evening, without Ibrahim the Mad having to do anything at all, but it is a somewhat ready-fanged dog that recognises a stranger straight away by the smell. If you cannot find Ibrahim there, then listen for the sound of the kaval, and follow it. He blows it so sadly that it makes you stand still and go into mourning. He does not bleat himself any more, but listens to the goats as they wander from shrub to shrub, and you will soon recognise the bleat of a goat with nothing to say.

Then all I had to do was grab a thin foam pad and my sleeping bag, walk down the road, over the eroded clay hill where the mantis laid her eggs, along the creek downstream to the motorbike woods, and through the wood's bike trail to the dam.

S=A S V SC

A=ADVP→ADV→then

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S=NP→PRN RelCl

PRN→all

RelCl→Ørel prn S V

S=NP→personal prn→I

V→Aux Vlex

Aux→finite, past→had

Vlex→nonfinite, to-inf →to do

V→finite, past, copula→was

SC=bare inf Cl1 [coord] bare inf Cl2

Bare inf.Cl1→[S] V DO

V→nonfinite, bare inf→grab

DO→NP1 coord NP2

NP1→Det AP NP N

Det→a

AP→A→thin

NP→ØDet N

N→foam

N→pad

coord→and

NP2→Det AP N

Det→possessive→my

AP→A→sleeping

N→bag

Bare inf Cl2→[S] VA

V→nonfinite, bare inf→walk70

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A= PP1 [coord] PP2 [coord] PP3 [coord] ADVP [coord] PP4 coord PP5 PP6

PP1→P NP

P→down

NP→Det N

Det→the

N→road

PP2→P NP

P→over

NP→Det AP NP1 N RelCl

Det→the

AP→A→eroded

NP1→ØDet N

N→clay

N→hill

RelCl→A S V DO

A=ADVP→wh-ADV→where

S=NP→Det N

Det→the

N→mantis

V→finite, past→laid

DO=NP→Det N

Det→possessive→her

N→eggs

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PP3→P NP

P→along

NP→Det N

Det→the

N→creek

ADVP→ADV→downstream

PP4→P NP

P→to

NP→Det NP1 N

Det→the

NP1→ØDet N

N→motorbike

N→woods

Coord→and

PP5→P NP

P→through

NP→Det NP1 NP2 N

Det→the

NP1→possessive genitive→wood’s

NP2→ØDet N

N→bike

N→trail

PP6→P NP

P→to

NP→Det N72

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Det→the

N→dam

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