mixeil gverdwiTeliqristine giorgaZemaia rusia

Qqimiis Sesavali

2qimiis Sesavlis mokle kursi gankuTvnilia saxelmZRva-nelod zusti da sabunebismetyvelo fakultetis bakalav-riatis I kursis studentebisaTvis. masSi warmodgenilia qi-miis sawyisebi, romelTa Seswavlis safuZvelze studentiSeZlebs gaecnos qimiis speckursebs: zogadi qimia, araorga-nuli qimia, organuli qimia, fizikuri qimia, analizuri qi-mia. wigni warmoadgens qimiis skolis kursSi Seswavlilimasalis gameorebis da garkveuli gaRrmavebis mcdelobas.

redaqtori prof. n. l e k i S v i l irecenzenti prof. r. k u b l a S v i l i

Tbilisis universitetis gamomcemloba, 2013

ISBN 978-9941-13-162-2

3S i n a a r s i

1. zogadi qimia -------------------------------------------------- 51.1. qimiis sagani -------------------------------------------------- 51.2. qimiis ZiriTadi cnebebi ------------------------------- 61.3. steqiometriis ZiriTadi kanonebi --------------- 111.4. araorganuli naerTebis ZiriTadi klasebi 121.5. qimiuri reaqciebi da maTi mimdinareobis

sakvanZo sakiTxebi ---------------------------------------- 241.6. atomis aRnagoba -------------------------------------------- 321.7. periodulobis kanoni da qimiur element-

Ta perioduli sistema -------------------------------- 411.8. qimiuri bmebi ------------------------------------------------- 44

Jangva-aRdgeniTi reaqciebi -------------------------- 521.10. xsnarebi --------------------------------------------------------- 591.11. eleqtrolituri disociaciis Teoria ------- 601.12. reaqciis ionuri da Sekvecili ionuri

gantolebebi -------------------------------------------------- 622. qimiuri elementebi da maTi naerTebi --------- 652.1. wyalbadi -------------------------------------------------------- 652.2. qlori ------------------------------------------------------------ 682.3. Jangbadi --------------------------------------------------------- 712.4. gogirdi --------------------------------------------------------- 732.5. azoti ------------------------------------------------------------- 772.6. natriumi -------------------------------------------------------- 812.7. alumini ---------------------------------------------------------- 832.8. kalciumi -------------------------------------------------------- 853. organuli naerTebi --------------------------------------- 873.1. organul naerTTa aRnagobis Teoria da

izomerebi ------------------------------------------------------- 893.2. alkanebi --------------------------------------------------------- 913.3. alkenebi --------------------------------------------------------- 933.4. alkinebi --------------------------------------------------------- 953.5. arenebi ----------------------------------------------------------- 973.6. alkanolebi --------------------------------------------------- 100

43.7. alkanalebi ---------------------------------------------------- 1013.8. alkanmJavebi -------------------------------------------------- 103literatura -------------------------------------------------------------- 105

5I . zog ad i q i m i a

1.1. Qqimiis sagani

qimia mecnierebaa, romelic Seiswavlis nivTiere-bebs, maT gardaqmnebs da am gardaqmnebis Tanmxleb mov-lenebs.

arsebobs ramodenime Sexeduleba terminis `qimia~warmomavlobis Sesaxeb:

1. `qiumi~ niSnavs rogorc Zvel egviptes, aseveSavmiwa niadags (nilosis adidebis Semdeg nia-dagi Savi SlamiT ifareboda);

2. `qim~ ZvelCinurad niSnavs oqros;3. `qimefris~ Sereva ZvelberZnulad.

1860 w. marselen berTlom ganacxada: `qimia Tavadqmnis Tavis kvlevis obieqtebs~. marTlac, dReisaTvisarsebuli 20 milionamde naerTidan, daaxloebiT 90%laboratoriebSia miRebuli. dResdReobiT arsebobs qi-miis 100-ze meti ganxra, maT Soris iseTi uaxlesi, ro-goricaa: maTematikuri qimia, kompiuteruli qimia, la-zeruli qimia da a.S. ZiriTadi dargebia: zogadi, ara-organuli, organuli, analizuri da fizikuri qimia.

61.2. qimiis ZiriTadi cnebebi

erTnairi atomgulis muxtis mqone atomebs qimiurielementi ewodeba. qimiuri elementebi simboloebiTaRiniSneba: qlori _ Cl, natriumi _ Na, rkina _ Fe daa.S.

erTi saxis qimiuri elementisagan Semdgar nivTiere-bas martivi nivTiereba ewodeba; ori da meti elementi-sagan Semdgars rTuli nivTiereba.

elementis unars, warmoqmnas ramdenime martivi niv-Tiereba, alotropia ewodeba. alotropia gamowveuliaan atomebis gansxvavebuli ricxviT molekulaSi (mag.:O2 da O3), an kristaluri mesrebis gansxvavebuliaRnagobiT (mag.: almasi da grafiti).

C-is alotropuli modifikaciebia: almasi, grafiti,karbini da fulereni (`baqibolebi~).

P-s bevri (11) alotropuli modifikacia aqvs: maTSoris mniSvnelovania: TeTri, wiTeli da Savi (polime-ruli) fosfori.

P4 TeTri fosfori (tetraedruli molekula)

arsebobs kalas ori alotropuli modifikacia TeTri da ruxi. TeTr kalas metalebis mirCilvisaTvisiyeneben, ruxi kala ki rbili, fxvieri nivTierebaa.mkacri zamTris pirobebSi, Zalian dabal temperatura-ze, TeTri kala TavisTavad gardaiqmneba rux kalad. es

7gaxda 1912 wels samxreT polusze ingliseli mogzau-ris skotis eqspediciis daRupvis mizezi. Txevadi saw-vavi, romelic eqspediciam Tan waiRo, kaliT mirCilulWurWelSi iyo Casxmuli. Zlieri yinvis gavleniT TeTrikala rux kalad gardaiqmna, WurWeli daiSala da saw-vavi daiRvara.

molekulis Sedgenilobas, Cawerils elementis sim-boloebiT da indeqsebiT, qimiuri formula ewodeba.qimiuri formulebis saSualebiT Caweril qimiurreaqcias ki qimiuri toloba. zogjer martivi nivTiere-bis molekulas elementis simboloTi aRvniSnavT: fos-fori aRiniSneba P-simboloTi (ase aRiniSneba TeTrifosfori P4 da alotropuli polimeruli modifika-ciac Pn). zemoaRniSnuli exeba agreTve ionur krista-lur naerTebs: ar arsebobs KCl, Na2SO4 _ myar mdgoma-reobaSi isini erTiani kristalebia, xsnarebSi sol-vatirebuli ionebi.

ricxvs, romelic gviCvenebs Tu ramdenjer metia mo-cemuli elementis atomis saSualo masa naxSirbadis12C izotopis atomis masis 1/12 nawilze, fardobiTiatomuri masa (Ar) ewodeba. am erTeuls zogjer dal-tons uwodeben.

ricxvs, romelic gviCvenebs Tu ramdenjer metia mo-cemuli nivTierebis molekulis saSualo masa naxSir-badis 12C izotopis atomis masis 1/12 nawilze, fardo-biTi molekuluri masa (Mr) ewodeba.

masuri wili : H2SO4,

Mr(H2SO4) = 98 = 21(H) +32(S) + 416(O)(H) = 2/98; (s)= 32/98; (O)= 64/98

moli SI sistemis erT-erTi ZiriTadi erTeulia.moli aris nivTierebis is raodenoba, romelic Seicavs

8mocemuli nivTierebis imdensave struqturul nawi-

laks, ramdeni atomicaa 0.012 kg 12C izotopSi. am ricxvs

avogadros ricxvi ewodeba NA

NA= 6,02 1023

elementis atomis unars SeierTos meore elementisatomebis garkveuli ricxvi valentoba ewodeba.

elementis valentobis mixedviT qimiuriformulis Sedgena

AYBX binaruli naerTi

III II V II VII IIAl2O3, P2O5, Cl2O7

elementis valentobis gansazRvraformulis mixedviT

AYBX VA = YXVB ; VB = X

YVA ;

N2O5 VN = 5252

aris gamonaklisi SemTxvevebic, mag.:

Fe3O4 VFe ,322

38 rac ararealuria.

sinamdvileSi, Fe3O4 = FeOFe2O3

9FeO

O

O

Fe

Fe

OIII

II

III

e. i. rkinis ori atomi samvalentiania, erTi orvalen-tiani.

CaC2-Si formulis mixedviT an Ca aris 8 valentiani,an C erTvalentiani. sinamdvileSi Ca orvalentianiada C oTxvalentiani. naxSirbadatomebs Soris damyare-bulia sammagi bma:

CaC

C

II

IV

IV

e. i. zogjer saWiro xdeba grafikuli formulisdawera, romelic warmoaCens atomTa SeerTebis mimdev-robas molekulaSi da, aqedan gamomdinare, elementebisvalentobas.

struqturuli formulebi

struqturuli formula gadmoscems molekulis re-alur geometrias (sivrcul aRnagobas).

Fe(CO)5 rkinis pentakarbonili warmoadgens bipira-midas:

10

C

OC

OC CO

OC

FeO

cxrili 1zogierTi qimiuri elementis rigobrivi nomeri,

fardobiTi atomuri masa, valentoba

ele-menti

Z Ar Val ele-menti

Z Ar Val

H 1 1 1 Si 14 28 4Cl 17 35,5 1,3,5,7 Na 11 23 1O 8 16 2 K 19 39 1S 16 32 2,4,6 Ca 20 40 2N 7 14 2,3,4,5 Al 13 27 3P 15 31 3,5 Fe 26 56 2,3C 6 12 4

nivTierebis agregatuli mdgomareoba

dedamiwis pirobebSi nivTiereba arsebobs oTx agre-gatul mdgomareobaSi: airadi, Txevadi, myari da plaz-muri. samyaroSi arsebobs gansakuTrebuli zemdgomare-oba neitronuli mdgomareoba, romelic realizdebaneitronul varskvlavebSi. es varskvalavebi 25-30 km-is

11

diametris sferoebia, magram maTi masa mzis masaze meti-a. am nivTierebis 1 sm3 iwonis 15 miliard tonas.

1.3. steqiometriis ZiriTadi kanonebi

masis mudmivobis kanoni (lomonosovi, lavuazie)

qimiur reaqciaSi monawile nivTierebaTa masa, reaq-ciis Sedegad warmoqmnil nivTierebaTa masis tolia.Qqimiuri reaqciebis dros aRebul da miRebul nivTie-rebaTa jamuri masebis tolobis safuZveli, qimiurreaqciaTa mimdinareobisas, atomTa ganuyofadobaa. ato-mi qimurad ganuyofeli nawilakia, amitom aRebulnivTierebaSi romeli elementis atomebia aRebuli dara raodenobiT, igive elementis atomebi da imave rao-denobiT unda iyos miRebulSi.

Sedgenilobis mudmivobis kanoni (prusti)

molekuluri struqturis mqone naerTebis Sedgeni-loba mudmivia, miuxedavad maTi miRebis xerxisa.

mudmivi Sedgenilobis nivTierebebs daltonidebiewodebaT. cvladi Sedgenilobis naerTebs ki berToli-debi (mag.: TiO0,7~TiO1,3, FeS1,01~ FeS1,14).

avogadros kanoni

sxvadasxva airis toli moculobebi erTnair fizi-kur pirobebSi (temperatura, wneva) molekulaTa Tana-bar ricxvs Seicavs. avogadros kanoni samarTlianiamxolod airebisaTvis, radgan airis moculobas gan-

12

sazRvravs fizikuri pirobebi (wneva da temperatura)da ara airis buneba.

Sedegebi

1) nebismieri airis erTi moli erTnair fizikurpirobebSi ikavebs erTsa da imave moculobas. Tupirobebi normaluria (273 K da 101,3 kpa wneva), esmoculoba daaxloebiT 22,4 l-is tolia.

2) airad mdgomareobaSi myofi nivTierebebis molu-ri masa wyalbadis mimarT misi simkvrivis gaorke-cebuli sididis tolia: M(x) = 2d(x/H2)

1.4. araorganuli naerTebis ZiriTadi klasebi

oqsidebi

ori elementis (binarul) naerTs, romelTagan erT-erTi Jangbadia oqsidi ewodeba.

meta-lebi

arameta-lebi

oqsi-debi

hidroqsidebi(fuZeebi)

mJavebi mari-lebi

nivTiereba

martivi rTuli

RnOm M(OH)n HnX MnXm

13

oqsidebis grafikuli formulebi

Na2O CO2 CaO

Na

NaC

O

O

Ca OO O O

Al2O3 P2O5

AlO

OAl

O

O

O

O

P

P

miReba

1) martivi nivTierebis urTierTqmedebiT JangbadTan

2OCarametali

2CO

oqsidimJava

oqsidifuZemetaliCuO2OCu2 2

2) rTuli nivTierebis urTierTqmedebiT JangbadTan

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

2H2S + 3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O

4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O3) zogierTi rTuli nivTierebis daSliT

CaCO3 0t CaO + CO2marili

Cu2(OH)2CO3 0t 2CuO + CO2 + H2OfuZe marili

Cu(OH)2 0t CuO + H2OfuZe

H2SiO3 0t SiO2 + H2OmJava

14

fuZe oqsidebi

oqsids, romelic urTierTqmedebs mJavasTan mari-lis da wylis warmoqmniT, fuZe oqsidi ewodeba. fuZeoqsidebs mxolod metalebi warmoqmnis.Tvisebebi: 1) yvela fuZe oqsidi moqmedebs Zlier

mJavebTan (HCl, H2SO4, HNO3)CuO + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2OFeO + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2O

2) yvela fuZe oqsidi moqmedebs mJavaoqsidTan

MgO + SO3 MgSO4CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3

3) fuZe oqsidebidan mxolod tute datutemiwaTa metalebis oqsidebi moqme-debs wyalTan Sesabamisi tutis war-moqmniT

CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2Na2O + H2O 2NaOH

mJava oqsidebi

oqsids, romelic urTierTqmedebs tutesTan, mari-lisa da wylis warmoqmniT, mJava oqsidi ewodeba. mJavaoqsidebs ZiriTadad arametalebi warmoqmnis.

Tvisebebi: 1) yvela mJava oqsidi moqmedebs tutesTanCO2 + 2NaOH Na2CO3 +H2OSO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO3 + H2O

2) mJava oqsidebi moqmedeben fuZe oqsidebTanCO2 + CaO CaCO3

SO3 + Na2O Na2SO43) mJava oqsidebi (garda SiO2-isa) moqmedeben

wyalTan Sesabamisi mJavas warmoqmniT

15

P2O5+3H2O 2H3PO4SO3 + H2O H2SO4

amfoteruli oqsidebi

oqsidebs, romlebic avlenen rogorc fuZe, ise mJavaoqsidebis Tvisebebs, amfoteruli oqsidebi ewodeba. am-foterul oqsidebs zogierTi metali warmoqmnis. am-foteruli oqsidebia: BeO, ZnO, Al2O3, Cr2O3 da sxv.

1) ZnO + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2OZnO + 2NaOH 0t Na2ZnO2 + H2O

2) Al2O3 + 3H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2OAl2O3 + 2NaOH 0t 2NaAlO2 + H2O

hidroqsidebi (fuZeebi)

rTul nivTierebas, romelic Sedgeba metalis ato-misa da hidroqsilis erTi an ramodenime jgufisaganfuZe ewodeba.

M(OH)n, n naturaluri ricxvia da tolia metalisvalentobis.

MOH --- NaOH, KOHM(OH)2 ---- Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2M(OH)3 ---- Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3

grafikuli formulebi

Na O H CaOO H

H

NaOH, Ca(OH)2, Al(OH)3

AlO

O H

HO H

16

hidroqsidebi iyofa or jgufad: wyalSi xsnadi (tu-teebi) da wyalSi uxsnadi (fuZeebi). tuteebia tute datutemiwaTa metalebis hidroqsidebi da amoniumis tuteNH4OH, romelic sxva tuteebisgan gansxvavebiT sustifuZea.

miReba

tuteebis:1) tute da tutemiwaTa metalebis wyalTan moqmedebiT

2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH +H2Ca + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2

2) tute da tutemiwaTa metalebis oqsidebis wyalTan moq-medebiT

Na2O + H2O 2NaOHCaO + H2O Ca(OH)2

3) zogierTi marilis wyalxsnaris eleqtroliziT2NaCl + 2H2O ieleqtroliz 2NaOH + H2 + Cl2

fuZeebis: fuZeebi (maT Soris amfoterulic), mxoloderTi meTodiT miiReba Sesabamis marilze tutis moq-medebiT:

CuCl2 + 2NaOH Cu(OH)2 + 2NaClAlCl3 + 3NaOH Al(OH)3 + 3NaCl

Tvisebebi: 1) fuZe xsnadic da uxsnadic, reaqciaSiSedis mJavasTan marilisa da wyliswarmoqmniT:

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2OCu(OH)2 + 2HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O

17

2) tute moqmedebs marilTan, Tu miiRebauxsnadi fuZe an uxnadi marili:2NaOH + FeCl2 Fe(OH)2+ 2NaCl2KOH + CuCl2 Cu(OH)2+ 2KCl

3) tute moqmedebs mJava oqsidTan:2NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2OCa(OH)2 + SO2 CaSO3 + H2O

4) wyalSi uxsnadi hidroqsidebi gaxure-biT iSlebian:

Cu(OH)2 0t CuO + H2OFe(OH)2 0t FeO + H2O

amfoteruli hidroqsidebia: Be(OH)2, Zn(OH)2, Al(OH)3,Cr(OH)3 da sxv. amfoterul hidroqsidebs aqvT rogorcuxsnadi fuZis, ise uxsnadi mJavis Tvisebebi.

1) Zn(OH)2 + 2HCl ZnCl2 + 2H2OZn(OH)2 + 2NaOH Na2[Zn(OH)4]

natriumis tetrahidroqsocinkati

2) Al(OH)3 + 3HCl AlCl3 + 3H2OAl(OH)3 + 3NaOH Na3[Al(OH)6]

natriumis heqsahidroqsoaluminati

amfoterul hidroqsidebSi, mag. Zn(OH)2-Si ZnO daOH bmebi daaxloebiT erTnairi simtkicisaa:

ZnO

O

H

H

tuteebis moqmedeba indikatorebTan

tuteebi iisfer lakmuss alurjeben;

18

ufero fenolftaleins Jolosfrad feraven;narinjisfer meTilnarinjs ayviTleben.

mJavebi

rTul nivTierebas, romelic Sedgeba metalis ato-miT Canacvlebis unaris mqone erTi an ramdenime wyal-badatomisa da mJavuri naSTisagan mJava ewodeba.

Sedgenilobis mixedviT mJavebi iyofa Jangbadian(HNO3, H2SO4) da uJangbado (HCl, H2S) mJavebad.

grafikuli formulebi

HNO3, H2SO4, H3PO4, H2S

H O N S PO

O

H OH O

O

O

H OH OH O

O SH

H

miReba

1) uJangbado mJavebi miiReba arametalTan wyalbadisurTierTqmedebiT:

H2 + Cl2 2HClH2 + S H2S

2) Jangbadiani mJavebi miiReba wyalTan mJava oqsidisurTierTqmedebiT:

SO2 + H2O H2SO3P2O5 + 3H2O 2H3PO4

3) rogorc uJangbado, ise Jangbadiani mJavebi mii-Reba Sesabamis marilze mJavas urTierTqmedebiT:

2NaCl + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2HClkrist. K konc.

19

2NaNO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2HNO3krist. konc.

Tvisebebi1) fuZeebTan moqmedeba (neitralizaciis reaqcia)

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2OH2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + 2H2O

2) wyalbadamde moTavsebuli metalebi ganzavebulimJavebidan (garda azotmJavisa) aZeveben wyalbads:

2HCl + Zn ZnCl2 + H2H2SO4 + Mg MgSO4 + H2

3) fuZe oqsidebTan moqmedeba2HCl + CaO CaCl2 + H2O

H2SO4 + CuO CuSO4 + H2O4) mJava reaqciaSi Sedis marilTan Tu miRebul

nivTierebaTagan erTerTi naleqia an warmoiqmneba airi:

2HCl + CaCO3 CaCl2 + H2CO3CO2

H2O

2HCl + MgSO3 MgCl2 + H2O+SO25) mJavas daSla

H2SiO3 0t H2O + SiO2H2SO3 H2O + SO2

mJavebis moqmedeba indikatorebTaniisferi lakmusi wiTlad ifereba; narinjisferi

meTilnarinji vardisfrad; fenolftaleini fersar icvlis.

20

Mmarilebi

rTul nivTierebas, romelic Sedgeba metalis ato-mebisa da mJavuri naSTebisagan marili ewodeba (esaris saSualo anu sruli marilis ganmarteba). gardaamisa arsebobs: mJava marili (NaHCO3), fuZe mariliMg(OH)Cl da sxv.

cxrili 2ZiriTadi mJavebi da maTi marilebi

HF fTorwyalbadmJava NaF fToridiHCl qlorwyalbadJava

(marilmJava)NaCl qloridi

HBr bromwyalbadmJava NaBr bromidiHI iodwyalbadmJava NaI iodidiH2S gogirdwyalbadmJava Na2S sulfidiH2SO3 gogirdovani mJava Na2SO3 sulfitiH2SO4 gogirdmJava Na2SO4 sulfatiHNO2 azotovani mJava NaNO2 nitritiHNO3 azotmJava NaNO3 nitratiH2CO3 naxSirmJava Na2CO3 karbonatiH2SiO3 siliciummJava Na2SiO3 silikatiH3PO4 fosformJava Na3PO4 fosfati

21

grafikuli formulebi:

marilebis formulebis Sedgena

I. mJava erTfuZiania HX (HCl,HNO3).

IIXM

NaCl NaNO3

I

2

IIXM

CaCl2 Ca(NO3)2

I

3

IIIXM

AlCl3 Al(NO3)3

II. mJava orfuZiania H2X (H2S, H2SO4).

II2

IXM

Na2S Na2SO4

IIIIXM

CaS CaSO4

II

32III

XMAl2S3 Al2(SO4)3

22

III. mJava samfuZiania H3X (H3PO4).

III3

IXM

Na3PO4

III

23II

XMCa3(PO4)2

IIIIIIXM

AlPO4

amrigad, MX aRnagoba marils im SemTxvevaSi aqvs,Tu metalisa da mJavuri naSTis valentobebi erTnai-ria.

marilebis miRebis meTodebi

1. mJavasa da fuZis moqmedeba:HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O.

2. mJavasa da fuZe oqsidis moqmedeba:2HCl + CuO CuCl2 + H2O.

3. mJavasa da metalis moqmedeba:2HCl + Zn ZnCI2 + H2 .

4. mJavasa da marilis moqmedeba:

2HCl + CaCO3 CaCl2 + H2CO3

CO2

H2O5. tutis da mJava oqsidis moqmedeba:

2NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O6. tutis da marilis moqmedeba:

2NaOH + CuCl2 Cu(OH)2+ 2NaCl.7. mJava da fuZe oqsidis moqmedeba:

CO2 + CaO CaCO3.

23

8. marilis da mJava oqsidis moqmedeba:CaCO3 + SiO2 t CaSiO3 + CO2.

9. marilebis urTierTqmedeba. aRebuli marilebidanorive xsnadi unda iyos, miRebuli marilebidan_ erT-erTi mainc uxsnadi.

NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3.10. marilisa da metalis moqmedeba:

CuSO4 + Fe FeSO4 + Cu.11. zogierTi marilis daSla:

2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2.12. metalisa da arametalis moqmedeba:

Fe +S FeS.

marilebis qimiuri Tvisebebi

4,6,8,9,10 da 11 reaqciebi warmoadgenen marilebis qi-miur Tvisebebs.

genetikuri kavSiri rTul nivTierebaTaklasebs Soris

arametali mJava oqsidi mJava

S SO2 H2SO3+ + +

Ca CaO Ca(OH)2metali fuZe oqsidi fuZe

CaS CaSO3 CaSO3marili marili marili

24

1.5. qimiuri reaqciebi da maTi mimdinareobissakvanZo sakiTxebi

movlenebs, romelTa mimdinareobis drosac icvlebanivTierebis forma an misi agregatuli mdgomareoba(minis gatexva, wylis aorTqleba an gayinva) fizikurimovlenebi ewodeba.

movlenebs, romelTa dros adgili aqvs erTi nivTie-rebis sxva nivTierebad gardaqmnas, qimiuri movlenebianu qimiuri reaqciebi ewodeba.

araorganul qimiaSi reaqciebi iyofa oTx ZiriTadtipad: SeerTebis, daSlis, Canacvlebis da mimocvlisreaqciebi.

SeerTebis ewodeba reaqciebs, rodesac ori an metinivTierebisagan miiReba erTi axali nivTiereba:

2H2 + O2 2H2O2CO + O2 2CO2

SO3 + H2O H2SO4daSlis ewodeba reaqciebs, rodesac erTi nivTiere-

bisagan miiReba ori an meti axali nivTiereba:

2HgO 0t 2Hg + O22KClO3 0t 2KCl + 3O2CaCO3 0t CaO + CO2

Canacvlebis ewodeba reaqciebs, romelTa dros mar-tivi nivTierebis atomebi Caanacvleben rTulinivTierebis Semadgenl atomebs:

2HCl + Mg MgCl2+ H2Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu

2KI + Cl2 2KCl + I2

25

mimocvlis ewodeba reaqciebs, romelTa dros orirTuli nivTiereba mimoicvleba Semadgeneli nawilebiT:

HCl + KOH KCl + H2OCuO + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O

NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3

reaqciis siTburi efeqti

reaqciis Sedegad STanTqmul an gamoyofil siTbosraodenobas reaqciis siTburi efeqti ewodeba. igi izo-meba kj/mol-Si. qimiur tolbebs, sadac moyvaniliareaqciis siTburi efeqtis ricxobrivi mniSvnelobebi,Termoqimiuri tol bebi ewodeba.

reaqciebs, romlis Sedegad gamoiyofa siTbo, egzo-Termuli reaqciebi ewodeba:

C + O2 CO2 + Qreaqciebs, romlis Sedegad STainTqmeba siTbo, en-

doTermuli reaqciebi ewodeba:N2 + O2 2NO Q

(reaqciis siTbos Q-s da reaqciis enTalpias H-s sapi-rispiro niSnebi gaaCnia, e.i. +Q Seesabameba -H-s, -QSeesabameba +H-s).

qimiuri reaqciis siCqare

siCqare ganisazRvreba, rogorc garkveuli paramet-ris cvlileba droSi. Tanabari moZraobis siCqare to-lia: V=S/T. am dros icvleba sxeulis mier gavlili man-Zili. reaqciis procesSi icvleba komponentebis koncen-tracia reagentebis (reaqciaSi Sesuli nivTierebebis)koncentracia mcirdeba, reaqciis produqtebis koncen-tracia izrdeba.

26

A B

tC

ttCCV

12

12

tC

ttCCV

12

12

(`-~ niSani iwereba imitom, rom C2

27

reaqciis siCqare damokidebulia: 1) moreagire niv-Tierebebis bunebaze; 2) koncentraciaze; 3) temperatu-raze; 4) katalizatorze.

moreagire nivTierebaTa buneba

qimiuri reaqciis siCqare damokidebulia moreagirenivTierebaTa bunebaze, mag. fTori wyalbadTan sibne-leSic ki moqmedebs, qlori sinaTleze, bromi da io-di ki mxolod gacxelebisas. Molekulebis gardaqmnasenergia sWirdeba. aqtivaciis energia is minimalurienergiaa, romelic unda gaaCndeT reagentebs raTa maTiurTierTqmedeba (Sejaxeba) reaqciiT dasruldes. racufro naklebia reaqciis aqtivaciis energia, miT ufromaRalia am reaqciis siCqare. Aaqtivaciis energiis sidi-de ki moreagire nivTierebaTa bunebiT ganisazRvreba.

koncentracia

A1 + A2 + A3 + . . . Bv= k [A1] [A2][A3] . . .

k- reaqciis siCqaris mudmivaa.

moqmed masaTa kanoni: qimiuri reaqciis siCqare more-agire nivTierebaTa koncentraciebis namravlis pro-porciulia.

temperatura

vant-hofis wesi: temperaturis yoveli 10 gradusiTgazrdisas reaqciis siCqare izrdeba 2-4-jer.-temperaturuli koeficienti tolia: 2 4.

28

10t-t

tt

12

12VV

Tu t2 - t1 = 10,

1

2

t

t

VV

e. i. temperaturuli koeficienti _ gviCvenebs, ram-denjer izrdeba reaqciis siCqare temperaturis yove-li 100-iT gadidebisas.

vant-hofis wesi arauniversaluria da temperaturisSezRudul intervalSia samarTliani. ufro zogadiaareniusis gantoleba:

k=Aexp(-Ea/RT)sadac: A _ eqsponentaswina mamravlia, Ea _ aqtivaciisenergia.

katalizatorebi

nivTierebebs, romlebic cvlian qimiuri reaqciissiCqares, TviTon ki reaqciis Sedegad ucvlelni rCebi-an, katalizatorebi ewodebaT. katalizatorebs, rom-lebic aCqareben qimiur reaqciebs, dadebiTi katali-zatorebi (eqsibitorebi) ewodebaT, xolo katalizato-rebs, romlebic aneleben qimiur reaqciebs uaryofi-Ti katalizatorebi (inhibitorebi).

katalizis sqema:dadebiTi katalizatoris roli mdgomareobs reaq-

ciis aqtivaciis energiis SemcirebaSi, ris gamoc xdebareaqciis siCqaris gazrda. katalizatoris monawileo-biT mimdinare reaqciis sqema SeiZleba ase warmovadgi-noT:

29

A + B AB (I)A+ K AK (II)

AK + B AB + K (III)(II) da (III) reaqciebis aqtivaciebis energiebi ufro

dabalia, vidre I reaqciisa, rac aCqarebs process:

dadebiTi katalizatorebi aqtivaciis bariers (ener-gias) or ufro dabal barierad Slian.

reaqciis gza

EaE

AB

reaqciis gza

A+B

dadebiTi katalizatori

30

nivTierebebs, romlebic Tavad ar warmoadgenen re-aqciis katalizatorebs, magram maTi Tanaobisas kata-lizatorebis aqtiuroba izrdeba, promotorebi ewode-baT.

nivTierebebs, romlebic aqveiTeben katalizatore-bis aqtiurobas, katalizuri Sxamebi ewodebaT, pro-cess ki katalizatoris mowamvla.

Seqcevadi reaqciebi. qimiuri wonasworoba

reaqciebi ori tipisaa: Seqcevadi da Seuqcevadi.Seuqcevadi reaqciebi mimdinareobs bolomde, mxo-

lod erTi mimarTulebiT.Seqcevadi reaqciebi erTsa da imave pirobebSi mimdi-

nareobs rogorc pirdapiri, iseve Sebrunebuli (sapi-rispiro) mimarTulebiT da garkveul momentSi myarde-ba qimiuri wonasworoba:

aA + bB dD + eEv1 = k1[A]a[B]b (pirdapiri marcxnidan marjvniv);v2 = k2[D]d[E]e (Sebrunebuli marjvnidan marcxniv).

wonasworobis momentSi v1= v2; k1 [A]a [B]b = k2 [D]d[E]e,

saidanac K= baed

2

1

[B][A][E][D]

kk .

K-s wonasworobis mudmiva ewodeba da tolia pirdapirida Sebrunebuli reaqciebis siCqareebis mudmivebis far-dobisa. igi gviCvenebs reaqciis produqtis gamosavliano-bas. Ee.i. iZleva imis gansazRvris saSualebas, ramdenadgamarTlebulia am reaqciis Catareba aRniSnuli nivTiere-bis misaRebad.

qimiuri wonasworoba dinamikuria misi damyarebaimas ki ar niSnavs, rom sistemaSi mimdinare reaqciebi

31

Sewyda, aramed imas, rom mimdinareobs ori sapirispiroreaqcia toli siCqariT, ris gamoc (wonasworobis dam-yarebis Semdeg) arcerTi reaqtantis koncentracia aRaricvleba.

moZravi wonasworobis principi (le-Satelies prin-cipi): Tu wonasworobaSi myof sistemaze moqmedebs rai-me gareSe faqtori, romelic mas arRvevs, maSin siste-maSi mimdinare ori reaqciidan is daCqardeba, rome-lic ewinaaRmdegeba am faqtors. eE.i. wonasworoba ga-dainacvlebs garemo faqtoris Semcirebis mimarTule-biT.

N2 +3H22NH3 + QK= 3

22

23

2

1

][H][N][NH

kk

.

amiakis gamosavlis gazrdisaTvis optimaluria ma-Rali wneva (oTxi moculoba airi gadadis orSi) dadabali temperatura (reaqcia marcxnidan marjvnivegzoTermulia).

amiakis sinTezis realur teqnologiur procesSiwnevas maRals iyeneben, magram temperaturac maRaliasaWiro, radgan Ea maRalia da dabal temperaturazeprocesi ar warimarTeba. temperaturis maqsimalurad

Ea

a

reaqciis gza

E

2NH3

N2+3H2

+Q

32

SesaZlo SemcirebisaTvis iyeneben sxvadasxva kataliza-tors.

A1.6. atomis aRnagoba

pirveli mosazrebebi atomze ekuTvnis finikiel mo-azrovnes moxa sidonels (XII saukune Cv. w. aR.-mde).atomisturi warmodgenebis elementebs vxvdebiT ZvelindoeTSi, vaiSemikas skolis damfuZneblis, filoso-fos kanadis moZRvrebaSic.

Zvel saberZneTSi, filosofosebis, levkiposisa dademokrites moZRvrebaSi (VI-V saukuneebi Cv. w. aR.-mde),atomisturma warmodgenebma CamoiSora mistikur-religiuri elferi da SeiZina logikuri hipoTezissaxe.

mxolod XIX saukunis 60-ian wlebSi moxerxda atomis-turi hipoTezis eqsperimentuli damtkiceba. atomur-mo-lekuluri moZRvreba moicavs Semdeg ZiriTad debule-bebs:

1. nivTiereba Sedgeba molekulebisagan;2. molekulebi Sedgeba atomebisagan;3. atomebi da molekulebi mudmiv qaosur moZraoba-

Sia;4. atomebi qimiuri reaqciis dros ar iSlebian;5. qimuri reaqciis mimdinareobisas iSlebian mole-

kulebi, romelTa Semadgeneli atomebisagan axalimolekulebi warmoiqmneba.

XIX saukunis bolos mTeli rigi eqsperimentuliaRmoCena (eleqtroni, rentgenis sxivebi, radioaqtiuro-ba da sxv.) calsaxad mianiSnebda atomis rTul aRnago-baze. dadgenil iqna, rom atomi Sedgeba dadebiTi mux-tis mqone mZime atomgulisagan da mis garSemo moZravimsubuqi eleqtronebisagan.

33

atomis struqturis fundamenturi Seswavla SesaZ-lebeli gaxda mikrosamyaros meqanikis kvanturi meqa-nikis saSualebiT. kvanturi meqanika emyareba or Ziri-Tad princips: 1. Mmikronawilakis orbunebovnebas. mik-ronawilakebs da maT Soris, eleqtrons orgvari bu-neba aqvT nawilakis da talRis. 2. Mmikronawilakisda maT Soris, eleqtronis mdebareobis zusti gansazR-vra SeuZlebelia, swored amitom kvanturi meqanikismier Semotanil iqna atomuri orbitalis cneba. atomu-ri orbitali warmoadgens eleqtronis moZraobis sam-ganzomilebian traeqtorias atomgulis garSemo siv-rcis nawils, sadac eleqtronis yofnis albaToba maq-simaluria. radgan eleqtrons nawilakTan erTad tal-Ruri bunebac aqvs, amitom atomSi eleqtronis mdgo-mareobas aRweren talRuri gantolebiT, romelic kvan-turi meqanikis ZiriTadi gantolebaa da cnobilia Sre-dingeris gantolebis saxelwodebiT:

H = Emisi amoxsnis Sedegad miRebul maTematikur gamosaxu-lebebSi figurireben garkveuli parametrebi e. w. kvan-turi ricxvebi, romlebic gansazRvraven eleqtronissxvadasxva SesaZlo mdgomareobas atomSi. kvanturiricxvebi axasiaTeben eleqtronebis orbitalebs e. w.atomur orbitalebs.

arsebobs oTxi kvanturi ricxvi: n mTavari, l Tana-uri, ml magnituri da ms spinuri.

n mTavari kvanturi ricxvi axasiaTebs orbitalisenergias (eleqtronis energias mocemul orbitalze).igi iRebs mniSvnelobebs naturalur ricxvTa simrav-lidan:

34

l Tanauri (orbitaluri) kvanturi ricxvi axasia-Tebs orbitalis formas. igi iRebs mniSvnelobebsnulidan (n-1)-mde:

l = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . ., (n-1)s p d f

s-orbitali sferulia, p-orbitali hanteliseburi(moculobiTi rvianis formis), d- da f-orbitalebs Seda-rebiT rTuli aRnagoba aqvT.

ml-magnituri kvanturi ricxvi axasiaTebs orbita-lis orientacias sivrceSi. igi iRebs mniSvnelobebs -l-dan +l-mde. mag.: l= 2; ml= -2;-1; 0; +1; +2.

SX

Z

Y

Z

px

X

Y

pY

X

Z

Y

X

Z

Y

pZ

K L M N O P Qn = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 . . .

35

ms-spinuri kvanturi ricxvi axasiaTebs eleqtronismoZraobis sakuTar moments (TvalsaCinoebisaTvis SeiZle-ba warmovidginoT, rom rogorc dedamiwa moZraobs mzisgarSemo da agreTve sakuTari RerZis garSemo, eleqtro-nic analogiuradaa). igi iRebs or mniSvnelobas: +1/2 da -1/2.

atomis eleqtronuli struqturis asagebad saWiroapaulis akrZalvis principis gaTvaliswineba: atomSi ararsebobs ori iseTi eleqtroni, romelTac oTxive kvan-turi ricxvi erTnairi aqvT. radgan erT orbitalSimyof or eleqtrons sami kvanturi ricxvi: n, l da mlerTnairi aqvT, amitom paulis akrZalvis principidangamomdinare, spini aucileblad unda hqondeT gansxva-vebuli (sapirispiro). qvemoT moyvanilia kvanturiricxvebis yvela SesaZlo kombinacia n=1 da n=2 SemTxve-visaTvis:

arsebobs zogadi formula, romelic erTmaneTTanakavSirebs mTavari kvanturi ricxvis (n) mniSvnelobasda kvanturi ricxvebis yvela SesaZlo kombinacias (N):

N=2n2

n = 1 l = 0 ml = 0 ms = + n = 1 l = 0 ml = 0 ms = - n = 2 l = 0 ml = 0 ms = + n = 2 l = 0 ml = 0 ms = - n = 2 l = 1 ml = +1 ms = + n = 2 l = 1 ml = +1 ms = - n = 2 l = 1 ml = 0 ms = + n = 2 l = 1 ml = 0 ms = - n = 2 l = 1 ml = -1 ms = + n = 2 l = 1 ml = -1 ms = -

2s22p6 (Ne)

1s2 (He)

36

qvemoT moyvanilia perioduli sistemis pirveli dameore periodis elementebis eleqtronuli struqture-bi.L orbitalebze eleqtronebis ganawileba eqvemdeba-reba minimaluri energiis princips da hundis wess. mi-nimaluri energiis principi, romlis mixedviT eleq-tronebi jer avseben umdablesi energiis mqone orbita-lebs, Semdeg-momdevnoebs. qvemoT moyvanilia orbitale-bi maTi energiis zrdis mixedviT: 1s

37

ps

n=2s

C 1s22s22p2 n=12e 4e

2e 4e

+6

2p

n=2 2s

1sN 1s22s22p3 n=1

2e 5e2e 5e

+7

p

s sB 1s22s22p1 n=2

2e 3e sn=1

+5

p

s sC 1s22s22p2 n=2

2e 4e sn=1

+6

p

sn=2

O 1s22s22p4 sn=1

2e 6e

+8

p

s sN 1s22s22p3 n=2

2e 4e sn=1

+7

38

valentobis spinuri Teoriis Tanaxmad, elementis va-lentoba misi gauwyvilebeli spinebis ricxvis tolia. amTvalsazrisiT, He da Ne nulvalentiania (yvela spini ga-wyvilebulia), H, Li da F erTvalentiania, N samvalenti-ania, O orvalentiani. miRebuli daskvna sruliad eTan-xmeba arsebul eqsperimentul monacemebs. rac Seexeba Be, Bda C-s, am SemTxvevaSi xdeba 2s gawyvilebuli eleq-tronebidan erT-erTis vakantur 2p-ze gadasvla da warmo-iqmneba e. w. elementis savalento (aRgznebuli) konfigu-racia, ris gamoc, maTi valentobebic gaizrdeba da, Sesa-bamisad, 2-is, 3-is da 4-is toli gaxdeba, rac eTanxmebarealobas:

Be 1s22s2 ps 22 Be* 1s22s12p1 Val 0 V al 2B 1s22s22p1 ps 22 B* 1s22s12p2 Val 1 V al 3C 1s22s22p2 ps 22 C* 1s22s12p3 Val 2 V al 4

p

n=2 s

Ne 1s22s22p6 sn=1

2e 8e

+10

p

sn=2

F 1s22s22p5 sn=1

2e 7e+9

39

mesame periodis elementebs gaaCniaT vakanturi 3d-orbitalebi, rac maT saSualebas aZlevT ufro maRali(meore periodis elementebTan SedarebiT) valentobagamoavlinon. ase magaliTad, gogirdi garda oris to-li valentobisa, avlens oTx da eqvs valentobas:

dp

n=3 s

pn=2 s

dn=1 s

p

n=3 sVal=2 p

n=2 s

n=1 s d

pn=3

Val=4 sp

n=2s

n=1s

Val=6

40

xazgasmiT unda aRiniSnos, rom eleqtronebis gadas-vlis xarjze elementis valentobis gazrda SeiZlebamxolod mTavari kvanturi ricxvis (n-is) Secvlis gare-Se (erTi da igive n-is farglebSi).

atombirTvis aRnagoba

atombirTvi Sedgeba protonebisa da neitronebisa-gan. protonis muxtia +1, neitrons muxti ar gaaCnia igi eleqtroneitraluri nawilakia.

arsebobs ori formula, romlebic atomis struqtu-ras akavSirebs elementis rigobriv nomerTan (Z) da ma-sur ricxvTan (A). masuri ricxvi ewodeba elementisatomur masasTan yvelaze axlos mdgom mTel ricxvsda misi dadgena SeiZleba ricxvis damrgvalebiskanonebis gaTvaliswinebiT.

p+ = e = Zn0 = AZ

izotopebi qimiuri elementis saxesxvaobebia, ro-melTac atombirTvis erTnairi muxti aqvT, magrammasebiT gansxvavdebian, rac atombirTvebSi neitronebisricxvis gansxvavebiT aris gamowveuli.

wyalbads gaaCnia sami izotopi: proTiumi H11 (P), de-iteriumi H21 (D) da triTiumi H31 (T). qvemoT moyvaniliaam izotopebis birTvebis Sedgeniloba:

Jangbads gaaCnia sami izotopi:

P , D , T1p+ 1p+

1n01p+2n0

41

bunebaSi arsebuli qimiuri elementebis umetesoba,sxvadasxva izotopis narevs warmoadgens. cnobilia ra-modenime mononuklidi bunebaSi erTi mdgradi izo-topis saxiT arsebuli elementi 9Be, 19F, 23Na da sxv.

1.7. periodulobis kanoni da qimiur elementTaperioduli sistema

d.i. mendeleevis mier aRmoCenili periodulobis ka-noni SemdegSi mdgomareobs: `martiv nivTierebaTa Tvi-sebebi, qimiuri elementebis naerTTa formebi da Tvi-sebebi periodul damokidebulebaSia atomuri masissididesTan~. atomis aRnagobis dadgenis Semdeg aRniS-nul kanonSi atomuri masa Seicvala atombirTvis mux-tiT, amitom am kanonis Tanamedrove formulireba ase-Tia: `martiv nivTierebaTa Tvisebebi, qimiuri elemen-tebis naerTTa formebi da Tvisebebi periodul damoki-debuilebaSia atombirTvis muxtis sididesTan~. es imasniSnavs, rom atombirTvis muxtis zrdasTan dakavSire-biT aRniSnuli Tvisebebi icvleba ara ganuwyvetliv,aramed periodulad. atomis aRnagobis dadgenis SemdegaRmoCnda, rom, elementis rigobrivi nomeri, romelicperiodul sistemaSi mis adgilmdebareobas aRniSnavs,am elementis atombirTvis muxtis _ birTvSi protone-bis ricxvis da atomSi eleqtronebis ricxvis tolia.

atomis aRnagobis dadgenis Semdeg gairkva agreTveTvisebaTa perioduli cvlilebis mizezi, rasac atom-birTvis muxtis monotonur zdasTan erTad gare SreSi

O168 , O17

8 , O188

8p+8n0

8p+9n0

8p+10n0

42

eleqtronebis ricxvis perioduli ganmeoreba warmoad-gens. arsebobs perioduli sistemis ramdenime aseulivarianti. ganvixiloT yvelaze farTod gamoyenebuli,e.w. mokle varianti (danarTSi moyvanilia rogorcmokle varianti, iseve e.w. naxevrad-grZeli varianti).

perioduli sistema Sedgeba periodebisa da jgufe-bisagan. periodi aris atombirTvis muxtis zrdis mi-xedviT dalagebuli elementebis horizontalurimwkrivi, romelic iwyeba tute liToniT (gamonaklisiaI periodi, romelic wyalbadiT iwyeba) da mTavrdebainertuli airiT. sul Svidi periodia, aqedan sami arismcire, isini Sedgeba TiTo mwkrivisagan, oTxi ki didiperiodia, romlebic meSvides garda, or-ori mwkrivis-gan Sedgeba. me-7 periodi dausrulebelia. periodis no-meri atomSi eleqtronuli Sreebis ricxvis tolia. mag.17Cl mesame periodis elementia, e.i. misi 17 eleqtronisam eleqtronul Srezea ganawilebuli.

jgufi aris msgavsi elementebis vertikaluri sveti,romelic Sedgeba ori: `a~ da `b~ nawilebisagan. `a~jgufi aerTianebs rogorc mcire, ise didi periodiselementebs, `b~ jgufSi ki mxolod didi periodis ele-mentebia ganTavsebuli. `b~ jgufis yvela elementimetalia.

periodebSi elementebis ricxvi gansxvavebulia:pirvelSi _ 2, meore-mesameSi _ 8, me-4 da me-5-Si _ 18-18,me-6-Si _ 32, me-7 _ dausrulebelia. periodebSi elemen-tebis ricxvs, im eleqtronuli Sris tevadoba gan-sazRvravs, romlis Sevsebac am periodSi xdeba. I peri-odSi elementebSi xdeba pirveli eleqtronuli SrisSevseba, romelzec maqsimum ori eleqtroni Tavsdeba,amitom I periodSi ori elementia. meore periodSiivseba meore eleqtronuli Sre (2s da 2p orbitalebi),

43

romelTa tevadoba aris 8, amitom meore periodSi 8elementia da a.S.

periodebSi rigobrivi nomris zrdis mimarTulebiTmetaluri Tvisebebi mcirdeba, arametaluri _ izrdeba.`a~ jgufebSi ki rigobrivi nomris zrdis mimarTu-lebiT metaluri Tvisebebi izrdeba da arametalurimcirdeba. elementis metalur Tvisebas eleqtronis ga-cemis unari gansazRvravs _ metalebi elementebia, rom-lebic eleqtronebs gascemen (isini eleqtronebs ara-sodes ar iZenen). amasTan, rac ufro advilad gascemsatomi eleqtrons, miT ufro aqtiuria is, rogorc me-tali. eleqtronis dakargvis unaris, anu elementismetalurobis raodenobrivi maxasiaTebeli ionizaciisenergiaa. ionizaciis energia normalur mdgomareobaSimyofi atomidan yvelaze sustad bmuli erTi eleqtro-nis mosaxleCad saWiro energiaa. rac ufro naklebiaatomis ionizaciis energia, miT ufro aqtiuria amatomis Sesabamisi martivi nivTiereba, rogorc metali.periodebSi rigobrivi nomris zrdasTan erTad atomisradiusi mcirdeba, savalento SreSi eleqtronebis ri-cxvi ki izrdeba, amasTan dakavSirebiT ionizaciis ene-rgia izrdeba da, Sesabamisad, metaluri Tvisebebimcirdeba. `a~ jgufebSi rigobrivi nomris zrdasTan er-Tad atomis radiusi izrdeba, rac iwvevs ionizaciisenergiis Semcirebas da metaluri Tvisebebis zrdas.swored amitom, yvelaze aqtiuria is metalebi, rom-lebic periodebis dasawyisSia da jgufebSi ki qvemo-Taa. arametaluri Tvisebebi eleqtronebis SeZenis una-riT ganisazRvreba. am unars raodenobrivad eleqtro-nisadmi swrafva da eleqtrouaryofiToba gansazRv-ravs. periodebSi, rigobrivi nomris zrdasTan erTadeleqtronisadmi swrafva da eleqtrouaryofiToba izr-deba, e.i. arametaluri Tvisebebi izrdeba. eleqtronisa-

44

dmi swrafva im energetikuli efeqtis tolia, romelicatomTan erTi eleqtronis SeerTebas axlavs. eleqtro-uaryofiToba ki aris elementis atomis unari miizidossxva atomebTan damakavSirebeli eleqtronuli wyvi-lebi. rac ufro maRalia elementis eleqtrouaryofi-Toba da eleqtronisadmi swrafva, miT ufro aqtiuriaes elementi, rogorc arametali. `a~ jgufSi rigobrivinomris zrdis mimarTulebiT ionizaciis energia, eleq-tronisadmi swrafva da eleqtrouaryofiToba mcir-deba, Sesabamisad izrdeba metaluri Tvisebebi damcirdeba arametaluri. aqedan gamomdinare, yvelaze aq-tiuri metalia Cs, xolo yvelaze aqtiuri arametaliaftori. metalebia I, II, III-jgufis elementebi, borisgarda. IV `a~ jgufidan naxSirbadi da siliciumia ara-metalebi, germaniumi, kala da tyvia metalebia. maTimetaluri Tvisebebi aseTi mimarTulebiT Zlierdeba:Ge

45

ionuri bma

ionebs Soris damyarebul qimiur kavSirs ionuribma ewodeba.

ganvixiloT ionuri bmis warmoqmna NaF-is SemTxve-vaSi:

es sqema emyareba koselis mosazrebas, rom bmis dam-yarebisas atomebi `cdiloben~ warmoqmnan rvaeleqtro-niani bolo Sre, radgan aseTi eleqtronuli konfigu-racia SedarebiT stabiluria (inertuli airebis analo-giuria).

ionuri naerTebi warmoqmnian ionur kristalur me-sers, romlis kvanZebSi ganlagebulia ionebi:

Na - e Na+

2e 8e 1e 2e 8e

F + e F

2e 7e 2e 8ee

Na + F Na+ F

+11 +11

+9 +9

46

xazgasmiT unda aRiniSnos, rom `ionuri molekula~(mag.: NaF) ar arsebobs. myar mdgomareobaSi gvaqvs er-Tiani `supermolekula~ kristali, xsnarSi ki gamx-snelis molekulebiT solvatirebuli (wyalxsnarisSemTxvevaSi hidratirebuli) Na+ da F-ionebi:

mxolod plazmis mdgomareobaSia dafiqsirebuliNaF individualuri saxiT.

kovalenturi bma

eleqtronuli wyvilebis saSualebiT damyarebulqimiur kavSirs kovalenturi bma ewodeba.

H +H H : H, H H

Na+ F

F Na+

F Na+

Na+ F

Na+ F+

+

++ +

+

47

N

F

N N N

:

:

::

:. .

.

:

+ F::.

:

F: :

.

:

F:::

, F F

N: . + N:..

... ,

...

kovalenturi bma ori tipisaa: arapolaruli da po-laruli. zemoT moyvanili magaliTebi miekuTvneba ara-polarul qimiur bmas. bma arapolarulia, Tu misi war-momqmneli elementebis atomebis eleqtrouaryofiTobaerTnairia (kerZo SemTxvevaa, erTnairi atomebisaganwarmoqmnili martivi nivTierebebi). eleqtrouaryofi-Toba ewodeba elementis atomis unars Tavisken gada-wios bmis warmomqmneli eleqtronuli wyvili.

polaruli kovalenturi bmis SemTxvevaSi, eleqtro-nuli wyvili gadaweulia ufro eleqtrouaryofiTielementis atomisaken:

H2H

ClH

H

H

O

: :

: :

::

::+

. +

.

.

Cl::

:

. . O

::

orbitaluri koncefciis poziciidan, kovalenturibma warmoiqmneba atomuri orbitalebis gadafarvis Se-degad:

atomuri orbitalebis gadafarvis xasiaTis mixed-viT arsebobs kovalenturi bmis ori tipi: (sigma) da (pi). -bma warmoiqmneba, roca atomuri orbitalebibirTvebis SemaerTebeli wrfis gaswvriv gadafaravserTmaneTs. am dros eleqtronebis maqsimaluri simkvri-ve birTvebs Soris aris Tavmoyrili. -bma mtkice bmaa,misi warmoqmna yvela tipis orbitals SeuZlia.

48

atomebs Soris Tu erTi bmaa, is aucileblad -ti-pisaa, radgan bmis warmomqmneli eleqtronebi pirvelrigSi birTvebs Soris ares ikaveben.

Tu atomuri orbitalebi erTmaneTs birTvebs SorisSemaerTebeli wrfidan orive mimarTulebiT gadafaravs(gverdiTi gadafarva), miRebuli bma aris . am bmis war-moqmna s-is garda yvela tipis orbitals SeuZlia. Mmag.azotis molekulaSi sammagi bmaa, aqedan erTia daori : :: NN

radgan kovalenturi bmis warmoqmna atomuri orbi-talebis gadafarviT mimdinareobs, amitom kovalenturbmas gaaCnia mimarTuleba. igi yovelTvis warmoiqmnebaatomuri orbitalebis maqsimaluri gadafarvis mimar-TulebiT, rac Tavis mxriv molekulis geometrias gan-sazRvravs. molekula zogi wrfivia, zogi samkuTxa,tetraedruli da a.S. am formebis ganmsazRvreli mole-kulaSi warmoqmnili kovalenturi bmebis mimarTulebaa.

molekuluri orbitalebis warmoqmnis sqema aseTia:

1s 1s 1s+

H H H H

1s 1s

*

1s _ gamTiSavi

1s 1sH H

1s _ SemakavSirebeliH2

49

hibridizacia

sp wrfivi, digonaluri

sp2 trigonaluri

sp2 trigonaluri

sp3 tetragonaluri, tetraedruli

p pn=2

n= 2 s s

s 2s 2p sBe n=1 Be* n=1

erTi + erTi ori2s 2p

sp

1800

p pn=2

n=2 s s

s 2s 2p sB n=1 B* n=1

erTi + ori sami2s 2psp2

1200

50

kovalenturi bmis warmoqmnisdonorul-aqceptoruli meqanizmi

arsebobs kovalenturi bmis warmoqmnis gansxvavebulimeqanizmi, rodesac bma warmoiqmneba erTi elementis ato-mis Tavisufali eleqtronuli wyvilis da meore elemen-tis vakanturi (Tavisufali) orbitalis xarjze:

A-atoms eleqtronuli wyvilis donori ewodeba,B-atoms aqceptori.

Cl_H

HCl

HHH: :

::H

H+N:

:

::H N:

+

warmoqmnil amoniumis ionSi oTxive NH bma ekviva-lenturia.

p pn=2

n=2 s s

s 2s 2p sC n=1 C* n=1

A: + B A B:

erTi + sami oTxi2s 2psp3

109030

51

wyalbaduri bma

donorul-aqceptoruli tipis samcentrian sust qi-miur kavSirs wyalbadsa da Zlieri eleqtrouaryofiTielementebis (F, O, N, Cl, S) atomebs Soris wyalbaduri bmaewodeba.wyalbaduri bma ori tipisaa:molekulaTaSorisi

FH ... FH ... FHOH ... OH ... OHH H H

da Sidamolekuluri

C

...

O

HHO

salicilis aldehidi

metaluri bma

metalur kristalur meserSi, metalis kationebsSoris, Tavisufali eleqtronebis saSualebiT damyare-bul mravalcentrian qimiur kavSirs metaluri bmaewodeba:

52

am bmis bunebiTaa gamowveuli metalis iseTi Tvise-bebi, rogoricaa: eleqtrogamtaroba, siTbogamtaroba,bzinvareba da a. S.

kristaluri mesrebi

arsebobs oTxi tipis kristaluri meseri: metaluri,ionuri, atomuri da molekuluri. Sesabamisad, maT kvan-ZebSi moTavsebulia: ionebi, atomebi, molekulebi.

1.9. Jangva-aRdgeniTi reaqciebi

Jangva-aRdgeniTia reaqciebi, romelTa mimdinareo-bac dakavSirebulia maTSi monawile elementebis Jan-gvis ricxvis cvlilebasTan.

arsebobs Jangva-aRdgeniTi reaqciebis sami ZiriTaditipi: 1. molekulaTSorisi, 2. Sidamolekuluri da 3.disproporcionirebis anu TviTdaJangva-aRdgenis.

molekulaTSorisi iseTi Jangva-aRdgeniTi reaqcie-bia, roca Jangva-aRdgena mimdinareobs sxvadasxva mole-kulis atomebs Soris.

2H2S-2 + 3O20 2S+4O2 + 2H2O-2

3Cu0 + 8HN+5O3 3Cu+2(NO3)2 + 2N+2O +4H2OSidamolekuluria reaqciebi, roca iJangeba da

aRdgeba eTidaigive molekulis Semadgeneli atomebi:

53

20

2

33

25OONK2ONK2

201

325

O3ClK2OClK2 disproporcionirebis reaqciebi iseTi reaqciebia,

roca iJangeba da aRdgeba erTidaigive elementisatomebi, erTidaigive Jangvis ricxviT.

4

71

3

5OClK3ClKOClK4

OH3OClKClK5KOH6Cl3 23

512

0 Jangvis ricxvi warmoadgens molekulaSi atomis piro-

biT muxts, romelic gamoTvlilia im daSvebiT, rom mole-kula Sedgeba mxolod ionebisagan.

Jangvis risxvis gansazRvra

1) martiv nivTierebebSi elementis Jangvis ricxvi nulistolia:

Ca, Al, Fe, H2, Cl2, N2, O2 da a.S.0 00 00 0 0

2) metalis Jangvis ricxvi yovelTvis dadebiTia:

K2SO4 KMnO4+1 +6 _2 +1 +7 _2

3) Jangbadis Jangvis ricxvi naerTebSi -2-is tolia. ga-monaklisebia:

22

1OFe

da peroqsidebi 21

221

21

ONa,OH 1

da a. S.4) wyalbadis Jangvis ricxvi naerTebSi +1-is tolia.

gamonaklisia metalTa hidridebi 2111

HCa,HLi 2

da a. S.5) molekulaSi atomTa Jangvis ricxvebis algebruli

jami nulis tolia:

J.r.= O 3251

ONH 2

4

71OMnK

54

daJangva ewodeba eleqtronebis gacemas, aRdgena eleqtronebis SeZenas. mJangavia sistema, romelic iZenseleqtronebs da aRdgeba, aRmdgenia sistema, romelicgascems eleqtronebs da iJangeba.

eleqtronuli balansis meTodi

-2 0 0 -22H2S + O2 2S + 2H2O

-2 0

S e2 S 4 20 -2

O2 e4 2O 2 1

-2 0 +4 -22H2S + 3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O-2 +4

S e6 S 4 20 -2

O2 e4 2O 6 3

0 0 +2 -2Fe + S FeS0 +2

Fe e2 Fe 2 10 -2

S e2 S 2 1

0 0 +3 -22Al + 3S Al2S30 +3

Al e3 Al 20 -2

S e2 S 3

-2 +4 02H2S + H2SO3 3S + 3H2O

-2 0

S e2 S 4 2+4 0

S e4 S 2 1

0 +5 +6 +4S + 6HNO3 H2SO4 + 6NO2 + 2H2O

konc.

0 +6

S e6 S 1+5 +4

N e1 N 6

55

O8HCl5ClMn22KClCl16HOMn2K 220

2

2-1

.

4

7 konc

O2HOS2OCOSH2C 224

24

4

6

2

0 konc.

0 +5 +6 +2S + 2HNO3 H2SO4 + 2NO

ganz.

0 +6

S e6 S 3 1+5 +2

N e3 N 6 2

0 +5 +2 +4Cu + 4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O

konc.

0 + 2

Cu e2 Cu 1+5 +4

N e1 N 2

7Mn e5 2Mn 2

1Cl2 e2 20Cl 5

0C e4 4C 2 1

6S e2 4S 4 2

0 +5 +2 +23Cu + 8HNO3 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O

ganz.

0 + 2

Cu e2 Cu 3+5 +2

N e3 N 2

56

ON5OPH3O2HON5HP32

4

532

.

350

ganz

550 PP e 3

235 NN e 5

OHON5OPHON5HP 224

4

53

.

350

konc

550 PP e 1415 NN e 5

organul naerTebSi

OH2OC2O2HC 22

2

40

2

1

4

4 OH6OC4O7HC2 22

2

40

24

3

2

OH2OC2O3HC 22

2

40

24

2

2

OH2OC4O5HC2 22

2

40

22

1

2

1111HCCH CCH

H

H

H =

+1

+1 +1-2

+1

-2

CC

H

H+1

+1

-3-3H+1

H

H+1

+1

H+1

714O2O

24C2)C(22

e40

2

4e14

3

28O2O

14CC2

e40

2

4e8

4

57

OH4OC2O3OHHC2 22

2

40

23

2 OHOCOHOCH 22

2

40

2

0

24CC4

e62 14CC 4e40

36O2O2

e40

2

14O2O 2e402

OH2OC2OOOHCH2 2224

2

02

+2 OC

-2

H+1

O H+1-2

24CC4

e22

12O2O2

e40

2

510O2O

24C2)C(22

e40

2

4e10

1

OC

-20

H+1

H+1CH

+1O H

+1

H+1

H+1

-2 -2

312O2O

14C2)C(22

e40

2

4e12

2

58

naxevarreaqciebis (ionur-eleqtronuli) balansismeTodi

mJava areSiO8HSOKOSMn2S5SO3HS5HOMn2K 2424

20

42

-2

24

7

H2S e2 S+2H+ (pirveli naxevarreaqcia, H2S-is daJangva).4MnO +8H

+ e5 Mn2+ + 4H2O (meore naxevarreaqcia,4MnO -is aRdgena).

H2S e2 S + 2H+ 54MnO + 8H

+ e5 Mn2+ + 4H2O 25H2S + 2 4MnO + 16H

+ 5S + 10H+ + Mn2+ + 8H2Oam Canawers ewodeba reaqciis ionuri tolba

5H2S + 2 4MnO + 6H+ 5S + Mn2+ + 8H2O

2K+ + 3 24SO 2K+ + 3 24SO

5H2S + 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 5S + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 8H2Ogaremos (aris) mJavurobis mixedviT kaliumis per-

manganati SeiZleba aRdges sxvadasxva produqtamde.mJava areSi:

O3HOS6KSOMn2SO3HOS5KOMn2K 246

24

2

423

4

24

7 7

Mn e5 2Mn 24

S e2 6S 5

neitralur areSi:2KOHOS3KOMn2OHOS3KOMn2K 4

6

22

4

23

4

24

7 7

Mn e3 4Mn 24

S e2 6S 3

59

tute areSi:OHOSKOMn2K2KOHOSKOMn2K 24

6

24

6

23

4

24

7 7

Mn e1 6Mn 24

S e2 6S 1

daSlisa da SeerTebis reaqciebi Jangva-aRdgeniTiaTu erT-erTi reaqtanti mainc aris martivi nivTiereba.Canacvlebis reaqciebi yovelTvis Jangva-aRdgeniTia,mimocvlis reaqciebi arasodes araa Jangva-aRdgeniTi.

1.10. xsnarebi

cvladi Sedgenilobis mqone erTgvarovan sistemas,romelic Sedgeba gamxsnelis, gaxsnilisa da maTi ur-TierTqmedebis produqtebisagan xsnari ewodeba.

gaxsnili nivTierebis masuri wili gamoiTvlebaformuliT:

(nivT.) =xsnari

nivT.

gamxsn.nivT.

nivT.

m

m

mm

m

-s gamravlebiT 100-ze miviRebT xsnaris procen-tul koncentracias 100 = c %.

xsnaris moluri koncentracia tolia gaxsnili niv-Tierebis molebis ricxvis fardobisa xsnaris moculo-basTan:

xsnari

nivT.

VC

60

1.11. eleqtrolituri disociaciis Teoria

Teorias, romelic eleqtrolitebis gansakuTrebulTvisebebs wyalxsnarSi an nalRobSi maTi ionebaddaSliT xsnis, eleqtrolituli disociaciis Teoriaewodeba.

nivTierebebs, romelic wyalSi gaxsnil an galRo-bil mdgomareobaSi eleqtrul dens atareben,eleqtrolitebi ewodebaT.

eleqtrolitebia: mJavebi, hidroqsidebi, marilebi.mJavebi eleqtrolitebia, romlebic wyalxsnarebSi di-

socirdeba wyalbadis kationad da mJavuri naSTis anio-nad:

HCl H+ + ClHNO3 H+ + 3NO

mravalfuZiani mJavebi disocirdeba safexurebrivad,amasTanave, disociaciis pirveli safexuri ufrosrulad mimdinareobs:

H2SO4 H+ + 4HSO4HSO H+ + 24SO

H2SO4 2H+ + 24SOH3PO4 H+ + 42POH

42POH H+ + 24HPO2

4HPO H+ + 34POH3PO4 3H+ + 34PO

zogadad, mJavas disociacia ase SeiZleba Caiweros:

HnX nH+ + Xn-

61

hidroqsidebi eleqtrolitebia, romlebic wyalxsna-rebSi disocirdeba metalis kationad da hidroqsilisjgufis anionad:

NaOH Na+ + OHCa(OH)2 Ca2+ + 2OH

(hidroqsidebis SemTxvevaSi iwereba disociaciis mxo-lod jamuri toloba).

zogadad, hidroqsidebis disociacia ase SeiZlebaCaiweros:

M(OH)nMn+ + nOHmarilebi eleqtrolitebia, romlebic wyalxsnareb-

Si disocirdeba liTonis kationad da mJavuri naSTisanionad:

NaCl Na+ + ClK2SO4 2K+ + 24SO

zogadad marilebis disociacia ase SeiZleba Cai-weros:

MnXmnMm+ + mXn-

mJava da fuZe marilebi safexurebriv disociaciasganicdian:

NaHCO3 Na+ + 3HCO3HCO H+ + 23CO

daMg(OH)Br Mg(OH)+ + Br

Mg(OH)+ Mg2+ + OH

62

1.12. reaqciis ionuri da Sekveciliionuri gantolebebi

rogorc cnobilia, eleqtrolitebi wyalxsnareb-Si ionebad arian daSlili, amitom eleqtrolitebiswyalxsnarebSi mimdinare reaqciebi ionuri reaqcie-bia. Aam reaqciaTa bolomde mimdinareobisTvis auci-lebelia miRebul nivTierebaTa Soris erTerTi ga-moiyos naleqis, airis an susti eleqtrolitis sa-xiT (romelic yvelaze xSirad wyalia).

1. OHNaClNaOHHCl 2OHClNaOHNaClH 2

OHOHH 2 (am Sekvecili ionuri tolobiT gamoxatulia nebismi-eri neitralizaciis reaqciis arsi).

2. H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O2H+ + 24SO + 2Na

+ + 2OH 2Na+ + 24SO + 2H2O2H+ +2OH 2H2O

wyalxsnarebSi marilebs Soris mimdinare mimocvlisreaqciebis dawerisas, unda gaviTvaliswinoT, rom orivereagenti xsnadi unda iyos, xolo reaqciis erT-erTiproduqti mainc _ uxsnadi (SeiZleba uxsnadi iyos orivemarili). qloridebidan uxsnadia vercxlis qloridi AgCl, sulfatebidan bariumis sulfati Ba SO4, nitratebi yvela xsnadia, tute metalebis da amoniumis yvelamarili xsnadia. (unda vnaxoT naerTTa xsnadobis cxrili).

3. AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3Ag+ + 3NO + Na

+ + Cl AgCl + Na+ + 3NOAg+ + Cl AgCl

4. Ba(NO3)2 + K2SO4 BaSO4 + 2KNO3

63

Ba2+ + 2 3NO + 2K+ + 24SO BaSO4 + 2

3NO

Ba2+ + 24SO BaSO4

5. BaCl2 + Ag2SO4 BaSO4 + 2AgClBa2+ + 2Cl + 2Ag+ + 24SO BaSO4 + 2AgCl

am ASemTxvevaSi, Sekvecili ionuri toloba emTxvevasruls.

arsebobs iseTi mimocvlis reaqciebi, romelTa mona-wile amosavali nivTierebebidan erT-erTi uxsnadia:

6. Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl FeCl2 + 2H2OFe(OH)2 + 2H+ + 2Cl Fe2+ + 2Cl + 2H2OFe(OH)2 + 2H+ Fe2+ + 2H2O

7. CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2OCaCO3 + 2H+ +2Cl Ca2+ + 2Cl + CO2 + H2OCaCO3 + 2H+ Ca2+ + CO2 + H2O

rac Seexeba reaqcias marilsa da tutes Soris, misibolomde mimdinareobisTvis miRebuli nivTierebebidan(fuZe da marili) erT-erTi unda iyos wyalSi uxsnadi,xolo aRebuli fuZe da marili unda iyos wyalSixsnadi:

CuSO4 + 2NaOH Cu(OH)2+Na2SO4Cu2+ + 24SO + 2Na

+ + 2OH Cu(OH)2 + 2Na+ + 24SOCu2+ + 2OH Cu(OH)2

Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + 2NaOH2Na+ + 23CO + Ca

2+ + 2OH CaCO3+2Na++2OHCa2++ 23CO CaCO3

marilsa da metals Soris reaqciis bolomde mimdi-nareobisTvis aucilebelia wyalSi xsnadi marilisaReba, metali unda iyos ufro aqtiuri, vidre marilis

64

SedgenilobaSi Semavali metalia da, amave dros, wyal-Tan reaqciaSi ar unda Sediodes:

Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4+CuFe0 + Cu2+ + 24SO Fe

2+ + 24SO + Cu0

Fe0 + Cu2+ Fe2+ + Cu0

65

2 . q i m i ur i ele m e n t e b id a m aT i n a e rTe b i

2.1. wyalbadiZ=1; Ar=1; Val = 1

11 H (P) proTiumi, 21 H (D) deiteriumi, 31 H (T) triTiumi

bunebaSiwyalbadi arsebobs rogorc Tavisufali (atmosfe-

ros zeda fenebi), ise naerTebis (H2O, organuli naer-Tebi) saxiT.

kosmosSi yvelaze gavrcelebuli elementia (1/2 kos-mosuri nivTierebis plazmur mdgomareobaSi arsebuliwyalbadia).

miRebalaboratoriuli meTodi:

1) Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2 (kipis aparatSi)2) Ca + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2

sawarmoo meTodi:1) 2NaCl + 2H2O ieleqtroliz 2NaOH + H2 + Cl22) konversiuli meTodi

C + 2H2O 0t CO2 + 2H23) CH4 + 2H2O 0t CO2 + 4H2

+15

1e

1s1n=1

s

66

4) 3Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + 4H2t0

Tvisebebi1) arametalebTan moqmedeba

2H2 + O2 2H2OH2 + F2 2HF (sibneleSi, Cveulebriv temperaturaze)H2 + Cl2 2HCl (sinaTleze)

meqanizmi

Cl2 h 2ClCl + H2 HCl + H (reaqciis jaWvuri meqanizmi)

H2S + S H2St0

3H2 + N2 2NH3Fe

t0

C + 2H2 0t CH42) metalebTan moqmedeba:

2Li + H2 2LiH (liTonisCa + H2 CaH2 hidridebi)

3) oqsidebidan metalis aRdgena:

CuO + H2 0t Cu + H2OWO3 + 3H2 0t W + 3H2O

4) organuli naerTebis hidrireba (hidrogenizacia)CH2=CH2 + H2 Pt CH3CH3eTileni

CHCH + 2H2 Pd CH3CH3acetileni

67

+3H2

benzoli cikloheqsani

wyali

Tvisebebi

1) Termuli daSla)2H2O C02000 2H2 + O2

2) tute da tutemiwa metalebTan moqmedeba2H2O + 2Na 2NaOH + H22H2O + Ca Ca(OH)2 + H2

3) tute da tutemiwa metalebis oqsidebTan moqmedebaH2O + Na2O 2NaOHH2O + CaO Ca(OH)2

4) mJavur oqsidebTan moqmedebaSO3 + H2O H2SO4

5) qlorTan moqmedebaCl2 + H2OHCl + HClO

6) kristalhidratebis warmoqmnaNa2CO3 + 10H2O Na2CO310H2OCuSO4 + 5H2O CuSO45H2O

O

H 104.50 H

wyali

68

7) hidratacia

CH2=CH2+H2OH2SO4

t0CH3CH2OH

CH CH+H2O CH3CHOHgSO4

t0

2.2. qlori

bunebaSi arsebobs ori stabiluri izotopi: lC3517 dalC3717bunebaSi gavrcelebulia mxolod naerTebis saxiT.

NaCl qvamarili; KCl silvini; NaClKCl silviniti.

miReba

laboratoriuli (konc. HCl-ze Zlieri mJangavebismoqmedeba)

1) 2KMnO4 + 16HCl 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 + 8H2O2) MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

Z=17; Ar = 35,5; Val = 1,3,5,71s22s22p63s23p5 p

n=3 s2e 8e 7e p

n=2s

ps

n=1

+17

69

samrewvelo

2NaCl ieleqtroliz 2Na + Cl2nalR.

2NaCl + 2H2O ieleqtroliz 2NaOH + H2 + Cl2Tvisebebi1) metalebTan moqmedeba

2Na + Cl2 2NaCl2Fe + 3Cl2 2FeCl3

2) arametalebTan moqmedebaCl2 + H2 2HCl

3Cl2 + 2P 2PCl35Cl2 + 2P 2PCl5

S + Cl2 SCl23) wyalTan urTierTqmedeba

Cl2 + H2O HCl + HClO4) organul nivTierebebTan urTierTqmedeba

CH4 CH3Cl CH2Cl2 CHCl3 CCl4+Cl2-HCl

+Cl2-HCl

+Cl2-HCl

+Cl2-HCl

CH2=CH2 +Cl2 CH2ClCH2Cl

CHClClHC CHCl

+ 3Cl2 hClHC CHCl

CHClbenzoli heqsaqlorcikloheqsani

70

HCl qlorwyalbadi. marilmJava

miReba

1) 2NaCl + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2HCl (sulfaturi xerxi)krist. konc.

2) H2 + Cl2 2HCl (sinTezuri xerxi)

Tvisebebi

1) 2HCl + Zn ZnCl2 + H22) 2HCl + ZnO ZnCl2 + H2O3) 2HCl + Cu(OH)2 CuCl2 + 2H2O

2HCl + CaCO3 CaCl2 + H2CO3

CO2

H2O

4)

marilmJavas da misi marilebis (qloridebis) aRmomCenireaqtivia AgNO3 (AgCl-is TeTri naleqi gamoiyofa):

NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3Na+ + Cl + Ag+ + 3NO Na

+ + 3NO + AgClAg+ + Cl AgCl

qloris Jangbadiani mJavebi da maTi marilebi

HClO qveqlorovani mJava, KClO hipoqloriti.HClO2 qlorovani mJava, KClO2 qloriti.HClO3 qveqlormJava, KClO3 qlorati.HClO4 qlormJava, KClO4 perqlorati.

71

2.3. Jangbadi

Z=8; Ar=16; Val = 2

bunebaSi arsebobs sami stabiluri izotopi: 168 O,178 O,

188 O.

dedamiwaze yvelaze gavrcelebuli elementia. haer-Si masiT 23%, moculobiT 21 %.

naerTebi: H2O, oqsidebi, marilebi, organuli naer-Tebi.

miReba

laboratoriuli1) 2KMnO4 0t K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O22) 2KClO3 0t 2KCl + 3O23) 2KNO3 0t 2KNO2 + O24) 2HgO 0t 2Hg + O2warmoebaSi1) wylis eleqtrolizi

2H2O ieleqtroliz 2H2 + O22) haeris gaTxevadeba da fraqciuli gamoxda.

p

n=2 s1s22s22p4 s

n=12e 6e

+8

72

Tvisebebiyvela elementTan warmoqmnis oqsids garda He, Ne,

Ar. uSualod ar urTierTqmedebs halogenebTan, oqros-Tan, platinis ojaxis elementebTan.

1) arametalebTan urTierTqmedeba2H2 + O2 2H2OS + O2 SO24P + 3O2 2P2O34P + 5O2 2P2O5N2 + O2 2NOQC + O2 CO2

2) metalebTan urTierTqmedeba2Cu + O2 2CuO4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3

3) rTul nivTierebebTan urTierTqmedeba2H2S + 3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O4NH3 + 3O2 2N2 + 6 H2OCH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Jangbadis alotropiuli saxesxvaobaa ozoni _ O3laboratoriaSi miiReba specialur xelsawyoSi _ ozo-natorSi, Semdegi reaqciiT:

3O22O3bunebaSi warmoiqmneba elWeqis dros.

73

2.4. gogirdi

Z=16; Ar=32; Val = 2,4,6

bunebaSi gxvdeba rogorc TviTnabadi (Tavisufali), isenaerTebis saxiT: FeS2 piriti, PbS tyviis kriala,Na2SO410H2O mirabiliti, BaSO4 bariti da a.S.

alotropiuli saxesxvaobebia (S8) rombuli, mono-klinuri da plastikuri (Sn) gogirdi.

SS

SS

S

SS

S

rombuli gogirdi

2e 8e 6e

+161s22s22p63s23p4

d

pn=3

sp

n=2s

n=1s

n=1

74

miReba1) FeS2 0t FeS + S2) 2H2S + SO2 3S + 2H2O3) SO2 + C S +CO2Tvisebebi1) arametalebTan urTierTqmedeba (ar urTierTqmedebs

azotTan da iodTan)S + O2 SO2S + H2 H2S

galR.

S + 3F2 SF62S + C CS2

2) metalebTan urTierTqmedeba

Ca + S 0t CaSHg + S HgS

H2S gogirdwyalbadi, gogirdwyalbadmJavamiReba1) FeS + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2S2) H2 + S H2S

galR.

Tvisebebi1) 2H2S + O2 2S + 2H2O (arasruli wva)2H2S + 3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O (sruli wva)2) H2SH+ + HS (H2S susti mJavaa)HS S2- + H+ (umniSvnelod)3) H2S + NaOH NaHS + H2O

natriumishidrosulfidi

H2S + 2NaOH Na2S + 2H2Onatriumis sulfidi

75

4) CuSO4 + H2S CuS + H2SO4Savi

Pb(NO3)2 + H2S PbS + 2HNO3Savi

5) H2S + Br2 2HBr + S (H2S _ Zlieri aRmdgenia)H2S + I2 2HI + S

SO2 (gogirdis IV oqsidi)

miReba

1) S + O2 SO22) Cu + 2H2SO4 CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O

konc.

3) 2H2S + 3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O

Tvisebebi

1) SO2 + H2O H2SO3 (H2SO3 arsebobs mxolod wyalxsna-rSi)

2) SO2 + CaO CaSO33) SO2 + 2NaOH Na2SO3 + H2O4) SO2 +2H2S 3S+2H2O

mJangavi

5) SO2 + Cl2 + 2H2O H2SO4 + 2HClaRmdgeni

H2SO3 (gogirdovani mJava)

1) disociaciaH2SO3H+ + 3HSO (mcire)

3HSO H+ + 23SO (metad umniSvnelo)

76

2) aramdgradia, iSleba SO2-ad da H2O-adH2SO3 SO2 + H2O

SO3 (gogirdis VI oqsidi)

airad fazaSi SO3 (wesieri samkuTxedis formis mqo-ne monomeri).

Txevad fazaSi (SO3)3 (trimeria).myar fazaSi (SO3)n (polimeria).

miReba

1) 2SO2 + O2 2SO32) Fe2(SO4)3 0t Fe2O3 + 3SO3 (alqimikosebis xerxi)Tvisebebi1) SO3 + H2O H2SO42) SO3 + CaO CaSO43) SO3 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + H2O

H2SO4 (gogirdmJava)

warmoebaSi miiReba kontaqturi xerxiT, romelicoTxi stadiisagan Sedgeba:I. S + O2 SO2

2H2S + 3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O4FeS2 + 11O2 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2

II. 2SO2 + O2V2O5

2SO3III. SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7 (pirogogirdmJava, oleumi)IV. H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4Tvisebebi1) disociaciaH2SO4 H+ + 4HSO (srulad)

77

4HSO H+ + 24SO (naklebad)

2) H2SO4 + Zn ZnSO4 + H2ganz.

3) H2SO4 + ZnO ZnSO4 + 2H2O4) H2SO4 + Cu(OH)2 CuSO4 + 2H2O5) H2SO4 + BaCl2 BaSO4+ 2HClmJangavia:Jangavs metalebsa da arametalebs.

Cu +2 H2SO4 CuSO4 + SO2 +2H2Okonc.

C + 2H2SO4 CO2 + 2SO2 + 2H2Okonc.

gogirdmJavas wyalwamrTmevi Tvisebebi aqvs maga-liTad, axdens organuli naerTebis dehidratacias:

C12H22O11 + H2SO4 12C + (H2SO411H2O)saqaroza(Saqari)

gogirdmJavas marilebis sulfatebis aRmomCenireaqciaa BaCl2-Tan moqmedeba:

Na2SO4 + BaCl2 BaSO4+ 2NaClTeTri naleqi

2Na+ + 24SO + Ba2+ + 2Cl BaSO4+2Na+ + 2Cl

Ba2+ + 24SO BaSO4

2.5. azotiZ=7; Ar=14; Val = 2, 3, 4, 5.

148 N,

158 N ori mdgradi izotopis saxiT arsebobs.

pn=2 s

s1s22s22p3

2e 5e n=1

+7

78

N2 + 3H2 2NH3 + QFe (K2O, Al2O3)

to, p2)

Tavisufali saxiT N2, NN (azotis molekulaSibmis energiaa 942 kj/moli).

bunebaSiTavisufali saxiT haeris 78% moculobiT, 75,5%

_ masiT. gvarjilebi: NaNO3 Ciles gvarjila, KNO3 in-doeTis gvarjila, organuli naerTebi.

miRebaNH4NO2 0t N2 + 2H2O

teqnikaSi Txevadi haeris fraqciuli gamoxdiT(-1960C).

TvisebebiN2 inertulia.

1) N2 + O230000C

2NO Q

3) N2 + 6Li 2Li3N (oTaxis temp.)

NH3 - amiakimiReba2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + 2NH3 + 2H2ON2 + 3H2 2NH3Tvisebebi1) NH3 + H2O NH4OH

amoniumis hidroqsidi(niSaduris spirti)

2) NH3 + HCl NH4Cl

79

N2 + 3H2Fe (K2O, Al2O3)

2NH31)t0, p

3) 4NH3 + 3O2 2N2 +6H2O (ukatalizatoro wva)4) 4NH3 + 5O2 Pt 4NO + 6H2O (katalizuri wva)oqsidebi

N2O, NO, N2O3, NO2, N2O4 , N2O5NN O

NH4NO3 0t N2O + H2O3Cu + 8HNO3 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O

ganz.

Cu + 4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2Okonc.

2HNO3 + P2O5 2HPO3 + N2O5wyalwamrTmevi

HNO3-azotmJavamiReba

NaNO3 + H2SO4 0t NaHSO4 + HNO3krist. konc.

mrewvelobaSi katalizuri meTodiT

2) 4NH3 + 5O2 Pt 4NO + 6H2O3) 2NO + O2 2NO24) 4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O 4HNO3

Tvisebebi1) 4HNO3 h 4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O2) HNO3 H+ + 3NO3) HNO3 + NaOH NaNO3 + H2O4) 2HNO3 + CuO Cu(NO3)2 + H2O

80

2HNO3 + CaCO3 Ca(NO3)2 + H2CO3CO2

H2O

5)

azotmJavaze metalebis moqmedebiT wyalbadis gamo-yofa ar xdeba _ HNO3 Zlieri mJangavia da H2-s Jangavswylamde (Tumca, arsebobs gamonaklisic manganumze12,5% HNO3-is moqmedebiT gamoiyofa H2 (86% H2, 13% NOda 1% N2O).damJangavi Tvisebebi1. metalebis moqmedeba:

3Ag + 4HNO3 3AgNO3 + NO + 2H2Oganz.

Ag + 2HNO3 AgNO3 + NO2 + H2Okonc.

civi koncentrirebuli azotmJava ar reagirebs Al,Cr, Fe-Tan metalis oqsidis damcavi fenis warmoqmnisgamo, cxeli gamoyofs NO2-s.Au da Pt azotmJavasTan ar moqmedebs.oqro moqmedebs `samefo wyalTan~ (`mefis arayTan~):

Au + HNO3 + 3HCl AuCl3 + NO + 2H2Osamefo wyali

2. arametalebTan moqmedeba:S + 6HNO3 6NO2 + 2H2O + H2SO4konc.

S + 2HNO3 2NO + H2SO4ganz.

3. organul naerTebTan moqmedeba (e. w. nitrirebis re-aqcia):

81

nitrobenzoli

+ HNO3H2SO4

NO2

+ H2O

CH2OH CH2ONO2| |CHOH + 3HNO3 CHONO2 + 3H2O| |CH2OH CH2ONO2glicerini nitroglicerini

(gogirdmJavas da azotmJavas narevs manitrirebeli na-revi ewodeba).

2.6. natriumi

Z=11; Ar=23; Val = 1

mononuklidia Na2311 (bunebaSi arsebobs erTi stabiluriizotopis saxiT).natriumi bunebaSi mxolod naerTebis saxiT arsebobs:NaCl qvamarili, NaCl KCl silviniti, Na2SO410H2O mi-rabiliti da sxv.

n=3 sp

n=2 ss

1s22s22p63s12 e 8e 1e n=1

+111

82

miReba1) 2NaCl ieleqtroliz 2Na + Cl2

nalRobi

2) 4NaOH ieleqtroliz 4Na + 2H2O + O2nalRobi

Tvisebebi1). 4Na + O2 2Na2O (haerze)

2Na + O2 Na2O2 (JangbadSi)2). 2Na + Cl2 2NaCl3). 2Na + S Na2S4). 6Na + N2 0t 2Na3N (nitridi)5). 2Na + H2 0t 2NaH (hidridi)6). 2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2

NaOH natriumis hidroqsidimiReba

2NaCl + 2H2O ieleqtroliz 2NaOH + H2+ Cl2Tvisebebi1) NaOH Na+ + OH2) NaOH + HCl NaCl +H2O3) 2NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O4) FeCl2 + 2NaOH Fe(OH)2 + 2NaCl

Na2CO3 - sodis miRebis solveis meTodiNH3 + CO2 + H2O p NH4HCO3

NH4HCO3 + NaCl NaHCO3 + NH4Cl2NaHCO3 t Na2CO3 + CO2 +H2O

83

2.7. alumini Al

Z=13; Ar=27; Val = 3

alumini mononuklidia_ Al2713 .bunebaSi yvelaze gavrcelebuli liTonia. amasTa-

nave, arsebobs mxolod naerTebis saxiT:boqsitebi Al2O3nH2O, korundi Al2O3 (lali qro-

mis minareviT, safironi rkinis minareviT), krioliTi Na3AlF6.

miRebaAl2O3 anodis-C 2Al + 3CO

nalRobi el. lizi

lRobis temperaturis Sesamcireblad Al2O3-s umate-ben krioliTs (mlRob Spats) Na3AlF6.Tvisebebi

1s22s22p63s23p1

2e 8e 3e

2e 8e 6e

+13

p

sn=3p

n=2s

s

n=1

84

1) 4Al + 3O2 0t 2Al2O32) 2Al + 3Cl2 2AlCl33) 2Al + 3S 0t Al2S3 (sulfidi)4) 2Al + N2 0t 2AlN (nitridi)5) 4Al + 3C 0t Al4C3 (karbidi)6) 2Al + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H27) Al + 6HNO3(konc.) 0t Al(NO3)3 + 3NO2 +3H2O8) aluminTermia (metalebis aRdgena maTi oqsidebidanaluminis saSualebiT)

Fe2O3 +2Al Al2O3 + 2Fe + Qalumini gamoyenebis mxriv meore adgilzea rkinis

Semdeg.Al2O3 amfoteruli oqsidia

Al2O3 + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2OAl2O3 + 2NaOH 0t

atimetaaluminnatriumis

22NaAlO + H2O

Al(OH)3 amfoteruli hidroqsidia

Al(OH)3 + 3HCl AlCl3 + 3H2OAl(OH)3 + 3NaOH

atioqsoalumin heqsahidrnatriumis

63 ])OH(Al[Na

85

2.8. kalciumi

Z=20; Ar=40; Val = 2.

ZiriTadi izotopia Ca4020 . arsebobs kidev xuTi izo-topi: Ca4220 , Ca4320 , Ca4420 , Ca4620 , Ca.4820

bunebaSi naerTebis saxiT: CaCO3 minerali kal-citi (kirqva, carci, marmarilo), CaCO3MgCO3 dolo-miti, CaSO42H2O TabaSiri da sxv.

miRebaCaCl2 ieleqtroliz Ca + Cl2

umateben CaF2-s lRobis temperaturis dasawevad.

Tvisebebi1. arametalebTan moqmedeba

2Ca + O2 2CaOCa + Cl2 CaCl2Ca + S CaS

p

1s22s22p63s23p6 4s2 n=4 s

2e 8e 8e 2e p

n=3 s

n=2 2p

n=1 s

s

+20

86

3Ca + N2 Ca3N22. wyalTan moqmedeba

Ca + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2

CaO Caumqrali kirimiReba

CaCO3 0t CaO + CO2Tvisebebi

1) CaO + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O2) CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 (kiris Caqroba)3) CaO + CO2 CaCO3

Ca(OH)2 Camqrali kirimiReba

CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2Tvisebebi1) Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ + 2OH2) Ca(OH)2 +H2SO4 CaSO4 + 2H2O3) Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3+ H2O4) Ca(OH)2 + CuCl2 Cu(OH)2 + CaCl2

87

3 . org a n uli n a erTe b i

arsebobs organuli qimiis ramdenime ganmarteba. ke-kules da gmelinis mixedviT, organuli qimia elementnaxSirbadis qimiaa. Sorlemeris mixedviT organuliqimia naxSirwyalbadebisa da maTi naerTebis qimiaa.

1860 wels frangma qimikosma marselen berTlom ga-nacxada: `qimia Tavad qmnis Tavisi kvlevis obieqtebs.es SemoqmedebiTi unari xelovnebis msgavsia da Zireu-lad ganasxvavebs qimias sxva sabunebismetyvelo mecnie-rebebisagan~. es marTlac asea, 20 milionze meti arse-buli organuli naerTebidan, 90% laboratoriaSia da-sinTezebuli.

organuli naerTebis kolosaluri simravlis Ses-wavla SeuZlebelia garkveuli klasifikaciis gareSe.arsebobs organul naerTTa Semdegi zogadi klasifika-cia:

organuli naerTebi

Ria jaWviani(acikluri)

Caketil-jaWviani(cikluri)

heterocikluri(naxSirbadatomebis

garda, cikliSeicavs sxva

atomebsac _ N, O, S dasxv.)

karbocikluri(cikli Seicavs

naxSirbadatomebs)

aromatulialicikluri

88

garda aRniSnuli zogadi klasifikaciisa, organulqimiaSi umniSvnelovanesia homologiuri rigebis cneba.

homologebi ewodeba erTtipur naerTebs, romlebicerTmaneTisagan gansxvavdebian erTi an ramdenime CH2jgufiT, e. w. homologiuri sxvaobiT. homologebis er-Tianobas naerTTa homologiuri rigi ewodeba. qvemoTmoyvanilia organul naerTTa zogierTi umniSvnelova-nesi homologiuri rigis saxelwodebebi da maTi zoga-di formulebi (es rigebi ganxilulia am kursSi):

alkanebi _ CnH2n+2(najeri naxSirwyalbadebi)

alkenebi CnH2n(eTilenis rigis ujeri naxSirwyalbadebi)

alkinebi _ CnH2n-2(acetilenis rigis ujeri naxSirwyalbadebi)arenebi CnH2n-6(benzolis rigis aromatuli naxSirwyalbadebi)

alkanolebi CnH2n+1OH(spirtebi)

alkanalebi _(aldehidebi)

alkanmJavebi _(karbonmJavebi)

CnH2n+1 CO

H

CnH2n+1 CO

OH

Zalze mniSvnelovania funqciuri jgufebis cnebac.funqciuri jgufi ewodeba atomTa iseT erTianobas,romelic gansazRvravs organuli naerTis raobas damisi qimiuri Tvisebebis umravlesobas (faqtobrivad

89

warmoadgens sareaqcio centrs). yvelaze mniSvnelovanifunqciuri jgufebia: OH (hidroqsilis jgufi),

CO

(karbonilis jgufi) da COOH (karboqsilis jgufi).

3.1. organul naerTTa aRnagobis Teoria da izomeria

pirvel mwyobr da logikurad erTian moZRvrebasorganul naerTTa struqturis Sesaxeb warmoadgensorganul naerTTa aRnagobis Teoria, romlis ZiriTadiprincipebi Camoyalibebul iqna 1861 wels aleqsandrebutlerovis mier. am Teoriis SeqmnaSi mniSvnelovaniwvlili Seitanes agreTve kekulem, kolbem da sxv. ammoZRvrebis arsis formulireba SeiZleba ori debule-bis saxiT:1. molekulebSi atomebi ganlagebulia ara uwesrigod,

aramed SeerTebulia erTmaneTTan garkveuli Tanmim-devrobiT, maTi valentobis Sesabamisad.

2. nivTierebaTa Tvisebebi damokidebulia ara mxolodimaze, Tu romelic atomebi da ra raodenobiT Se-dis molekulebis SedgenilobaSi, aramed atomTaSeerTebis Tanmimdevrobaze da maT urTierTgavlena-ze.aRnagobis Teoria dResac, Camoyalibebidan saukune-

naxevris Semdeg inarCunebs organuli qimiis kolosa-luri faqtobrivi masalis Teoriuli safuZvlis funq-cias. aRsaniSnavia, rom izomeriis arsis interpretaciapirvelad SesaZlebeli gaxda organul naerTTa aRna-gobis TeoriaSi. ufro metic, aRnagobis Teoriis cent-raluri debuleba _ `nivTierebaTa Tvisebebi damokide-bulia molekulebSi atomTa SeerTebis mimdevrobaze~ _Teoriulad prognozirebs izomeriis movlenis arsebo-

90

bas. izomerebi ewodeba nivTierebebs, romelTac aqvTmolekulebis erTnairi Sedgeniloba (erTnairi moleku-luri formula), magram sxvadasxvagvari aRnagoba da,aqedan gamomdinare, sxvadasxva Tvisebebi.

qvemoT moyvanilia izomeriis zogierTi umniSvne-lovanesi tipi da misi konkretuli magaliTebi:

1. naxSirbadis ConCxis izomeria

H3C CH2

CH3

CH2 CH2 CH2 H3C CH CH2 CH3CH3

H3C C

CH3

CH3

n-pentani

2-meTilbutani

2-2-dimeTilpropani

antraceni fenantreni

2. funqciuri jgufis mdebareobis izomeria

H3CCH2CH2Cl H3CCHClCH31-qlorpropani 2-qlorpropani

H3CCH2CHOH H3CCHOHCH3pentanol-1 pentanol-2

91

3. geometriuli (cis-trans-izomeria)H3C

C

H

C

CH3

H

H3CC

H

C

CH3

H

cis-buten-2 trans-buten-2

ClC

H

C

Cl

H

C

H

C

H

cis-1,2-diqloreTani trans-1,2-diqloreTani

Cl

Cl

3.2. alkanebi(najeri naxSirwyalbadebi)

CnH2n+2

CH4 meTani C7H16 heptaniC2H6 eTani C8H18 oqtaniC3H8 propani C9H20 nonaniC4H10 butani C10H22 dekaniC5H12 pentani C11H24 undekaniC6H14 heqsani C12H26 dodekani

alkanebSi naxSirbadi imyofeba sp3-hibridizaciaSi(naxSirbadis I savalento mdgomareoba). alkanebi Seica-ven mxolod martiv (erTmag) -bmebs.

alkanebis molekulebidan erTi atomi wyalbadis Ca-mocilebiT miiReba radikalebi (alkilis radikalebi).meTanis radikals meTili (CH3) ewodeba, eTanis radi-kals eTili (C2H5) da a. S. radikali aRiniSneba R-iT.

alkanebSi gvxvdeba jaWvis (ConCxis) izomeria. izo-meria iwyeba butanidan, mas gaaCnia ori izomeri, pen-

92

tans 3, dekans 75, heqtans (C100H202) 71039 (e. w. kombi-natoruli afeTqeba).

C4H10

CH3 CH2CH2CH3n. butani

C5H12

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3n. pentani

miReba

1. CH3COONa+NaOH 0t Na2CO3+CH4 (diumas meTodi)natriumisacetati

2. Al3C3 + 12H2O 4Al(OH)3 + 3CH4 (muasanis meTodi)aluminiskarbidi

3. 2CH3CH2Br + 2Na 2NaBr +CH3CH2CH2CH3eTilbromili

(viurcis meTodi)

CH3CH3 CH CH32-meTilpropani,

izobutani

1 2 3

CH3CH3 CH CH2

2-meTilbutani,izobutani

1 2 3CH34

CH3CH3 C CH3

2,2-dimeTilpropani,neopentani

1 2 3

CH3

93

Tvisebebi1) wva (wva ewodeba JangbadTan nivTierebis urTi-

erTqmedebis egzoTermul process).CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + Q

2) Termuli daSlaCH4 0t C + 2H2

3) qlorireba

CH4+Cl2 CH3Cl CH2Cl2 CHCl3 CCl4

+Cl2 +Cl2+Cl2-HCl

-HCl -HCl-HClmeTani monoqlor-

meTanidiqlor-meTani

tetraqlor-meTani

triqlor-meTani

gamoyeneba: sawvavad (bunebrivi airi) da organul sin-TezSi.

3.3. alkenebi(eTilenis rigis ujeri naxSirwyalbadebi)

CnH2n

C2H4 eTeni, eTileniC 3H6 propeni, propileniC4H8 buteni, butileni

alkenebSi naxSirbadi imyofeba sp2-hibridizaciaSi(naxSirbadis II savalento mdgomareoba). alkenebi Sei-caven martiv CC bmebs da erT ormag C=C bmas. ormagibmidan erTi -bmaa da erTi -bma.

alkenebSi gvxvdeba izomeriis sami tipi: naxSirba-debis jaWvis izomeria, ormagi bmis mdebareobis izo-meria da geometriuli (cis-, trans-) izomeria. samivetipis izomeria iwyeba butenidan:

94

buten-1CH3 CHCH2

1 2 31CH34

CH3 CHCH21 23

CH34

CH3CHCH2

2 3C

buten-22-meTilpropeniCH3 CH3

CH3C C

H Hcis-buten-2

CH3C C

H

H

trans-buten-2

miReba

eTanoliC2H5OH CH2

t0 CH2+H2OH2SO4

(spirtis dehidratacia)1.

2. CH2 CH2 + Zn CH2

Br Br1,2-dibromeTani

+ ZnBr2CH2

Tvisebebi

1) wvaC2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O

2) mierTebamierTeba mimdinareobs Semdegi zogadi sqemiT:

C C + XY C C

X YCH2 = CH2 + H2 Pt CH3CH3

(hidrireba anu hidrogenizacia)CH2 =CH2 + Cl2 CH2Cl CH2Cl (qlorireba)

1,2-diqloreTani

CH2 =CH2 + HCl CH3 CH2Cl (hidroqlorireba)qloreTani

95

CH2=CH2 + H2Oto

H2SO4CH3CH2OH (hidratacia)

3) polimerizaciareaqcias, romlis drosac monomeris (mikromole-

kulis) ramdenime molekulis SeerTebiT miiReba poli-meris erTi makromolekula, polimerizacia ewodeba(`poli~ niSnavs mravals). ricxvs, romelic gviCvenebs,monomeris ramdeni molekulaa gaerTianebuli polimer-Si, polimerizaciis xarisxi (n) ewodeba. atomTa jgufs,romelic polimeris makromolekulaSi meordeba,struqturuli erTeuli (rgoli) ewodeba.

n CH2 = CH2 ( CH2CH2 )neTileni polieTileni(monomeri) (polimeri)

gamoyenebaeTileni gamoiyeneba eTilis spirtisa da po-

lieTilenis misaRebad, agreTve mravalricxovan organulsinTezebSi.

3.4. alkinebi(acetilenis rigis ujeri naxSirwyalbadebi)

CnH2n-2

C2H2 eTini, acetileniC3H4 propiniC4H6 butinialkinebSi naxSirbadi imyofeba sp-hibridizaciaSi

alkinebi Seicaven martiv CC bmebs da erT sammag CCbmas. sammagi bmidan erTi -bmaa da ori -bma.

alkinebSi gvxvdeba izomeriis ori tipi naxSir-badebis jaWvis da sammagi bmis mdebareobis izomeria.

96

1 4

butin-1

CH3

1

1CH34

CH

CH2

1

CH34

CH3

CH2 3

Cbutin-2

C

3-meTilbutin-1

CH32

CH3

2

3C

pentin-1

1CH2 CH2

4CH

2 3C

4CH3

5CH2 CH3

5

2

3CC

pentin-2

3C CH

C4H6

C5H8

miReba1) CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2kalciumis karbidi

2) 2CH4 0t C2H2 +3H2K

Tvisebebi

1) wva2C2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O

2) mierTeba mimdinareobs or stadiad Semdegi zo-gadi sqemiT:

C C + XY C C + XY C C

X Y X Y

X Y

CH CH + H2 CH2 = CH2 + H2 CH3CH3CH CH + Cl2 CHCl=CHCl + Cl2 CHCl2CHCl2

97

HC CH + H2OHgSO4

t0CH3 C

O

H(kuCerovis reaqcia)

acetaldehidi

3) Canacvleba

HC CH + Cu2Cl2 Cu C HCl2CuC iacetilenid

spilenZis

HC CH + Ag2O AgC OH2AgC 2iacetilenid

vercxlis

gamoyenebaacetileni farTod gamoiyeneba samrewvelo orga-

nul sinTezSi (ZmarmJavas, sinTezuri kauCukis da sxv.).acetilenis bazaze dasinTezebulia daaxloebiT 50 000organuli nivTiereba. acetilenis wvis reaqcia gamoi-yeneba metalebis saWrelad da SesaduReblad.

3.5. arenebi

(benzolis rigis aromatuli naxSirwyalbadebi)CnH2n-6

CH

C6H6 ~HC

HC CH

CHCH

~

98

arenebSi gvxvdeba Canacvlebuli jgufebis urTier-Tmdebareobis izomeria. magaliTad, ori Canacvlebulijgufis SemTxvevaSi arsebobs sami izomeri: orTo_(1,2-),meta (1,3 -) da para (1,4):

orTo (1,2-) meta (1,3) para (1,4)

o-qsiloli, m-qsiloli, p-qsiloli,1,2-dimeTil- 1,3-dimeTil- 1,4-dimeTil-benzoli benzoli benzoli

miReba1. qvanaxSiris dakoqsvisas

C(zelinskis reaqcia)3HC CH

t02.

Tvisebebi

benzolisaTvis ufro damaxasiaTebelia Canacvlebisreaqciebi, Tumca gansakuTrebul pirobebSi is SedismierTebis reaqciebSic.

99

1) Canacvleba

+ HNO3H2SO4

NO2

(nitrireba)+

nitrobenzolikonc.

(bromireba)FeBr3

Br

+ HBr+Br2

brombenzoli

2) mierTebaCH2

Ni:+3H2

CH2CH2

CH2H2C

H2C

cikloheqsani

h+3Cl2

CHCl

ClHC

heqsaqlorcikloheqsani

CHCl

CHCl

CHCl

ClHC

100

3.6. alkanolebi(najeri erTatomiani spirtebi)

CnH2n+1OH an ROH

spirtebis atomuroba ganisazRvreba maT moleku-lebSi hidroqsilis jgufis (OH) ricxvis mixedviT.

CH3OH meTanoli, meTilis spirti, xis spirti;C2H5OH eTanoli, eTilis spirti, Rvinis spirti;C3H7OH propanoli, propilis spirti;C4H9OHbutanoli, butilis spirti.erTatomian najer spirtebSi gvxvdeba izomeriis ori

tipi: naxSirbadebis ConCxis izomeria da hidroqsilisjgufis mdebareobis izomeria. izomeria iwyeba propano-lidan:

C3H7OH

1

1

223

3

3HOCHHCHC

propanol 23

323

1HCHOHCHC

propanol

C4H9OH

1

1

222

23

3

4HOCHHCHCHC

butanol3

4

22

323

1HCHCHOHCHC

butanol

31 2CH3 C

OH

CH3

2-meTilpropanol-2

CH3

arCeven: pirvelad, meoreul da mesameul spir-tebs:

R CH2OH RR CHOH

R

RR COH

pirveladi meoreuli mesameuli

3 12CH3 CH CH2OH

CH32-meTilpropanol-1

101

miReba+ H2O

H2SO4t0

CH3CH2OHCH2CH21)2) C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

glukoza

glukozis fermentuli (spirtuli) duRili

Tvisebebi1) 2C2H5OH + 2Na 2C2H5ONa + H2

natriumis eTilati

C2H5OH CH2t0 CH2+H2O

H2SO4(Sidamolekuluri dehidratacia)

2)

2C2H5OH C2H5t0

H2SO4 dieTileTeri(martivi eTeri)

3) O C2H5 + H2O

(spirtis molekulaTSorisi dehidratacia)

3.7. alkanalebi(aldehidebi)

an

HCHO meTanali, formaldehidi, WianWvelas aldehi-di.

CH3CHO eTanali, acetaldehidi, Zmris aldehidi.CH3CH2CHO propanali, propionis aldehidi.CH3CH2CH2CHO butanali, erbos aldehidi.

102

aldehidebSi gvxvdeba naxSirbadatomebis ConCxisizomeria, iwyeba butanalidan:

butanali,erbos aldehidi CH3

CH3 CH213

CHO CH3 CHCH22

CHO

2-meTilpropanali,izoerbos aldehidi

miReba

CH3 (spirtis arasruli daJangva)C2H5OH[O]-H2O

CO

H1)

CH CH + H2OHgSO4

t0CH3 C

O

H(kuCerovis reaqcia)2)

Tvisebebi1) daJangva

Zmrisaldehidi

(vercxlis sarkisreaqcia)

ZmarmJava

CH3 CO

H+ Ag2O CH3 C

O

OH+ 2Ag

CH3 CO

H+ 2Cu(OH)2 CH3 C

O

OH+ Cu2O + 2H2O

lurji agurisferi

orive es reaqcia aldehidebis TvisebiTi (aRmomCeni)reaqciebia.

2) aRdgena

CH3 + H2 CH3CH2OHC HO N1

103

3.8. alkanmJavebi(najeri erTfuZiani karbonmJavebi)

CnH2n+1 COH

Oan C

OR

OH

karbonmJavas fuZianoba ganisazRvreba maT moleku-laSi karboqsilis jgufis (COOH-is) ricxvis mixedviT.HCOOH meTanmJava, WianWvelmJava.CH3COOH eTanmJava, ZmarmJava.CH3CH2COOH propanmJava, propionis mJava.CH3CH2CH2COOH butanmJava, erbos mJava.

karbonmJavebSi gvxvdeba naxSirbadatomebis ConCxisizomeria. izomeria iwyeba butanmJavadan.

butanmJava,erbos mJava

CH3 CH2 COOHCH2CH3

13CH3 CH

2COOH

2-meTilpropanmJava,izoerbos mJava

miRebaCH3CH2OH CH3COOH

[O]-H2O

(spirtis daJangva)1)

2) CH3CHO [O] CH3COOH (aldehidis daJangva)Tvisebebi

1) disociacia CH3COOH CH3COO_ + H+2) araorganuli mJavebis analogiuri Tvisebebi:

CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2Onatriumis acetati

2CH3COOH + CaO (CH3COO)2Ca + H2Okalciumis acetati

104

2CH3COOH + CaCO3 (CH3COO)2Ca + H2O + CO22CH3COOH + Mg (CH3COO)2Mg + H2

3) eTerifikacia

CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5 + H2OH+

ZmarmJava eTilieTeri(rTuli eTeri)

reaqcias spirtsa da mJavebs Soris, romlis Se-degad miiReba rTuli eTeri (esTeri) da wyali,eTerifikaciis reaqcia ewodeba.

4) radikalSi Canacvleba (qlorireba)CH3COOH + Cl2 ClCH2 COOH + HCl

monoqlorZmarmJava

Cl CH2COOH + Cl2 Cl2CH COOH + HCldiqlorZmarmJava

Cl2CHCOOH + Cl2 Cl3C COOH + HCltriqlorZmarmJava

kavSiri spirtebs, aldehidebs da karbonmJavebs Soris:

daJangva daJangvaRCH2OH

aRdgena aRdgenaspirti aldehidi karbonmJava

105

literatura

1. m. rusia, q. giorgaZe, m. gverdwiTeli. qimiis safuZv-lebi. Tbilisi, Tsu gamomcemloba, 2010.

2. saymawvilo enciklopedia. qimia (avtor-Semdgenle-bi: m. gverdwiTeli, g. areSiZe, T. wivwivaZe). Tbili-si, `dila~, 2006.

3. o. manjgalaZe, g. maxaraZe, m. gverdwiTeli. qimia daqimikosebi Tvalis erTi gadavlebiT. Tbilisi, Tsugamomcemloba, 1987.

4. m. gverdwiTeli, o. devdariani. qimiuri reaqciebismimdinareobis sakvanZo sakiTxebi. Tbilisi, Tsugamomcemloba, 1984.

5. m. gverdwiTeli, o. devdariani. molekulaTa aRna-goba da maTi gardaqmnebis kanonzomiereba. Tbili-si, Tsu gamomcemloba, 1991.

6. m. gverdwiTeli, j. kereseliZe, d. tuRuSi. qimiuribmebi. Tbilisi, Tsu gamomcemloba, 1999.

7. . . . ., , 1978.

8. T. H. Redmore. Fundamentals of Chemistry. New York, 1979.

106

marilebis, mJavebisa da fuZeebis xsnadoba wyalSi

ionebi H+ 4NH K

+ Na+ Ag+ Ba2+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Zn2+ Cu2+ Hg2+ Pb2+ Fe2+ Fe3+ Al3+

OH xs xs xs xs mx u u u u u u u3NO xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs

Cl xs xs xs xs u xs xs xs xs xs xs mx xs xs xsS2- xs xs xs xs u u u u u u u

23SO xs xs xs xs mx mx mx mx mx u mx 2

4SO xs xs xs xs mx u mx xs xs xs xs u xs xs xs2

3CO xs xs xs xs u u u u u u u 2

3SiO u xs xs u u u u u u u 3

4PO xs xs xs xs u u u u u u u u u u u

CH3COO xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs xs

pirobiTi aRniSvnebi: xs xsnadi (1 g-ze meti 100 g wyalSi);mx mcired xsnadi (0,001 g-dan 0,1 g-mde 100 g wyalSi);u uxsnadi (0,001 g-ze naklebi 100 g wyalSi);`_~ _ iSleba wyliT an ar arsebobs.

107

108

gamomcemlobis redaqtori

garekanis dizaini

kompiuteruli uzrunvelyofa

109

0128, Tbilisi, i. WavWavaZis gamziri 140128, Tbilisi, 14, Ilia Chavchavadze Ave.

Tel.: 25-14-32www.press.tsu.ge