química del agua

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Zab yjs ja}jamhmb fb hgahsbdhôa mjf bozb& tj uzjmj mjdh| rzj jf uN mjf bozb tj yjbijd}bmg ug| dhj|}gt rzà`hdgt rzj haifzjadhb|ba g bijd}b|âa jf lbfbadj ja}|j fgt hgajt mjNhm|gojag g nhm|g~hfg .GN-( ja jf jrzhfhl|hg u|jyhb`ja}j `gt}|bmg! Ug| jcjùfg bfbo|job| zab lbtj dg`g fg jt jf lhdb|lgab}g mj tgmhg jt}j |jbddhgab|b dga fgt hgajt mjnhm|gojag& fg dzbf mht`hazh|â fb dgadja}|bdhôa mj hgajt mj nhm|gojag x ug| fg }ba}gbz`ja}b|â jf ybfg| uN ja jf bdzb|hg ygfyhèamgtj `ât bfdbfhag! Mj `baj|b dga}|b|àb th tjbo|job za âdhmg bf bozb jt}j |jbddhgab|â dga fg hgajt GN- x mj `baj|b hayj|tb jt}jmht`hazh|â fb dgadja}|bdhôa mj jt}gt x bz`ja}b|â fb dgadja}|bdhôa mj hgajt mjnhm|gojag x ja dgatjdzjadhb tj }jam|â zab tgfzdhôa `ât âdhmb!

Dg`g ugmj`gt yj| mj jt}b `baj|b tj uzjmj `gmhihdb| jf uN mjf bdzb|hg b azjt}|bdgayjahjadhb& uj|g ba}jt mj ha}ja}b|fg }jaj`gt rzj }jaj| ja dzja}b fg thozhja}j3 jf uNojaj|bf`ja}j ag jt jf u|glfj`b ja jf bdzb|hg rzj mjlj`gt dg||joh|& thag `ât lhjaojaj|bf`ja}j jt}j jt za hamhdbmg| rzj agt mhdj rzj bfog `ât uzjmj ag jt}b| tzdjmhjamgbmjdzbmb`ja}j& g mj fb `baj|b rzj agtg}|gt mjtjb`gt!

Dga jt}g `j |jihj|g rzj ba}jt mj bo|job| bfoóa âdhmg g lbtj& jt ajdjtb|hg yj|hihdb| fgtmj`ât ub|â`j}|gt ja jf bdzb|hg xb rzj dg`g `jadhgaj ba}jt jf uN bijd}b x jt bijd}bmgug| mhyj|tgt u|gdjtgt rzà`hdgt rzj gdz||ja ja azjt}|g bdzb|hg& ug| fg }ba}g ba}jt mj|jbfhsb| dzbfrzhj| `gmhihdbdhôa ja jf `ht`g hatht}g ja rzj jf fjd}g| mjlb mb|fj zab fjàmbb fgt b|}àdzfgt mj ‖mz|jsb mjf bozb‐ x ‖`j}blgfht`g mj fgt nblh}ba}jt ja jf bdzb|hg‐

`ât bmjfba}j ja jt}j dgùhfbmg!

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http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinamarca

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica



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Mht`hazh| jf uN .bdhmhihdb| jf bdzb|hg(

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Ag tj ugm|â u|jmjdh| dga j~bd}h}zm rzj ybfg| mj uN tj gl}jam|â x fgt jijd}gt mjf`ht`g tga za }ba}g }b|mbmgt& btà `ht`g tgfb`ja}j tj ugm|â z}hfhsb| dga bozbtlfbambt& ub|b ag}b| bmjdzbmb`ja}j tzt |jtzf}bmgt!

Jf bozb }g`b|b za dgfg| `b||ôa& rzj ag b `zdnbt uj|tgabt ozt}b& uj|g }ja ug|tjoz|g rzj th }hjajt ujdjt b`bsôahdgt z g}|gt mj bozbt ajo|bt }j fg bo|bmjdj|âahaihah}b`ja}j!

G}|b `baj|b mj mht`hazh| jf uN mjf bdzb|hg& jt z}hfhsbamg DG < jt}j }hjaj fb yja}bcb rzjdga jf jrzhug bmjdzbmg tj uzjmj u|jmj}j|`hab| jf uN mjtjbmg& jt}j `è}gmg jt `zxz}hfhsbmg dzbamg tj }hjaja }barzjt ufba}bmgt& xb rzj jf DG< bmj`ât mj bdhmhihdb| jfbozb& jt za `bd|g az}|hja}j jtjadhbf ub|b fbt ufba}bt! J~ht}ja `zdngt `è}gmgt ub|bbmhdhgab| mhô~hmg mj db|lgag bf bdzb|hg mjtmj `è}gmgt dbtj|gt& nbt}b jrzhugt `zxtgiht}hdbmgt b lbtj mj lg`lgabt mj mhdng obt! Dg`g tj j~ufhdb|â `ât bmjfba}j jf DG< bf mhtgfyj|tj ja bf bozb tj dgayhj|}j ja âdhmg db|lôahdg& ig|`b|â x ja}|b|â ja jrzhfhl|hg

dga fgt db|lgab}gt mjf bozb d|jbamg za dgùfjcg tht}j`b dgagdhmg dg`g ‖jrzhfhl|hgdb|lôahdg‐ jf dzbf tj j~ufhdb ja fb tjddhôa mj mz|jsb mjf bozb!



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ig}g mj ‖}gaj}‐& mgt tht}j`bt mj DG< ub|b jf bdzb|hg!

Dg`g mjtyja}bcb jt}j `è}gmg ugtjj3

\jrzhj|j mj bozbt lfbambt ub|b bu|jdhb| bmjdzbmb`ja}j tz jijd}g bdhmhihdba}j&btà `ht`g ag jt ugthlfj u|jmjdh| jf uN ihabf bf z}hfhsb| za jrzhug dbtj|g!

Dgt}g& dzbamg tj nblfb mj za jrzhug mj lg`lgab!

Uzjmj bdhmhihdb| bozbt |jfb}hyb`ja}j mz|bt b j~ujatbt mj tb}z|b| jf bozb dgaDG< fg dzbf }b`lhèa jt mbòhag ub|b fgt nblh}ba}jt mjf bdzb|hg .tj |jdg`hjambrzj jf bozb ugtjb zab dgadja}|bdhôa mj DG< mj 25-45 UU@(!

Th jt}bt tgfzdhgajt ag tga tzihdhja}jt g ag dzùfja fbt ajdjthmbmjt mjf bdzb|ht}b uzjtdg`g óf}h`g |jdz|tg tj uzjmja z}hfhsb| tgfzdhgajt âdhmbt! Fg hmjbf jt z}hfhsb| âdhmgtmèlhfjt dg`g fg jt jf âdhmg igtiô|hdg& jf âdhmg }âahdg g jf igtib}g `gaglâthdg mj tgmhg.AbN<UG=( jf dzbf jt za âdhmg `ât mèlhf rzj jf igtiô|hdg uj|g b `h d|h}j|hg jt zab `jcg|

gudhôa b fb ng|b mj bdhmhihdb| jf bozb! .Jt}j óf}h`g dgùzjt}g jt dgùgaja}j u|hadhubfmj fb `bxg|àb mj fgt u|gmzd}gt ub|b mht`hazh| jf uN mjf bdzb|hg& ub|b z}hfhsb| jt}gtu|gmzd}gt jt |jdg`jamblfj bo|job| ujrzjòbt ug|dhgajt mjf âdhmg x jtuj|b| rzj jfbdzb|hg yzjfyb bf jrzhfhl|hg bu|g~h`bmb`ja}j 2: `haz}gt ba}jt mj `jmh| jf uN! Tj mjljmj |juj}h| jf u|gdjtg th jt ajdjtb|hg& th mjtuzèt mj : |juj}hdhgajt ag j~ht}j db`lhg ja jfuN& jt ugthlfj rzj jf }bùôa mjf bdzb|hg tjb `zx o|bamj& ug| fg rzj tj |jdg`hjambmht`hazh| fb mz|jsb u|jyhb`ja}j ba}jt mj |jbfhsb| jf u|gdjtg! Fg hmjbf jt |jbfhsb| zab

ujrzjòb ‖}h}zfbdhôa‐ dga jf bozb mjf bdzb|hg& ub|b mj}j|`hab| fb dba}hmbm g |jfbdhôa mjmj âdhmg b z}hfhsb| ug| fh}|g& jt}j u|gdjtg fg j~ufhdb|è `ât bmjfba}j! .Za btujd}g b }g`b|`zx ja dzja}b jt rzj zab yjs jf âdhmg nbxb }j|`habmg dga jf lziij|& jf uN }hjamj b mb|db`lhgt `zx l|ztdgt& ug| fg }ba}g thjù|j nbx rzj jt}b| `zx b}ja}g dzbamg tj bo|jobarzà`hdgt bf bozb(!



>

Ug| jt}j óf}h`g uza}g& tj |jdg`hjamb |jbfhsb| fgt bczt}jt ajdjtb|hgt mjf uN ja jf bozbrzj tj z}hfhsb|â ub|b fgt db`lhgt ub|dhbfjt mj |z}hab& th jf bdzb|hg ag u|jtja}b ahaoóadb`lhg ja jf uN mjtuzèt mj yb|hgt db`lhgt mj bozb dga jf uN `gmhihdbmg& uzjmj tj|rzj agt jai|ja}j`gt b u|glfj`bt dga jf b`gahg& ja za bdzb|hg dga bozb mz|b x db`lhgtmj bozb dga bozb mz|b& nbx rzj |jdg|mb| rzj jf b`gahg jt zab lbtj mèlhf x }jamj|â b

ygfyj| bfdbfhab jf bozb& ja jt}gt dbtgt fg rzj tj |jdg`hjamb jt bz`ja}b| fb dbubdhmbmmj ihf}|bmg mjf bdzb|hg& mht`hazh| fb mgtht mj dg`hmb mj fgt ujdjt x'g mht`hazh| fbuglfbdhôa mjf bdzb|hg& btà `ht`g jt mj |jdgagdj| rzj jt}gt ujdjt tga zagt yj|mbmj|gtozj||j|gt ug|rzj jf b`gahg jt tz`b`ja}j }g~hdg ub|b dzbfrzhj| ujs g hayj|}jl|bmgnblh}ba}j mjf bdzb|hg!

Bz`ja}b| jf uN

Ja jt}gt dbtgt tj |jdg`hjamb bz`ja}b| fb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb mjf bdzb|hg& fb bmhdhôa mjzab lbtj mèlhf dg`g fg jt jf lhdb|lgab}g mj tgmhg dga}|b||jt}b|â bmjdzbmb`ja}j fgtjijd}gt bdhmhihdba}jt mj dzbfrzhj| âdhmg u|jtja}j ja jf bdzb|hg! Btà `ht`g jt}jlhdb|lgab}g bzarzj ja }jg|àb ag tj }g`b ja dzja}b ja fb mz|jsb ojaj|bf& bz`ja}b|â fbmz|jsb db|lgab}bmb `jmhlfj& x b tz yjs bz`ja}b|â fb dgadja}|bdhôa ojaj|bf mjf hgalhdb|lgab}g ja jf bozb! Dg`g tj uzjmj yj| ja jf ‖o|âihdg mjf jrzhfhl|hg db|lôahdg‐ mj<:-<?µD& th u|jmg`hab jf hga lhdb|lgab}g jf uN |gamb|â fgt ybfg|jt mj ?!4& jt}j ybfg| jt`zx bmjdzbmg ub|b dzbfrzhj| bdzb|hg dg`zah}b|hg!

Th jf uN ag tzlj mjtuzèt mj yb|hbt bmhdhgajt mj lhdb|lgab}g mj tgmhg& uzjmb tj| rzj tjjt}j }|blbcbamg dga bozb dga za }bùôa âdhmg .bfoóa jrzhfhl|hg mj tzfib}gt x âdhmgtzfió|hdg g igtib}gt x âdhmg igtig|hdg ja jf bdzb|hg(& jt}gt dbtgt tga |b|gt& x fb `jcg|tgfzdhôa jt z}hfhsb| bozb mj gt`gtht ‖|jojaj|bmb‐ dga tbfjt mj dbfdhg x `boajthgbmjdzâamgtj b fgt ybfg|jt mj mz|jsb mjtjbmgt!



8

HY! Mz|jsb mjf bozb

Jf Bozb }bf x dg`g fb dgagdj`gt jt za j~djfja}j tgfyja}j ub|b `zdngt `haj|bfjt xg}|gt dgùzjt}gt& fgt dzbfjt tj yba mhtgfyhjamg ja jffb mz|ba}j dhj|}gt u|gdjtgt mjfdhdfg mjf bozb! Dga jf }j|`hag ‖mz|jsb mjf bozb‐ agt |jij|h`gt b fb dgadja}|bdhôa mjdgùzjt}gt .ojaj|bf`ja}j tbfjt mj dbfdhg x `boajthg(& rzj jf bozb ugtjj ja zamj}j|`habmg `g`ja}g!

Fgt u|hadhubfjt db}hgajt rzj tj jadzja}|ba ja jf bozb tga dbfdhg .Db<+(& `boajthg.@o<+(& nhj||g .Ij4+(& x ja `jag| `jmhmb bfz`hahg. Bf4+(& fgt dzbfjt tj jadzja}|bau|jtja}jt ja jf bozb dg`g db|lgab}gt . <

4DG (& tzfib}gt . <

=TG (& dfg|z|gt .Df-(& thfhdb}gt&

. =

=ThG (& ah}|b}gt . 4 AG ( x igtib}gt . 4

=UG (! Mjujamhjamg mj fb ojgfgoàb mj fb |johôa

ja fb rzj tj gl}hjaj jf bozb& ja mgamj bu|g~h`bmb`ja}j jf >5* g `bt mj fb mz|jsb mjfbozb jt}b dgù|jamhmb ug| tbfjt mj dbfdhg x `boajthg!

J~ht}j mhyj|thmbm mj tht}j`bt ub|b mjag}b| fb dgadja}|bdhôa mj jt}bt tbfjt& fg dzbfojaj|b `zdnbt yjdjt dhj|}b dgaizthôa ja fgt bihdhgabmgt b fb bdzb|gihfhb& fb `bxg|àb mjfgt }jt} dg`j|dhbfjt tga ibl|hdbmgt ja Bfj`bahb ug| fg rzj `zdnbt yjdjt }|blbcb|j`gtdga jf tht}j`b Bfj`âa!

B dga}hazbdhôa dgfgdb|è bfozagt mj fgt }è|`hagt ub|b mjag}b| o|bmgt mj mz|jsb

mN Mjz}tdnjní|}j O|bmg mj mz|jsb bfj`âaMN Ojtb`}ní|}j O|bmg mj mz|jsbON Ojtb`}ní|}j Mz|jsb }g}bf

mON Mjz}tdnj ojtb`}ní|}j Mz|jsb }g}bf ja o|bmgt bfj`bajtKN Kb|lgab}ní|}j Mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb .mz|jsb }jùg|bf(AKN Ahdn} kb|lgab}jní|}j Mz|jsb ag db|lgab}bmb .mz|jsb uj|`baja}j(

Dbmb o|bmg mj mz|jsb bfj`âa jt jrzhybfja}j b 2?!>9 uu` .ub|}jt ug| `hffôa( fg rzjthoahihdb rzj nbx 2?!>9 ub|}jt mj mj tgfz}g .tbfjt `haj|bfjt( ug| dbmb `hffôa mj ub|}jtmj tgfyja}j .bozb( fg rzj jt jrzhybfja}j b 2?!>9ò'F!

J~ht}ja g}|bt `jmhdhgajt ub|b fgt o|bmgt nhm|g`è}|hdgt dg`g fg tga3

mNµ .Bfj`bahb( 0 2?!>9 uu`Nµ .ZTB( 0 8!9 uu`Nµ .hùj|hbf& g dfb|k( 0 2=!4 uu`]Nµ .I|badhb( 0 25 uu`

Ub|b jyh}b| dgaizthgajt jùfjb|j`gt }ba}g fb }j|`hagfgoàb ha}j|abdhgabf .uu`( dg`gfgt o|bmgt bfj`bajt .rzj tga fgt rzj yhjaja ja fb `bxg|àb mj fgt }jt} ub|b bdzb|gihfhb(!

Btà `ht`g jt hùg|}ba}j mjag}b| g}|b `baj|b mj hamhdb| fb mz|jsb mjf bozb& x jt mj zab`baj|b tz`b`ja}j b`lhozb& mgamj jf |baog mj mz|jsb mjujamj|â mjf d|h}j|hg mj fbuj|tgab rzj jmh}g fgt |baogt!

Ojaj|bf`ja}j tj fht}ba mj jt}b `baj|b3



25

\baog mj mz|jsb uu` mNµ@zx lfbamb 5 — ?< 5µ — =µ

Lfbamb ?< -2=< =µ — >µTj`hmz|b 2=< - <2= >µ - 2<µ

Mz|b <2= — 4<< 2<µ - 2>µ@zx mz|b 4<< — :49 2>µ - 45µ

J~}|j`bmb`ja}j mz|b 1:49 145µ

Mz|jsb ojaj|bf g mz|jsb }g}bf& ON

Jt}b jt fb tz`b }g}bf mj fgt db}hgajt `zf}hybfja}jt .Db<+ &@o<+ x g}|gt jfj`ja}gtbfdbfhag}è||jgt( mhtzjf}gt ja jf bozb& ug| jt}g `ht`g }b`lhèa tj fj jùhjsb b dgagdj|dg`g tz`b mj }hj||bt bfdbfhabt!

Fb mz|jsb }g}bf jt}b dgù|jamhmb ja mgt ub|}jt& fb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb KN x fb mz|jsbag db|lgab}bmb AKN!

ON 0 KN + AKN

J~ht}ja gdbthgajt ja fbt rzj jf KN jt tzuj|hg| bf ON& dbtg rzj tj j~ufhdb|â `btbmjfba}j!

Mz|jsb Db|lgab}bmb KN

Dg`g tz ag`l|j fg mhdj& jt}b mz|jsb yhjaj mbmb ug| fb dba}hmbm mj db|lgab}gt .DG4

<-

( xlhdb|lgab}gt .NDG4-( mhtzjf}gt ja jf bozb& fgt dzbfjt }hjaja zab |jfbdhôa `zx ha}h`b

dga jf uN& fg rzj }b`lhèa fj nb dgaij|hmg bfozabt yjdjt jf ag`l|j mj dbubdhmbm mjjafbdj âdhmg!

B ub|}h| mj fb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb yhjaj jf }è|`hag mj ‖dbubdhmbm }bùôa mjf bozb‐ g‖lziij|hao dbubdh}x‐! Fb dzbf jt lâthdb`ja}j fb |jtht}jadhb mjf bozb b fgt db`lhgt mjuN! Jt}b |jtht}jadhb tj lbtb ja jf az`j|g mj `gfjt mj bdhmg g lbtj |jrzj|hmg ub|bbijd}b| ja zab zahmbm jf ybfg| uN! Tj uzjmj yj| `bt haig|`bdhôa ja jt}j b|}hdzfg]bùôa g lziij|& ·Rzè jt7 Btà `ht`g tj j~ufhdb fb |jfbdhôa rzj tj }hjaj ja}|j jf DG<x fgt db|lgab}gt bf ihabf mj jt}j b|}hdzfg!

Mz|jsb ag db|lgab}bmb AKN

Fb mz|jsb ag db|lgab}bmb dgatht}j ja }gmbt fbt g}|bt tbfjt mj db}hgajt z̀f}hybfja}jt.`bxg|`ja}j Db<+ &@o<+( rzj ag jt}èa btgdhbmgt dga db|lgab}gt ah lhdb|lgab}gt& dg`gfg tga jf dfg|z|g mj dbfdhg DbDf< g tzfib}g mj `boajthg @oTG= fgt dzbfjt tga `zxtgfzlfjt ja bozb x ag tj yja bijd}bmbt ug| fb jlzffhdhôa mjf bozb& ug| fg rzj }b`lhèa tjfj dgagdj dg`g mz|jsb uj|`baja}j!

Fb `bxg| ub|}j mj fb mz|jsb ag db|lgab}bmb u|gyhjaj mj tbfjt mj tzfib}gt ug| fg rzj}b`lhèa tj fj dgagdj dg`g mz|jsb mj tzfib}gt!

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22

Fgt db}hgajt `gagybfja}jt .jfj`ja}gt bfdbfhagt3 Tgmhg .Ab+(& Ug}bthg .K+( ja}|j g}|gt(tj dgathmj|ba rzj ag bijd}ba fb mz|jsb x ug| fg }ba}g ag tga }g`bmgt ja dzja}b dg`g}bf!

@jmhdhgajt ja fb mz|jsb mjf bozb

J~ht}ja }jt} }ba}g ub|b `jmh| fb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb KN dg`g fbmz|jsb ]g}bf ON& yba mjtmj }h|bt dga boja}jt hamhdbmg|jt ubtbamgug| tgfzdhgajt hamhdbmg|jt nbt}b dgamzd}h`j}|gt rzj yhjaja jaig|`b mj babfhsbmg|jt mj tôfhmgt mhtzjf}gt! .]MT(!

Dga fgt }jt} rzj jt}b|j`gt `ât ib`hfhb|hsbmgt tj|âa fgt mj }hugnó`jmg& fgt dzbfjt tzjfja tj| |bsgablfj`ja}j j~bd}gt!

Dg`g tj `jadhgag ja jf KN tj `hmj fb dba}hmbm mj Db|lgab}gt x lhdb|lgab}gtmhtzjf}gt ja jf bozb& mjlhmg b fb dbubdhmbm }bùôa rzj ugtjja fgt }jt} rzj tj z}hfhsbatga }jt}t dgaczobmgt dga bfoóa bdhmg x za hamhdbmg| mjujamhja}j mjf uN! Mj jt}b`baj|b bf bo|job| og}bt tj jùjsb|b b mjufj}b| fb |jtj|yb mj db|lgab}gt rzj ugtjj jfbozb! Ojaj|bf`ja}j jf hamhdbmg| db`lhb mj dgfg| bu|g~h`bmb`ja}j b za uN mj =!4 Ug|fg }ba}g lbtbmg ja fb dba}hmbm mj og}bt& x fb dgadja}|bdhôa mjf âdhmg& jf KN uzjmj tj|dbfdzfbmg!

Btà `ht`g tj `jadhgag rzj jf ON tga lâthdb`ja}j fb }g}bfhmbm mj db}hgajt`zf}hybfja}jt mhtzjf}gt ja jf bozb& màobtj Db x @boajthg .xb rzj jt}gt tga fb o|ba`bxg|àb( ug| fg rzj ojaj|bf`ja}j tj z}hfhsba }jt}t mj mgt g za ubtg .fgt mj za ubtg tgath`hfb|jt b fgt mj mgt tgfg rzj yhjaja fgt |jbd}hygt mhtzjf}gt ja za tgfg }jt}(!

Ojaj|bf`ja}j tj bo|job bfoóa }hug mj lbtj izj|}j ub|b btjoz|b| fb bfdbfhahmbm mj fbtgfzdhôa& tjozhmg b jt}g tj bo|job bfoóa }hug mj hamhdbmg| mjujamhja}j mjf `boajthg xza bfoóa rzà`hdg rzj tj ig|`j dgùfjcgt dga fgt db}hgajt rzj dbztba fb mz|jsb&ztzbf`ja}j jt jf JM]B& lbtbmg ja jf az`j|g mj og}bt x fb dgadja}|bdhôa mjf JM]B& jfON uzjmj tj| dbfdzfbmg!

Jf hamhdbmg| tzjfj tj| ojaj|bf`ja}j dbf`boh}b& jf dzbf ugtjj za dgfg| |gcg dzbamg zadgùfjcg dga jf `boajthg .@o<+( u|jtja}j ja jf bozb& tha fb u|jtjadhb mj jt}j& jfhamhdbmg| ugtjj za dgfg| bszf!

Btà `ht`g jf JM]B tj zaj dga `zdnb `ât ibdhfhmbm dga fgt Hgajt mj

Dbfdhg rzj dga fgt mj @boajthg& ug| fg rzj ig|`b|b dgùfjcgt dga jfdbfdhg ja zab u|h`j|b hat}badhb& zab yjs }gmgt fgt db}hgajt mj dbfdhg tjnbxba zahmg bf JM]B& jt}j jùjsb|b b ig|`b| dgùfjcgt dga jf @boajthg&rzh}bamg fgt db}hgajt rzj tj jadga}|blba zahmgt b fb dbf`boh}b& zab yjs tjnbxb dgatz`hmg }gmg jf `boajthg jf hamhdbmg| db`lhb mj dgfg| x tj uzjmjmj}j|`hab| jf ON `jmhba}j fb dba}hmbm mj og}bt mj JM]B bo|jobmgt!

Bf z}hfhsb| za ]MT tj `jmh|âa }gmgt fgt hgajt mhtzjf}gt ja jf bozb& xb tjbdbfdhg& @boajthg& Tgmhg! J}d& jt}b `jmhmb tzjfj tj| `zx th`hfb| b fbu|gug|dhgabmb ug| fgt }jt}t nó`jmgt& jt}g jt mjlhmg b rzj ja fb o|ba

`bxg|àb mj bozbt fgt db}hgajt u|hadhubfjt tga dbfdhg x `boajthg&bu|g~h`bmb`ja}j jf >5* g 85* j hadfzthyj `ât!



2<

Dg`g tj `jadhgag ba}j|hg|`ja}j3

ON 0 KN + AKN

Ja}gadjt& ·Rzè ubtb dzbamg KN jt `bxg| rzj jf ON7

Ub|b ja}jamj| jt}j mhfj`b }jaj`gt rzj yj|hihdb| rzj jt fg rzj tj jt}b `hmhjamg! Dg`gtj `jadhgag dga jf ON3 tgfb`ja}j tj jt}âa `hmhjamg fgt db}hgajt `zf}hybfja}jt& ja tz`bxg| ub|}j dbfdhg x `boajthg .x bfozagt g}|gt jfj`ja}gt bfdbfhag}è||jgt(!

@hja}|bt rzj dga jf KN tj jt}âa `hmhjamg }gmgt fgt bahgajt mj db|lgab}gt xlhdb|lgab}gt& fgt dzbfjt tj jadzja}|ba `zx tjozhmb`ja}j zahmgt dga jfj`ja}gt }ba}gbfdbfhagt .Ab+& K+…( dg`g bfdbfhag}è||jgt .Db<+& @o<+…(! Ja}gadjt tzugaob`gt rzjj~ht}ja `zdngt db}hgajt `gagybfja}jt dg`g fg tga jf Tgmhg x Ug}bthg& jf db|lgab}g tjugm|â zah| iâdhf`ja}j b jffgt x ug| fg }ba}g tj| dga}blhfhsbmg ja jf KN& uj|g ag ja jfON& xb rzj jt}j óf}h`g tgfg dga}b|â fgt db}hgajt mj dbfdhg x `boajthg!

Jt}g ag tzdjmj th tj `hmj jf ON dga za ]MT& xb rzj jt}j dga}blhfhsb|b }gmgt fgt tôfhmgtmhtzjf}gt ja bozb& xb tjb tgmhg& dbfdhg& nhj||g g fg rzj tj fjt gdz||b! X ja jt}j dbtg jfON thjù|j tj|â `bxg| rzj jf KN!

Db}hgajt Bahgajt ON KN

ON `bxg| rzj KN Db<+ & @o<+ <

4DG & 4 NDG &<

=TG & Df- 25µ 9µ

ON hozbf bf KN Db<+& @o<+ <4DG & 4 NDG & 25µ 25µ

ON `jag| rzj KNAb+& K+

Db<+& @o<+ <

4DG & 4 NDG 9µ 25µ

X }gmg jt}j fàg dga fb mz|jsb! ·Ja rzj bijd}b b fgt nblh}ba}jt mjf bdzb|hg7

Bmj`ât mj fb dbubdhmbm mj `ba}jaj| jf bozb b za uN |jfb}hyb`ja}j jt}blfj& fb mz|jsb czjob za ubujf hùg|}ba}j ja fbt izadhgajt djfzfb|jt mj fgt ujdjt& ufba}bt x`hd|gg|obaht`gt rzj nblh}ba ja jf bozb! Ja fgt ujdjt fb mz|jsb bijd}b mh|jd}b`ja}j jatz `jdbaht`g mj gt`g|jozfbdhôa! Fb dzbf jt tj mjlj b fb dgat}ba}j }jamjadhb mjha}j|db`lhg mj tbfjt x bozb ja}|j jf ujs x tz ja}g|ag& ug| jijd}gt mj fb gt`gtht!

Zab mz|jsb hadg||jd}b ub|b za ujs mj}j|`habmg tj }|bmzdh|â ja za `bxg| jtizj|sg mjfujs ub|b `ba}jaj| tzt ahyjfjt jt}blfjt ub|b za dg||jd}g izadhgab`hja}g mj tz bd}hyhmbmlhgfôohdb& ug| fg rzj jf ujs tj mjlhfh}b|â x tj|â `zdng `ât u|gujatg b jaij|`jmbmjt! Thjf |baog mj mz|jsb jt `zx o|bamj jf ujs ugm|â `g|h|!

Btà `ht`g fb mz|jsb mjf bozb }b`lhèa }hjaj jijd}g ja fb dba}hmbm mj dbfdhg ja fb tbao|j!

Ja `zdnbt jtujdhjt& jtujdhbf`ja}j ujdjt mj bozb lfbamb& zab mz|jsb j~djthyb& bijd}b|âu|hadhubf`ja}j tzt ô|obagt tj~zbfjt& dbfdhihdâamgfgt! Mj `baj|b dga}|b|àb zab mz|jsb

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24

mj`bthbmg lbcb& ja bfozabt jtujdhjt mj bozb mz|b ag uj|`h}h|â fb ig|`bdhôa dg||jd}b mjfgt nzjyjdhffgt ja}|j g}|bt!

Fb `bxg|àb mj hayj|}jl|bmgt |jrzhj|ja mj zab dba}hmbm |bsgablfj mj dbfdhg ja jf bozbub|b ugmj| ig|`b| x `ba}jaj| tzt dgadnbt g j~gjtrzjfj}gt& b mz|jsbt `zx lbcbt fgt

ahyjfjt mj dbfdhg uzjmja ag ffjob| b tj| tzihdhja}jt& btà `ht`g fbt bozbt lfbambt }hjamjab tj| `zdng `bt âdhmbt ug| fg rzj bmj`ât mj }jaj| ugdgt db}hgajt mj dbfdhg& fb âdhmjsugm|â mjtha}jo|b| fja}b`ja}j jf j~gjtrzjfj}g mj fgt `ht`gt dbztâamgfjt fb `zj|}j!

Ja fbt ufba}bt fb mz|jsb haifzxj mj mhyj|tbt `baj|bt& bmj`ât mj rzj jf dbfdhg x jf`boajthg tga `bd|g az}|hja}jt .x tha jffgt fbt ufba}bt ag ugm|âa d|jdj| dg||jd}b`ja}j(;jf j~djtg mj fgt `ht`gt tj uzjmj `bahijt}b| ja zab ujfàdzfb lfbadb ug| jadh`b mj fbtngcbt fg rzj fjt hùjmh|â |jbfhsb| fb ig}gtàa}jtht& jt}g ja jf dbtg mjf dbfdhg! Jf j~djtg mj`boajthg ag fjt uj|`h}h|â fb bltg|dhôa mj g}|gt gfhogjfj`ja}gt x ug| fg }ba}g fjthùjmh|â za dg||jd}g izadhgab`hja}g!

Btà `ht`g `zdnbt ufba}bt& u|hadhubf`ja}j ufba}bt mj bozbt mz|bt ugm|âa gl}jaj| fbo|ba `bxg|àb g fb }g}bfhmbm mj tz ajdjthmbm mj db|lgag b ub|}h| mj fgt db|lgab}gt xlhdb|lgab}gt mhtzjf}gt ja jf bozb& jt}bt `ht`bt b tz yjs tj yj|âa ja u|glfj`bt&ojaj|bf`ja}j mjtha}jo|âamgtj dzbamg tj jadzja}|ba ja bozbt `zx lfbambt x âdhmbt!

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]ba}g jf db|lgab}g mj dbfdhg dg`g jf mj `boajthg tga u|âd}hdb`ja}j hatgfzlfjt ja bozb&dzbamg tj jadzja}|ba ja tgfzdhôa ojaj|bf`ja}j j~ht}ja ja ig|`b mj tbfjt mj

lhdb|lgab}g& fbt dzbfjt tga dgùfj}b`ja}j tgfzlfjt ja bozb!

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Ug| fg }ba}g dzbamg tj bo|job zab |gdb ‖uhjm|b dbfhsb‐ g dgadnbt bf bdzb|hg .tôfhmgt(!Jt}bt tj h|âa mhtgfyhjamg ja jf bozb dga bxzmb mjf mhô~hmg mj db|lgag& }|batig|`âamgtjja lhdb|lgab}g mj dbfdhg x ug| jamj za bz`ja}g fb}ja}j ja fb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb mjfbdzb|hg KN!

Mj `baj|b hayj|tb& dzbamg jf bozb tj jybug|b& jf DG< tj fhlj|b b fb b}`ôtij|b& fgtlhdb|lgab}gt |jo|jtba mj azjyg b tj| db|lgab}gt fgt dzbfjt u|jdhuh}ba .tj yzjfyja

tôfhmgt( x jt}g tj|â fg rzj yj`gt dg`g tb||g g dgt}|b lfbadb ujobmg ja fb ub|}j tzuj|hg|mj fgt yhm|hgt mj azjt}|gt bdzb|hgt& zab yjs nb mht`hazhmg jf ahyjf mjf bozb ja jfbdzb|hg!

J~ht}j g}|g tj} mj jrzhfhl|hgt hamhtujatblfjt ub|b fb yhmb ja dzbfrzhj| bdzb|hg rzj tjdgagdj dg`g jf jrzhfhl|hg db|lôahdg3


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Dg`g tj `jadhgag ba}j|hg|`ja}j tj |jrzhj|j mj zab `gfèdzfb mj mhô~hmg mj db|lgagub|b rzj zab `gfèdzfb mj db|lgab}g mj dbfdhg tj mhtzjfyb ja bozb& zab yjs mhtzjf}g jflhdb|lgab}g |jtzf}ba}j tj mhtgdhb|b .tjub|b|â ja hgajt& za db}hôa dbfdhg .Db<+( x mgtbahgajt lhdb|lgab}g .NDG4

-( |jtujd}hyb`ja}j(! Zab yjs jt}gt hgajt tga ig|`bmgt}g`ba zab ub|}j hùg|}ba}j ja jf jrzhfhl|hg uN mjujamhja}j& btà `ht`g tj }hjaj za

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Jt}g thoahihdb rzj jt}gt jrzhfhl|hgt bijd}ba fb bdhmjs ja jf bdzb|hg x tga bijd}bmgt ug| fbbdhmjs mjf `ht`g! Ug| jt}g `ht`g b fb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb tj fj dgagdj dg`g dbubdhmbm}bùôa& ug|rzj jf bozb tj |jtht}h|â b za db`lhg ja jf uN mjlhmg b rzj tj |jrzhj|ja mjyb|hgt ubtgt ub|b fb mhtgdhbdhôa'btgdhbdhôa mjf hga Nhm|ôojag ja jffb!

Ub|b ja}jamj| dgùfj}b`ja}j }gmg jf u|glfj`b mj fb dbubdhmbm }bùôa g lziij| tj mjljmj ja}jamj| u|h`j|b`ja}j < dgtbt lâthdbt! 2µ jrzhfhl|hg .u|hadhuhg mj fj Dnì}jfhj|( <µjrzhfhl|hg âdhmg lbtj .jaigdbmg ja âdhmgt ugfhu|g}hdgt( x jf jijd}g mjf Hga dg`óa& fgdzbf tj j~ufhdb|â ja mj}bffj ja fb ub|}j ihabf mj jt}b tjddhôa!

Ug| jf `g`ja}g fg óahdg rzj za bdzb|ht}b mjlj ja}jamj| jt rzj b `bxg| mz|jsb mjfbozb& jt}b }jamj|â b tj| `ât bfdbfhab x mj b̀a}jaj|tj ja za uN za ugdg ug| jadh`b mjf

ybfg| ajz}|bf& dg`g |jtzf}bmg b fb mz|jsb tj fj nb mbmg jf thaôah`g ja jf bdzb|ht`gj||ôajb`ja}j dg`g bfdbfhahmbm!

G}|g btujd}g hùg|}ba}j tgl|j fb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb jt fb |jfbdhôa rzj }hjaj dga jfmhô~hmg mj db|lgag mhtzjf}g ja jf bozb! Dg`g }gmgt tblj`gt jf mhô~hmg mj db|lgagDG< jt hamhtujatblfj ub|b fb yhmb mj fbt ufba}bt& x mjlj mj j~ht}h| ug| fg `jagt za`àah`g mj :-9 UU@ mj DG< mhtzjf}g ja jf bozb ub|b rzj fbt ufba}bt uzjmba tgl|jyhyh|!J~ht}ja `zdnbt ufba}bt bdzâ}hdbt rzj j`j|ohmbt uzjmja dgatz`h| jf mhô~hmg mj db|lgagb}`gtiè|hdg& uj|g `zdngt tblj`gt rzj jt}g ag jt ibd}hlfj ja }gmgt fgt bdzb|hgt&u|hadhubf`ja}j th ugtjj`gt ujdjt rzj fjt ozt}b tbf}b|!



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Fb tgfzlhfhmbm mjf mhô~hmg mj db|lgag ja jf bozb jt}b lbtbmg ja bfozagt ibd}g|jt dfbyjtdg`g fg jt jf â|jb tzuj|ihdhbf mjf bdzb|hg& fb }jùj|b}z|b& uN& x jf KN! Ja za bdzb|hg jf|baog mj }jùj|b}z|bt jt fg tzihdhja}j`ja}j ujrzjòg ub|b ag jcj|dj| ahaoóa jijd}gag}blfj ja fb tgfzlhfhmbm mjf DG<& btà `ht`g fb `bxg|àb mj bdzb|hgt ugtjja ihf}|gt xuhjm|bt mhiztg|bt fg rzj nbdj rzj jf â|jb tzuj|ihdhbf mjf bdzb|hg ag }jaob }ba}b

hùg|}badhb ja jf ha}j|db`lhg obtjgtg& ug| fg rzj fgt óahdgt ibd}g|jt |jbfjt b }g`b| jadzja}b tga jf uN mjf bdzb|hg x fb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb mjf `ht`g .KN(!

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Ja mgamj fb dgadja}|bdhôa mj mhô~hmg mj db|lgag tj gl}hjaj ja UU@ .ò'f( jf KN tjmjlj mj dgfgdb| ja o|bmgt bfj`bajt! Fb jdzbdhôa jt zab yb|hbdhôa tóuj| thùfhihdbmb mjfb fjx mj bddhôa mj `btbt& mjtujcbamg ub|b jf âdhmg db|lôahdg .jf dzbf tj tzugaj rzj jt}gmg jf DG< mhtzjf}g ja bozb(

Btà `ht`g }b`lhèa tj u|jtja}ba }blfbt mj tgfzlhfhmbm rzj |jfbdhgaba mz|jsbdb|lgab}bmb x uN& fb dzbf u|jtja}g b dga}hazbdhôa!

Ug| fg }ba}g th }z bdzb|hg ugtjj za uN mj ? x zab mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb mj :µKN ugm|âtgltj|yb| rzj ugtjjt 2:UU@ mj DG< mhtzjf}g ja }z bdzb|hg



29

@gmhihdbdhôa mj fb mz|jsb mjf bozb

@zdnbt yjdjt jf bozb rzj }jaj`gt b azjt}|b mhtugthdhôa ag tj bmbu}b b dhj|}bt jtujdhjtmj ujdjt rzj ajdjth}ba mz|jsbt jtujdàihdbt& ug| fg rzj th mjtjb`gt `ba}jaj|fbtmjlj`gt }|b}b| mj u|gug|dhgab|fjt zab mz|jsb bmjdzbmb ub|b rzj azjt}|gt nblh}ba}jt mjf

bdzb|hg uzjmba yhyh| zab yhmb ufjab! Bfozabt yjdjt ajdjth}b|j`gt bz`ja}b| fb mz|jsbmj azjt}|gt bdzb|hgt& ja g}|bt gdbthgajt ajdjth}b|j`gt mht`hazh| fb `ht`b!

Bz`ja}b| fb mz|jsb mjf bozb

Th ja mbmg dbtg tj agt u|jtja}b fb th}zbdhôa rzj jf bozb dga fb rzj dga}b`gt jt bozb`zx lfbamb g bozb mjt`haj|bfhsbmb& ajdjth}b|j`gt bz`ja}b| fb dba}hmbm mj tbfjtmhtzjf}bt ja fb `ht`b& u|hadhubf`ja}j th tj mjtjba ugtjj| ujdjt rzj |jrzhj|ja mj bozbttj`h mz|bt b mz|bt! Dg`g ug| jcjùfg jt}gt ljffgt jcjùfb|jt mjf fbog ]baobahdb3.}|gunjzt tu lfbdk fzjlb(

Ja bfozabt gdbthgajt yjamja xb tbfjt fht}bt tgfg ub|b bo|job| bf bozb mjf bdzb|hg& ub|bh`h}b| jf dga}jahmg rzà`hdg mj dhj|}bt |johgajt ja ub|}hdzfb|& dg`g fg tga fbt ib`gtbtdôd}jfjt mj ‖tbfjt mjf ]baobahdb‐ ja}|j g}|gt!

Fb hmjb u|hadhubf jt bz`ja}b| fb dba}hmbm mj tbfjt mhtzjf}bt ja jf bozb& u|hadhubf`ja}jmj dbfdhg x `boajthg& th tj mjtjb bz`ja}b| fb mz|jsb }jùg|bf g db|lgab}bmb& tj mjljamj bo|job| tbfjt mj db|lgab}g g lhdb|lgab}gt mj dbfdhg' `boajthg& bng|b lhja th fg rzjtj mjtjb bz`ja}b| jt fb mz|jsb uj|`baja}j tj mjlja mj bo|job| tbfjt mj tzfib}gt }ba}gdâfdhdg dg`g mj `boajthg!

Ja fb ab}z|bfjsb za ub}|ôa dg`óa ja}|j dbfdhg x `boajthg jt mj zab u|gug|dhôa mj 4 b25& mj tbfjt mj `boajthg i|ja}j b tbfjt mj dbfdhg! Btà `ht`g dga |jtujd}g b fb mz|jsb



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}g}bf jt dgayjahja}j ugtjj| 2'4 ub|}j mj mz|jsb uj|`baja}j i|ja}j b <'4 ub|}jt mj mz|jsbdb|lgab}bmb! G}|g ibd}g| b }g`b| ja dzja}b jt rzj fgt db`lhgt mj ub|â`j}|gt ag mjljamj tzuj|b| fgt <5ò'f .UU@( ug| màb& ub|b jyh}b| jt}|èt ja azjt}|gt ujdjt!

Mht`hazh| fb mz|jsb mjf bozb

Fb `bxg|àb mj fbt yjdjt azjt}|g `bxg| u|glfj`b jt rzj jf bozb rzj ugtjj`gt jt `zxmz|b ub|b dhj|}gt }hugt mj ujdjt& ja gdbthgajt jf bozb uzjmj ffjob| b tj| j~}|j`bmb`ja}jmz|b& ub|b ugmj| `ba}jaj| bmjdzbmb`ja}j `zdngt ujdjt }|guhdbfjt& dg`g jt}gt }j}|bt|zlx .Bb~jf|gmhb |hjtjh( rzj |jrzhj|ja mj bozbt lfbambt ub|b ugmj| `ba}jahmgtbmjdzbmb`ja}j!

Ja}gadjt& ·dg`g mht`hazh`gt fb mz|jsb mjf bozb7 Ub|b fb mz|jsb ojaj|bf g }g}bf j~ht}jajtjadhbf`ja}j mgt `baj|bt mj tzbyhsb| jf bozb& fb u|h`j|b dgatht}j ja z}hfhsb| bozbmjt`haj|bfhsbmb ub|b fgt db`lhgt ub|dhbfjt mj bozb& bf jfh`hab| bozb mz|b x |jùfbsb|fbdga bozb lfbamb fb mz|jsb ojaj|bf mht`hazh|â!

Fb tjozamb `baj|b mj mht`hazh| fb mz|jsb mjf bozb jt dga sjgfh}b g dga |jthabtha}j|db`lhbmg|jt mj hgajt& fbt dzbfjt tj bo|joba dg`g `jmhg ihf}|ba}j; }ba}g fb sjgfh}bdg`g fbt |jthabt bd}óba ha}j|db`lhbamg hgajt mj tgmhg ug| hgajt mj dbfdhg x `boajthg!]ba}g fb sjgfh}b dg`g fbt |jthabt uzjmja tj| |jojaj|bmbt bf tj| tz`j|ohmbt jatgfzdhgajt dga dfg|z|g mj tgmhg .tbf mj `jtb(!

Th tj mjtjb tgfb`ja}j |jbfhsb| dg||jddhgajt b fb mz|jsb }jùg|bf& j~ht}ja btà `ht`g }|jt`baj|bt mj |jmzdh|fb! Fb u|h`j|b jt bo|job| za âdhmg izj|}j bf bozb .âdhmg dfg|nàm|hdgNDF g âdhmg tzfió|hdg N<TG=& nbt}b mht`hazh| fb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb& .jt}g ag |j`zjyjfb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb ja tà& thag `ât lhja fb mjahjob .ag uj|`h}j rzj tj `bahihjt}j( ug|

fg rzj jt}b xb ag bijd}b|â bf uN!



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Jf tjozamg `è}gmg x jt jf rzj xg |jdg`hjamg jt |jbfhsb| za db`lhg ub|dhbf mj bozb dgabozb mjt`haj|bfhsbmb& jt}j `è}gmg mht`hazxj jihdbs`ja}j fb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb mjfbdzb|hg!

X jf }j|dj| `è}gmg jt zab `jsdfb ja}|j jf `è}gmg mj fb z}hfhsbdhôa mj âdhmgt dga fbt

|jthabt& tgfg rzj ja jt}b gdbthôa tj z}hfhsb fb ib`gtàth`b }z|lb& fb }z|lb }b`lhèa }hjaj fbdbubdhmbm mj b}|bub| dhj|}gt hgajt mj dbfdhg x `boajthg mht`hazxjamg mj jt}b `baj|b fbmz|jsb& btà `ht`g u|gug|dhgab `zdnàth`gt âdhmgt g|oâahdgt& `jcg| dgagdhmgt dg`gâdhmgt nó`hdgt fgt dzbfjt ahjoba fgt jijd}gt mj fb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb . x ug| fg }ba}g jafgt }jt} tj ag}b za db`lhg ja fb mz|jsb }jùg|bf& xb rzj jf dbfdhg g jf `boajthgu|jdhuh}ba& jf DG< jt fhlj|bmg b fb b}`ôtij|b dzbamg tj ajz}|bfhsb bfozab mj jt}bt`gfèdzfbt dga jf j~djtg mj âdhmg& jt}j `è}gmg jt `zx z}hfhsbmg x |jdg`jambmg dzbamgtj mjtjb |jmzdh| ujrzjòbt dba}hmbmjt mj zahmbmjt mj mz|jsb& x b fb yjs u|gug|dhgab|bozb âdhmb b fgt nblh}ba}jt mjf bdzb|hg& jt za `è}gmg `zx z}hfhsbmg ug| bihdhgabmgt rzjozt}ba mj `ba}jaj| x |ju|gmzdh| jtujdhjt mj bozbt lfbambt x âdhmbt! Jf óahdghadgayjahja}j rzj ugtjj jt rzj }hòj jf bozb mj za dgfg| `b||ôa rzj ag b `zdnbt

uj|tgabt fjt ozt}b!

Ag tj |jdg`hjamb mht`hazh| fb mz|jsb mjf bdzb|hg ug| ybfg|jt mjlbcg mj fgt <µKN xbrzj dga za lziij| `jag| b jt}j fb jt}blhfhmbm mjf uN mjf bdzb|hg tj uzjmj yj|b`jabsbmb!

Bng|b lhja& jtb bozb mjt`haj|bfhsbmb g bozb lfbamb& ·Môamj fb uzjmg dgatjozh|7&j~ht}ja lâthdb`ja}j 4 `baj|bt mj gl}jaj| bozb lfbamb& fb u|h`j|b jt dgù|b|fb& fbtjozamb jt `jmhba}j za ihf}|g mj Gt`gtht hayj|tb& x fb }j|dj|b jt `jmhba}j fb|jdgfjddhôa mj bozb mj ffzyhb!

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Fb `jcg| `baj|b mj }jaj| zab mz|jsb mj}j|`habmb ja jf }barzj x `ba}jaj|fb btà dgat}ba}j`ja}j jt z}hfhsb| bozb dga fb `ht`b mz|jsb mjtjbmb ub|b fgt db`lhgt ub|dhbfjtmj bozb& uj|g `zdnbt yjdjt jt}g ag jt jf dbtg ub|b fb `bxg|àb mj bihdhgabmgt&ojaj|bf`ja}j dga}b`gt dga jf bozb rzj agt u|gug|dhgab jf o|hig& x zab izja}j mj bozblfbamb .g mz|b& tjoóa tjb jf dbtg( ub|b |jbfhsb| fbt dg||jddhgajt mj mz|jsb x ffjob| mjjt}b `baj|b b fb mz|jsb hmjbf rzj }jaj`gt ja azjt}|g bdzb|hg& ub|b jffg tj |jbfhsb zaujrzjòg lbfbadj mj `btb .ag tj btzt}ja& jt tz`b`ja}j tjadhffg( fb dzbf yhjaj mbmg ug|3

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28

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azjt}|g bdzb|hg& za tht}j`b lziij| x dg`g tz izadhgab`hja}g! Jf fjaozbcj x jf

}jdahdht`g bz`ja}b|b fhoj|b`ja}j& btà `ht`g ag jt ajdjtb|hg rzj jf bdzb|ht}b mjlb

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‖Th za tht}j`b rzà`hdg rzj ja u|hadhuhg jt}è ja jrzhfhl|hg j~uj|h`ja}b za db`lhg jafb dgadja}|bdhôa& ja fb }jùj|b}z|b& ja jf ygfz`ja g ja fb u|jthôa ub|dhbf& yb|hb|â ub|bdga}|b||jt}b| jtj db`lhg‐!

Jt}g rzhj|j mjdh| rzj jf tht}j`b thjù|j lztdb|b jf jrzhfhl|hg& dg`g jcjùfg3


Dzbamg tj bmhdhgab mhô~hmg mj db|lgag bf bozb& jt}j dgatz`h|â db|lgab}gt x bozb ub|big|`b| lhdb|lgab}g mj tgmhg mjtufbsbamg fb |jbddhôa bf fbmg mj|jdng& mj ig|`b dga}|b|àbth jf ahyjf mj mhô~hmg mj db|lgag ja jf bozb mht`hazxj& fgt lhdb|lgab}gt ig|`bmgt|jo|jtb|âa mj azjyg b tj| db|lgab}gt x fb |jbddhôa tj mjtufbsb|b bf fbmg hsrzhj|mg mj fb`ht`b! Jf `ht`g u|hadhuhg tj z}hfhsb ja fbt jdzbdhgajt mgamj tj u|jtja}b jf âdhmgdb|lôahdg!

‖Jf jrzhfhl|hg db|lôahdg jt}â dgùfj}b`ja}j tzcj}g bf u|hadhuhg mj Fj Dnì}jfhj|& mjig|`b rzj th tj bz`ja}b fb dgadja}|bdhôa mj fb ig|`b âdhmb& bz}g`â}hdb`ja}j jfjrzhfhl|hg tj mjtufbsb nbdhb jf fbmg mj fbt ig|`bt bfdbfhabt& ug| }ba}g za bz`ja}g mj fbdgadja}|bdhôa mj DG< nbdj rzj bz`ja}j& }ba}g fb dgadja}|bdhôa mj lhdb|lgab}g dg`g fbdgadja}|bdhôa mj db|lgab}g! Ub|b dgagdj| jf ybfg| dzba}h}b}hyg mj dbmb ig|`b }|bt fb

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibrio_qu%C3%ADmico

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentraci%C3%B3n

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperatura

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presi%C3%B3n_parcial

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presi%C3%B3n_parcial

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperatura

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentraci%C3%B3n

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibrio_qu%C3%ADmico



<5

`gmhihdbdhôa mj fb dgadja}|bdhôa mj zab mj fbt ub|}jt& lbt}b dgagdj| jf uN |jtzf}ba}j xbufhdb| fb jdzbdhôa mj Njamj|tga-Nbttjflbfdn .yj| ihabf mjf mgdz`ja}g(‐!

Jrzhfhl|hg Db|lôahdg U] <

Dg`g tj `jadhgag ba}j|hg|`ja}j j~ht}ja yb|hbt |jbddhgajt ja jf bdzb|hg rzj haygfzd|babf mhô~hmg mj db|lgag ja jf bozb!


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Fb mhtgfzdhôa'ygfb}hfhsbdhôa mjf mhô~hmg mj db|lgag .DG< o( d|jb jf âdhmgdb|lôahdg .N<DG4( ja jf bozb!Jf âdhmg db|lôahdg mgab za u|g}ôa ub|b d|jb| lhdb|lgab}g .NDG4

-(!Jf lhdb|lgab}g mgab za óf}h`g u|g}ôa ub|b ig|`b| db|lgab}g .DG4

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Fb mhtgfzdhôa'ygfb}hfhsbdhôa mjf âdhmg db|lôahdg jt zab |jbddhôa fja}bdgùb|bmb dga fbt |jbddhgajt âdhmg-lbtj haygfzd|bmbt ja fb }|batij|jadhb mju|g}gajt!

Ug| jt}j óf}h`g uza}g tj dgathmj|b|â jf jt}zmhg mj za tht}j`b dj||bmg ub|b fb j~ufhdbdhôamjf jrzhfhl|hg db|lôahdg& ub|b tj| ja}jamhmg mj zab `baj|b `ât tjadhffb!

\jo|jtbamg dga fbt jdzbdhgajt mj jrzhfhl|hg mj fb mhtgdhbdhôa mjf âdhmg db|lôahdg jabozb3

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Ja fbt jdzbdhgajt 2-4 tj |ju|jtja}b za tht}j`b mj }|jt jdzbdhgajt th`zf}âajbt dga }|jtyb|hblfjt mjtdgagdhmbt ..N<DG4& NDG4

- x DG4<-(& ub|b zab dgadja}|bdhôa D]!

|jtgfyhjamg fbt jdzbdhgajt th`zf}âajb`ja}j tj gl}hjaj3

Ub|b jf N<DG4

Tj mjtujcb NDG4- mj fb jdzbdhôa 2

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Mj jt}b `baj|b ugm|j`gt gltj|yb| rzj b za uN ? fbt i|bddhgajt mj dbmb jtujdhj tgabu|g~h`bmb`ja}j3

29!9* mj N<DG4>4!4* mj NDG4-

@jagt mj 5!5:* mj DG4<-



<4

Jt}gt ybfg|jt tj gl}hjaja mj fbt jdzbdhgajt =-9 g mj fb ha}j|tjddhôa mj fb fhajb mjf uN.ja jt}j dbtg ?( dga fbt fàajbt mj fb i|bddhôa dg||jtugamhja}j b dbmb jtujdhj ja jf o|âihdgba}j|hg|!

Nbdhjamg za baâfhtht |âuhmg& }|b}b|è mj j~ufhdb| rzj tzdjmj dga jf mhô~hmg mj db|lgagdzbamg jt}j tj mhtzjfyj ja jf bozb!

Dg`g u|h`j| dbtg u|gugam|è rzj jf mhô~hmg mj db|lgag tj mhtzjfyj ja bozbmjt`haj|bfhsbmb 5µ KN!

Mjlhmg b rzj ag j~ht}ja db|lgab}gt u|jtja}jt ja jf bozb ja u|h`j|bt hat}badhbt& btà `ht`g ag j~ht}j u|jtjadhb mj dbfdhg ah `boajthg ja jffb& ag tj ffjyb|â b dblg jt}jjrzhfhl|hg3


Thag `ât lhja fb }g}bfhmbm .o|ba `bxg|àb( mjf mhô~hmg mj db|lgag rzj hao|jtb ja jf bozbtj dgayj|}h|â ja âdhmg db|lôahdg tjoóa jt}b jdzbdhôa3

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Jf u|h`j| db`lhg& rzj tj ugm|â ag}b| jt fb mht`hazdhôa ja jf ybfg| uN& tzugahjamg rzjfb mhtgfzdhôa mjf DG< jt dgathmj|blfj fb mht`hazdhôa mjf jt}j ybfg| uzjmj |gamb| ja}|jza uN mj =

Bf `ht`g }hjùg rzj tj ig|`b jt}j âdhmg db|lôahdg tj jùhjsb b ig|`b| jf hôalhdb|lgab}g

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Jf dzbf b tz yjs jùjsb|â b dga}|b||jt}b| fgt jijd}gt mjf uN ja jf bozb& jf âdhmgdb|lôahdg jt tóuj| hajt}blfj& x |âuhmb`ja}j zab ub|}j jùjsb|â b dgayj|}h|tj jalhdb|lgab}g x g}|b |jo|jtb|b b tj| mhô~hmg mj db|lgag rzj tj fhlj|b b fb b}`ôtij|b .jaub|}j o|bdhbt b fb bddhôa mj fgt ihf}|gt(! Btà `ht`g ja jtj `ht`g hat}ba}j g}|b |jbddhôatzdjmj|â dga jf lhdb|lgab}g3

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Th jf tht}j`b ag tj uj|}z|lb x fbt dba}hmbmjt mj mhô~hmg mj db|lgag tga fbt rzju|gug|dhgab fb b}`ôtij|b jf uN ihabf |gamb|â fgt :!:! .Th tj jt}b haxjd}bamg DG < ja bozbmjt`haj|bfhsbmb 5µKN& jf uN ugm|â tj| `jag| b =(!



<=

Dg`g tjozamg dbtg u|gugam|è rzj jf mhô~hmg mj db|lgag tj mhtzjfyj ja bozbdg`óa ~µ KN

Tzugahjamg rzj jf bozb tgfb`ja}j ugtjj lhdb|lgab}gt tgfzlfjt& jt}gt tj jadga}|b|âadg`g hgajt ja jf bozb!

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Mj hozbf `baj|b rzj ja jf dbtg ba}j|hg| jf DG< jùjsb|â b mhizamh|tj ja jf bozbig|`bamg âdhmg db|lôahdg

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Jt}g jùjsb|â b bijd}b| jf uN& }|b}bamg mj |jmzdh|fg& uj|g ja jt}b gdbthôa xb j~ht}jahgajt mj lhdb|lgab}g ja jf bozb& ug| jf u|hadhuhg mj fj dnb}jfhj|& fj tj|â `ât mhiàdhf bfâdhmg db|lôahdg mhtgdhb|tj x ug| fg }ba}g zab `jag| ub|}j mjf DG< ugm|â tj| bltg|lhmbug| jf bozb ub|b ig|`b| âdhmg db|lôahdg

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Fg rzj }jamj|â b }h|b| jf bozb fhoj|b`ja}j nbdhb jf fbmg lâthdg& uj|g bf `ht`g }hjùg jfDG< thozj }|b}bamg mj mhizamh|tj& ug| fg rzj jf bozb ygfyj|â b }|b}b| mj tjozh| nbdhb jffbmg âdhmg& x jt}b ujfjb hadbatblfj ja}|j fbt mht}ha}bt jtujdhjt mj db|lgab}gt ja jf bozbjt fg rzj dgaig|`b jf ib`gtg }bùôa g lziij| mj azjt}|gt bdzb|hgt!

Mjujamhjamg }ba}g mj fb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb dg`g mj fb dba}hmbm mj mhô~hmg mhtzjf}b jajf bozb! Th fb mz|jsb db|lgab}bmb jt jfjybmb& jt}b `ba}jam|â zab }jamjadhb mj `ba}jaj|jf bozb dga ybfg|jt bfdbfhagt rzj |gamba za uN mj ?!=!

Ub|b za baâfhtht dgùfj}g mj b`lgt ibd}g|jt tj |jdg`hjamb yj|hihdb| fb rzj |jfbdhgabkN& uN x DG< ba}j|hg|`ja}j j~uzjt}b!

Jrzhfhl|hg âdhmg- lbtj& âdhmg ugfhu|ô}hdg x jijd}g mjf hga dg`óa x jdzbdhôa mjNjamj|tga-Nbttjflbfdn

‖Fgt âdhmgt ugfhu|ô}hdgt tga âdhmgt rzj }hjaja `ât mj za nhm|ôojag hgahsblfj! Jt}gtâdhmgt mhtgdhba ja `ât mj zab j}bub x dbmb j}bub u|jtja}b tz u|guhb dgat}ba}j mjjrzhfhl|hg‐!

Ja jijd}g dg`g uzmh`gt jt}b| gltj|ybamg ja }gmg jt}j mgdz`ja}g jf âdhmg db|lôahdg jtza ‖Âdhmg ugfhu|ô}hdg‐

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81cido



http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81cido



<:

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‖Fgt âdhmgt ugfhu|ô}hdgt ag djmja mj zab yjs x dga fb `ht`b ibdhfhmbm }gmgtfgt u|g}gajt& thag rzj nbdja mj ig|`b jtdbfgabmb& x dbmb yjs dga `bxg| mhihdzf}bm! Fbtdg||jtugamhja}jt dgat}ba}jt mj mhtgdhbdhôa& mht`hazxja `zdng .bu|g~h`bmb`ja}j zaibd}g| mj 25-:( ub|b dbmb zab mj fbt tzdjthybt hgahsbdhgajt‐!

Fb u|jtjadhb mj za hga dg`óa .ja jt}j dbtg jf lhdb|lgab}g( tzu|h`j fb hgahsbdhôa mj zaâdhmg g mj zab lbtj mèlhf! Ja g}|bt ubfbl|bt& ‖jf jijd}g mjf hga dg`óa jt jfmjtufbsb`hja}g mjf jrzhfhl|hg dbztbmg ug| fb bmhdhôa mj za dgùzjt}g rzj }hjaj za hgadg`óa dga fb tzt}badhb mhtzjf}b‐!

Ug| jcjùfg& ub|b zab mhtgfzdhôa rzj dga}hjaj za âdhmg mèlhf NB x zab tbf tgfzlfj mjfâdhmg mhob`gt DbB! Tj dg`hjasb ug| jtd|hlh|3

B N NB

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http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prot%C3%B3n

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constante_de_disociaci%C3%B3n

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizaci%C3%B3n



http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constante_de_disociaci%C3%B3n

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prot%C3%B3n



<9

B jt}b jdzbdhôa tj fj dgagdj dg`g ‖Jdzbdhôa mj Njamj|tga-Nbttjflbfdn‐ dzxb ig|`b`ât ojaj|bf jt3

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dgaczobmblbtj uK uN b

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-

Mhtgfzdhgajt b`g|}hozbmg|bt

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dbubdhmbm mj |jtht}h| fgt db`lhgt mj uN dzbamg tj bo|joba ujrzjòbt dba}hmbmjt mj

âdhmg g mj lbtj‐

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·X ja rzj `j bxzmb jt}g7& g ·rzj ubtb dga jt}g7& lzjag dg`g tj `jadhgag rzj fbtmhtgfzdhgajt b`g|}hozbmg|bt uj|`h}ja `ba}jaj| jf uN |jfb}hyb`ja}j dgat}ba}j& jt}gbxzmb|b b rzj azjt}|b ujdj|b tj `ba}jaob dga za uN |jfb}hyb`ja}j jt}blfj& xb rzj nbx

`zdnàth`bt dgtbt rzj }hjamja b db`lhb| jf uN ja jf bdzb|hg! Ug| jcjùfg fb dgat}ba}ju|gmzddhôa mj b`gahg ja jf bdzb|hg }jamj|â b bfdbfhahsb| jf bozb& fb ah}|hihdbdhôa mj fgt`ht`g thjù|j bdhmhihdb|ba jf bozb& fb `b}j|hb g|oâahdb x fhlj|bdhôa mj âdhmgtg|oâahdgt .âdhmgt nó`hdgt ja}|j g}|gt( ja jf bdzb|hg ug| bddhôa mj mjtdgùgthdhôa xg}|gt u|gdjtgt }hjamja b bdhmhihdb| jf bdzb|hg& }gmg jt}g jt tgug|}bmg bf tht}j`bb`g|}hozbmg| rzj ugtjj`gt ja azjt}|g bdzb|hg x rzj lâthdb`ja}j ag }jaj`gt rzj nbdj|bltgfz}b`ja}j abmb ug| jf!

Tj uzjmj fjj| `ât tgl|j jf }bùôa g lziij| ja jt}j b|}hdzfg jtd|h}g ug| J`hfhg3

]bùôa g lziij| ·rzj jt7






<?

Y! @j}blgfht`g mj fgt nblh}ba}jt mjf bdzb|hg

Dhdfg mjf ah}|ôojag ja jf bdzb|hg

Jt}j jt zag mj fgt u|gdjtgt `bt hùg|}ba}jt rzj gdz||ja ja jf bdzb|hg& tha jf ah}|ôojag&.x dga jf j~djtg mj bfozag mj fgt dgùzjt}gt rzj fg ugtjba( ahaozag mj fgt nblh}ba}jtmjf bdzb|hg ugm|àb tgl|jyhyh|! Jf dhdfg dgatht}j ja zab tj|hj mj }|batig|`bdhgajt rzj tjfj mb b fgt dgùzjt}gt rzj fg ugtjja! ]gmgt fgt g|obaht`gt mjf bdzb|hg fg haohj|ja mjzab `baj|b x fg j~d|j}ba mj g}|b `baj|b x btà dga}hazb jf dhdfg! Jf ah}|ôojag& tjha}|gmzdj mj yb|hbt `baj|bt ja jf bdzb|hg& zab jt ja ig|`b mj ah}|ôojag obtjgtg& jf dzbftj jadzja}|b fhl|j ja jf bh|j mj fb b}`ôtij|b& bfozabt lbd}j|hbt .u|hadhubf`ja}j dhbagt(ihcba jf `ht`g x fg fhlj|ba dg`g b`gahg& g}|b `baj|b rzj hao|jtb jf ah}|ôojag ja jfbdzb|hg .x fb u|hadhubf izja}j mj ah}|ôojag ub|b jf bdzb|hg( jt ug| `jmhg mj fgt bfh`ja}grzj fjt mb`gt b azjt}|gt ujdjt& ojaj|bf`ja}j yhjaja ja ig|`b mj u|g}jàabt .rzjdga}hjaja b`hagâdhmgt( fgt ujdjt fgt dgatz`ja x fg fhlj|ba ja ig|`b mj b`gahg ja tz

g|hab& btà `ht`g dzbfrzhj| bfh`ja}g& `b}j|hb bah`bf x yjoj}bf rzj tj mjtdgùgaobmja}|g mjf bdzb|hg tj|â mjo|bmbmg ug| lbd}j|hbt fhlj|bamg b`gahg x `zdngt g}|gtdgùzjt}gt rzj tj j~ufhdb|ba `bt bmjfba}j! G}|b izja}j mj ah}|ôojag& tj|â jf blgabmg.th tj blgab jf bdzb|hg( ojaj|bf`ja}j yjam|â ja fb ig|`b mj KAG4& Ah}|b}g mj Ug}bthg!

Dzbamg tj `ga}b za }barzj ojaj|bf`ja}j gdz||ja yb|hgt db`lhgt rzj tj hfzt}|ba brzà3

Dg`g tj `jadhgab ja jf b|}àdzfg& jf b`gahbdg jt jf ujfho|g `ât ha`jmhb}g x fb dbztb mj`zj|}j mj fb o|ba `bxg|àb mj fgt ujdjt& jt}j `b}b ug| btih~hb& mjlhmg b rzj tj jafbsb bfbt `gfèdzfbt mj nj`gofglhab u|jtja}j ja fb tbao|j mj fgt ujdjt dga fg rzj fjt

hùgthlhfh}b jf }|batug|}j mj g~hojag ja tz tbao|j x ja dgatjdzjadhb fjt dbztb fb`zj|}j!



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Jf b`gahbdg jt za obt& uj|g zag `zx tgfzlfj ja bozb& bu|g~h`bmb`ja}j 95 yjdjt `âttgfzlfj rzj jf mhô~hmg mj db|lgag x zabt 2>55 yjdjt `ât tgfzlfj rzj jf g~hojag" b<5³D x zab b}`gtij|b mj u|jthôa!

Jf b`gahbdg ja bozb }|blbcb dg`g zab lbtj mèlhf& dga za uKb mj 8!<:! Ug| fg rzj tzu|jtjadhb ig`ja}b|â jf bz`ja}g mjf uN!

Ja uN âdhmgt jf b`gahbdg tj jadga}|b|â dbth j~dfzthyb`ja}j ja tz ig|`b mj b`gahg& jfdzbf jt hagijathyg! Uj|g tz u|jtjadhb hùfhdb|b rzj j~ht}j }b`lhèa b`gahbdg& ug| fg}ba}g thjù|j nbx rzj u|jt}b|fj b}jadhôa!

.Fbt mgt jdzbdhgajt ba}j|hg|jt tga j~bd}b`ja}j fbt `ht`bt& tgfg rzj fb u|h`j|b jf âdhmg mj L|þat}jm jt jf bozb& x ja fb tjozamb&tjadhffb`ja}j tj jadzja}|b ja za `jmhg âdhmg(

Ja jf thozhja}j o|âihdg tj uzjmj gltj|yb| fb |jfbdhôa b`gahg-b`gahbdg tjoóa fb}jùj|b}z|b x jf uN& dg`g tj uzjmj gltj|yb| fb dba}hmbm mj b`gahbdg bz`ja}bj~ugajadhbf`ja}j dga |jtujd}g bf uN x b fb }jùj|b}z|b!

Jf b`gahg uzjmj tj| u|gdjtbmg mh|jd}b`ja}j ug| fbt ufba}bt bdzâ}hdbt& bdg|}bamgo|bamj`ja}j jf dhdfg mjf ah}|ôojag! Mj njdng fbt ufba}bt bdzâ}hdbt u|jihj|ja ug| `zdng

jf b`gahg dg`g izja}j mj ah}|ôojag rzj fgt ah}|b}gt x ah}|h}gt! Jt}g ag rzhj|j mjdh| rzjbo|job|j`gt b`gahg bf bdzb|hg dg`g ij|}hfhsba}j xb rzj uzjmj |jtzf}b| tz`b`ja}j



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agdhyg ub|b }gmb fb yhmb ja jf bdzb|hg& hadfzthyj b fbt ufba}bt ja dba}hmbmjt bf}bt& dg`gtj j~ufhdg ba}j|hg|`ja}j!

Ah}|hihdbdhôa

Jf b`gahg fhl|j ja jf bdzb|hg jt |âuhmb`ja}j g~hmbmg b ah}|h}gt ug| zab tj|hj mjlbd}j|hbt Ah}|gtg`gabt& jf ah}|h}g jt `zdng `jagt }g~hdg rzj jf b`gahbdg& uj|g bóauzjmj dbztb| jt}|èt x mbòb| fbt l|barzhbt mj azjt}|gt ujdjt! @jmhb yjs jf dhdfg jt}jizadhgabamg dg||jd}b`ja}j& fb }g}bfhmbm mj fgt ah}|h}gt u|gmzdhmgt tj dgayj|}h|âa jaah}|b}gt fgt dzbfjt tga |jfb}hyb`ja}j hagijathygt& thjù|j x dzbamg ag bz`ja}ja jadba}hmbmjt j~boj|bmbt!

Fb u|h`j|b j}bub mj dgayj|thôa mj b`gahg b ah}|h}gt bdhmhihdb jf bozb x dgatz`j zabo|ba dba}hmbm mj g~hojag!

Fgt Ah}|h}gt . < AG ( tga }|batig|`bmgt b Ah}|b}gt . 4 AG ( ug| lbd}j|hbt Ah}|glbd}j|!

Fgt ahyjfjt mj fgt `ht`gt bz`ja}b|âa dga jf }hjùg! Jt}gt tga za o|ba az}|hja}j ub|bfbt ufba}bt& u|hadhubf`ja}j ub|b fbt ufba}bt }j||jt}|jt& .ug| fg rzj |jtzf}b tz`b`ja}j ó}hf

x ljajihdhgtg jf |hjog mj fbt ufba}bt mj fb dbtb dga bozb mjf bdzb|hg(& jt}g bxzmb b`ba}jaj| fgt ahyjfjt mj ah}|b}gt jt}blfjt dg`g tj `zjt}|b b dga}hazbdhôa!

Fgt ah}|b}gt ja za bdzb|hg lhja dhdfbmg }hjamja b dgayj|}h|tj ja fb }g}bfhmbm mj fgtdgùzjt}gt ah}|gojabmgt ja jf bdzb|hg& fb |j`gdhôa ub|dhbf mj bozb bxzmb b`ba}jaj|fgt ja ahyjfjt jt}blfjt! .th lhja jf bz`ja}g ag jt fhajbf& fb o|âihdb jt dga ihajthfzt}|b}hygt(!



45

Fgt ah}|b}gt }b`lhèa uzjmja tj| z}hfhsbmgt ja dg`g ij|}hfhsba}j ug| bfozabt ufba}btbdzâ}hdbt ub|b fb ig|`bdhôa mj u|g}jàabt yjoj}bfjt& dg`g fg jt fb dgfb mj sg||gDj|b}gunxffz` mj`j|tz` x g}|bt ufba}bt mj bozbt mz|bt fbt dzbfjt dgatz`ja jf ah}|b}gdg`g izja}j mj Ah}|ôojag! Dg`g |jofb ojaj|bf fbt ufba}bt mj bozbt lfbambt u|jij|h|âajf b`gahg dg`g izja}j mj ah}|ôojag& uj|g }b`lhèa uzjmja dgatz`h| ah}|b}gt ja `jag|

`jmhmb& ja bztjadhb mj b`gahg dg`g fg jt za }barzj dga lzjab ihf}|bdhôa x `zxg~hojabmg!

Ub|}jt mj jt}bt ufba}bt `zj|ja& tga dgatz`hmgt g tga |j}h|bmgt x jf dhdfg mjf ah}|ôojagdg`hjasb mj azjyg!

Mjtah}|hihdbdhôa

Jt}b jt zab ub|}j hùg|}ba}j mjf dhdfg mjf ah}|ôojag rzj `zdnbt yjdjt tj glyhb ja jfbdzb|hg& ja jt}j u|gdjtg fgt ah}|b}gt .rzj tga fgt rzj ztzbf`ja}j tj bdz`zfba ja jfbdzb|hg(& tga dgayj|}hmgt ug| `jmhgt babj|glhgt b Ah}|ôojag obtjgtg x fhlj|bmgt b fbb}`gtij|b& |jmzdhjamg o|bamj`ja}j fb db|ob mj ah}|b}gt ja jf bdzb|hg!

Dg`g tj `jadhgag& ub|b rzj tj ffjyj b dblg fb mjtah}|hihdbdhôa tj |jrzhj|j mj zaja}g|ag babj|glhg .tha g~hojag(& jf dzbf ojaj|bf`ja}j gdz||j ja dhj|}bt â|jbt mjftzt}|b}g& bfozabt ub|}jt mjf ihf}|g rzj tj jadzja}|ba glt}|zhmbt& j}d! ‖Uj|g thjù|j tj agtnb mhdng rzj mjlj`gt `ba}jaj| jf tzt}|b}g g~hojabmg x fgt ihf}|gt fg `ât fhùhgt

ugthlfj‐& x xg jt}gx dgùfj}b`ja}j mj bdzj|mg dga jffg& xb rzj fgt `jmhgt babj|glhgtig`ja}ba fb ig|`bdhôa mj N <T ja}|j g}|gt& uj|g ja gdbthgajt tj ig|`ba .ojaj|bf`ja}j thag tj ugtjj za ihf}|g mjlbcg mj fb o|byb& g dbfja}bmg|jt rzj ig`ja}ja fb dh|dzfbdhôa mjfbozb mjlbcg mj fb o|byb& fg dzbf ag jt `bfg ja fg bltgfz}g x jt dgùfj}b`ja}j ab}z|bf!

Jf u|gdjtg rzj tj gl}hjaj `jmhba}j `zdnàth`bt |jbddhgajt jash`â}hdbt ug| lbd}j|hbtbz}ô}|gibt .rzj u|gmzdja tz u|guhg bfh`ja}g( jt jf thozhja}j3

Fb Mjtah}|hihdbdhôa ojaj|bf`ja}j jt}â `zx fhobmb bf u|gdjtg mj Ah}|hihdbdhôa& mjlhmgrzj fb ah}|hihdbdhôa u|gyjj fgt ah}|b}gt x dgatz`j zab o|ba dba}hmbm mj g~hojag u|jtja}jja jf tzt}|b}g& ug| fg }ba}g mjcb fb `b}j|hb u|h`b& jf ah}|b}g x za ja}g|ag babj|glhg ub|brzj tj ffjyj b dblg fb mjtah}|hihdbdhôa!

Btà `ht`g fgt ja}g|agt babj|glhgt rzj tj ig|`ba ja jf bdzb|hg ufba}bmg `zdnbt yjdjttga fgdbfhsbmgt xb rzj fbt ufba}bt ub|b u|g}joj| tzt |bàdjt d|jba za ja}g|ag bj|glhg jatzt bf|jmjmg|jt& .jt}g mjlhmg b rzj jf N <T uzjmj mbòb| tzt |bàdjt(& ug| fg }ba}g `zdnbtyjdjt ag jt ajdjtb|hg jf thigajbmg mj fb o|byb th tj ugtjja ufba}bt tbfzmblfjt!

J~ht}ja tht}j`bt xb ufba}jbmgt ub|b rzj tj ffjyj b dblg fb ah}|hihdbdhôa mj zab `baj|bab}z|bf& u|hadhubf`ja}j ja fgt bdzb|hgt `b|hagt& ja}|j jffgt jf tht}j`b ‖Cbzlj|}‐& x jftht}j`b ‖Lj|fha‐ rzj tj j~ufhdb|âa ja g}|g b|}àdzfg& b`lgt }|blbcba dga sgabtbabj|glhbt ja jf tzt}|b}g!



42

Dgatjcgt

Fb g~hojabdhôa jt fb dfbyj ub|b dgayj|}h| jf b`gahg ja ah}|h}g x ugt}j|hg|`ja}j jaah}|b}gt& mjlhmg b fbt db|bd}j|àt}hdbt bj|glhbt mj jt}bt lbd}j|hbt& fb g~hojabdhôa tjgl}hjaj o|bdhbt bf `gyh`hja}g mjf bozb rzj tj mb ja jf ihf}|g& mj hozbf `baj|b jt `zx

bdgatjcblfj dgfgdb| uhjm|bt mhiztg|bt mz|ba}j jf dhdfbmg& xb rzj u|g`gyj|âa jf bz`ja}gmj g~hojag ja jf bdzb|hg& tzufhjamg fb mj`bamb mj g~hojag mhtzjf}g ug| fbt lbd}j|hbtah}|hihdba}jt& btà `ht`g u|g`gyj|âa fb |j`gdhôa mj dhj|}bt dba}hmbmjt mj b`gahbdgdg`g obt& nbdhb fb b}`gtij|b!

Za ja}g|ag âdhmg `ba}jam|â jf jrzhfhl|hg mjf fbmg mjf hagijathyg b`gahg& jt}g jtub|}hdzfb|`ja}j ó}hf ja jtujdhjt rzj |jrzhj|ja mj dgamhdhgajt j~}|j`bmb`ja}j âdhmbt.uN = g :( xb tjb ub|b d|àb g ub|b tgl|jyhyh|& jt}bt dgamhdhgajt ag tj |jdg`hjamba ub|bahaoóa bihdhgabmg ug| mgt |bsgajt& fbt lbd}j|hbt ah}|hihdba}jt ag }|blbcba `zx lhja b uN`jag|jt b 9!:& thjamg u|âd}hdb`ja}j haj~ht}ja}jt b za uN `jag| b = .fg rzj jfh`hab fbbddhôa mjf ihf}|g lhgfôohdg(! Btà `ht`g dzbfrzhj| db`lhg ja jf uN& nbdhb jf ja}g|aglâthdg .xb tjb ug| za db`lhg mj bozb& bmhdhôa mj db|lgab}gt j}d! db`lhb|b jf jrzhfhl|hgmjf b`gahg nbdhb b`gahbdg x jf |jtzf}bmg tj|â fb `zj|}j mj fgt ujdjt!

Fb yj|hihdbdhôa uj|hômhdb mj b`gahg& ah}|h}gt x ah}|b}gt jt `zx uj|g `zx bdgatjcblfj& jfu|hadhubf ub|â`j}|g b yj|hihdb| tj|â jf b`gahg'b`gahbdg& rzj tj |jdg`hjamb za }jt}tj`babf& fgt }jt} mj ah}|h}gt x ah}|b}gt uzjmja |jbfhsb|tj ha}j|jtdbfbmgt .zab tj`babah}|h}gt x fb g}|b ah}|b}gt& dgatjdz}hyb`ja}j(!

Th tj mjtjb tj uzjmja bo|job| dgd}jfjt mj lbd}j|hbt ah}|hihdba}jt ja dbmb db`lhg mj bozb&

ub|b |jugaj| fb dgfgahb lbd}j|hbab& jt}g ag jt mjf }gmg ajdjtb|hg uj|g uzjmj tj| ó}hf jabfozabt gdbthgajt!

Ja dbtgt mj j`j|ojadhb dga jf b`gahbdg fb u|hadhubf `jmhmb jt za db`lhg ub|dhbf mjbozb& tjozhmg mj fb bmhdhôa mj |gdbt mj sjgfh}b& fbt dzbfjt b}|buba jf b`gahbdg ja tztug|gt .ihf}|bmg rzà`hdg(! \jyhthôa mjf ihf}|g x `ât db`lhgt mj bozb& nbt}b jt}blhfhsb|azjyb`ja}j fb dgfgahb lbd}j|hbab!

Btà `ht`g j~ht}ja dhj|}gt u|gmzd}gt ja fb hamzt}|hb rzj tj zaja ab}z|bf`ja}j dga jfb`gahbdg& ja}|j jt}gt u|gmzd}gt tj jadzja}|b jf nhm|g~h`j}hf tzfigab}g mj tgmhg& jf dzbfjt yjamhmg dg`g B`Rzjf& BrzbTbij g B``g-Fgdk <! .Bf z}hfhsb| jt}gt u|gmzd}gt jt

dgayjahja}j fb |j`gdhôa mjf db|lôa bd}hyg mjf ihf}|g& xb rzj jt}j fg jfh`hab|b(!

J~ht}ja dhj|}bt |jthabt rzj jfh`hab|âa fgt ah}|h}gt& x ah}|b}gt |jùfbsâamgfgt ug| hgajtmj dfg|g! Uj|g fg `jcg| rzj tj uzjmj nbdj| jt uj|`h}h| rzj tj mè jf dhdfg dgùfj}g mjfah}|ôojag x |jbfhsb| db`lhgt ub|dhbfjt mj bozb& Btà `ht`g z}hfhsb| jf bozb mj db`lhgmjf bdzb|hg ub|b jf |hjog mj ufba}bt }j||jt}|jt& xb rzj jt}b bozb tj jadzja}|b db|obmb mjaz}|hja}jt `zx ó}hfjt ub|b jffbt!

Fb z}hfhsbdhôa mj ufba}bt }j||jt}|jt ja bfozagt ja ihf}|gt b|}jtbabfjt jt zab `baj|bj~djfja}j mj |j`gyj| ah}|b}gt!

Za b|}àdzfg |jtz`hmg tgl|j jf dhdfbmg tj uzjmj jadga}|b| brzà3Jf Dhdfg mjf Ah}|ôojag& u|hadhuhgt mjf ihf}|bmg lhgfôohdg!

http://www.aquaterraria.com/quimica-del-agua-dulce/456-el-ciclo-del-nitr%F3geno-principios-del-filtrado-biol%F3gico.html





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http://www.acuarioprofesional.com/pdf/LA_DUREZA_DE_AGUA_1.pdf





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