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131

Socio-economic aspects of protected areas

Dr. Amr Elazm

Contents:

Introduction

1- Mountain forest and forest regeneration areas1-1 Frunlnk protected area1-2 Abou-Qubeis protected area2- Solutions and recommendations

3- Steppe mountain/Desert areas3-1 Jabal Abdei Aziz3-2 Mouh salina

3-3 The Lajat3-4 Solutions and recommendations

Introduction:

This draft report was compiled for the National Programme for

Biodiversity Conservation and Protected Area Management as part ofproject no: SY/97/G31. The programme aims to set up a network of

protected sites within the main environmental habitats found in Syria,

including coastal, wetland/riverine, mountain/forest, and dry/steppe. The

main pm20ose of this report is to prepare a socio-economic andanthropological study of existing communities within these habitats

outlining threats, issues, priorities, concerns and overall impact of the

proposed project on local communities as well as presenting possiblesustainable solutions to some of the problems identified at the proposedsites. The study will rely on data primarily gathered from existing

environmentally protected areas/sites such as the Frunluq forests, Jebel

Abdul-Aziz and Abu Qubeis.

This will be achieved by examining: a) the threats and issues to the

proposed sites b) the causes of these threats c) concerns of localcommunities d) proposing solutions to the problems and causes presented

in a), b) and c). It should be noted that the threats, issues and causes

investigated include those facing not only the environment within the

132

protected area, but also those facing the stakeholders/local inhabitants of

the proposed project areas as well from within and without. Whilst it is

appreciated that, some of these issues cannot be easily addressed by the

project, they nevertheless form an important and integral part in

understanding the overall picture with respect to threats and causes and

have therefore been included in the draft report. Finally the solutionsproposed are based on suggestions made either by the stakeholdersthemselves or consultant members of the National Team. Although the

primary aim of these solutions is to reduce the pressures and impact of

daily life on biodiversity conservation and sustainable development, these

solutions have also attempted to take into account the need for bothsocially and economically viable/sustainable alternative modes ofsubsistence/livelihood.

Mountain Forests and Forest Regeneration Habitats:

The two sites chosen for this habitat are the Frunluq forest and theAbu Qubeis forest. Although both sites belong to the coastal mountain

range, the Fruntuq lies on the coastal side whilst Abu Qubeis lies on the

inland side. The threats, issues and causes at the two sites are very similar

with minor variations reflecting local vagaries. In turn the solutions arevery similar too.

Frunlnq:

The Frunluq is a densely wooded area of the coastal mountainregion. There are a number of villages (5 main villages) in the habitableparts of it most of which are centred around water sources (naturalsprings). Al- Aterah is in the middle of the protected area and has a

population 200-300 inhabitants depending on the season. The remainingvillages are on the perimeter of the proposed protected area and consist of

the following villages in order of magnitude: A1-Khadra with 500inhabitants rising to 700 in the summer. Al-Kabir with a population of180-200 and rising to 400 in the summer(tourist)season. A1-Kantarawith about 200 inhabitants and Beit Shorduk/Shoruok with about 120

inhabitants (figures are all approximate and may vary from season toseason). There are also a number of very small settlements on the

periphery with populations ranging from 20-30 inhabitants and oneabandoned village (AI-Kanais) see figure 1. There are a high number of

133

springs in the ama, which as previously mentioned the villages tend to

centre around. In Al-Kabir for instance there are nearly twenty springs

serving the village.

The main sources of livelihood in the Frunluq region are agriculture

animal herding and tourism. Although wheat and barley are still being

grown the most important crops are fruits such as apples. These aregrown in orchards distributed within and around the protected area.Grazing (mainly cows since goats were banned 30-40 years ago) is alsocarried out within the protected area. Beekeeping and honey production

is a rapidly growing alternative source of income with most of the salesgoing to passing trade and tourists. There are also a number of stalls and

small cafes (about 8 in number) also centred around amajor spring,

which usually operate during the summer tourist.

Orchards and agricultural lands of Al-Kabir village.

Abu-Qubeis:

The site of Abu-Qubeis is a densely wooded area lying on the easternside of the costal mountain range on a north south axis approximately 40kilometres from the city of Hama. Other nearby major urban centresinclude the city of Homs and the towns ofMissyafand Salhab.

There are a number of villages in the habitable parts of the Abu-Qubeis region mainly concentrated on the southern and western side of

the mountain range. The border villages are Abu-Qubeis, Kharaib and

Kanais to the south; Msyyatt, Beit AI-Khirbeh and Tamoush to the west

and A1-Tammaze to the north. Within the proposed protected area, are the

AI-Beereh complex comprising of A1-Beereh, Mazraat A1-Beereh and

Mashta AI-Beereh in the east and Nahel E1-Jerd to the west. Population

figures are available in the Socio-economic report.

The main sources of livelihood in the Abu-Qubeis region are

agriculture and animal herding. Although wheat and barley are still being

grown the most important crops are fruits such as apples, olives, cherries,

and in some parts tobacco. These are grown in orchards distributed withinand around the protected area. Grazing mainly goats with some sheep andcattle is also carried out within the protected area and may be considered

134

the primary form of subsistence for the villages within and around the

proposed area. At the south-eastern entrance to the region, near the

village of Abu-Qubeis is a valley about 8 kilometres long with plenty of

running water. There are a number of restaurants, small cafes, shops and

picnic spots, which are heavily frequented by tourists especially during

the weekends.

Tourists in the Abou-Qubeis valley.

Threats, Issues and Causes:

The following threats to this habitat have been observed and are listed inorder of importance:

i) Fire hazards are a serious threat and have caused extensive

damage in the past, the effects of which may still be seen today.

The causes of these fires vary between the intentional andunintentional. The most common of the former are either acts of

revenge arising from the frustration felt by many of the localsagainst the forestry commission and its agents or as a means of

settling disputes between neighbours, whereby one side sets

fire to the forest near his opponents land thus ensuring that theblame and ensuing punishments fall upon the land owner. Thislast form of action however is on the decline due to improvedinvestigation procedures. Another cause of intentional forestfires mentioned is land clearance but there is no corroborated

evidence of its current usage in these forests. As for the latter,

the main cause appears to be irresponsible tourists who throw

cigarette butts on the sides of the roads or more seriously as aresult of cooking fires or improper disposal of the ash andcharcoal fags after they finish or upon departure. In someinstances there have also been cases of unsupervised children

being responsible for fires as well.. Stubble burning has alsoled in some instances to forest fires and usually the personsresponsible have been fined.

ii) Unregulated mass tourism is the second most important threat

and closely related to the first, which is, fires. The area is

becoming more and more popular with tourists and day-trippers

coming from Lattakia, Aleppo, Horns and Hama as well as

135

other parts of Syria. Apart from the fact that it is an area ofoutstanding natural beauty and offers an escape from the

oppressive coastal heat, the constant and ongoing road

improvement especially that of Lattakia - Kasab has greatlyincreased traffic into the area. The impact of this unregulatedtourism is discussed in more detail in the relevant specialist

reports and it suffices to say that whilst it is a welcome andimportant alternative source income to this already

economically depressed and hard pressed region, it is rapidly

becoming a major cause for concern. Most importantly relatingto waste disposal congestion on the roads and unauthorisedaccess into the protected or more ecologically sensitive parts ofthe forest in addition to the previously mentioned problem offires. Last year a serious accident was narrowly averted whenan unsupervised child attempted to copy the behaviour of adults

and light a fire on its own.

Waste disposal at Abu-Qubeis.

iii) Woodcutting for firewood, animal fodder, charcoal

making and other purposes is commonly practiced at Abu-Qubeis and in the Frunluq forests. Wood is used for bothheating in the cold winter months and cooking due to theinability to afford alternative forms of fuel. The averagehousehold consumption is about 70-80 kilos in winter every 2-3days if the wood is green and 1-2 days if the wood is dry. Thisis resulting in an annual loss rate of approximately 1-2 hectaresper annum. The local communities depend on the firewood dueto their financial inability to purchase other forms of heating or

cooking fuel. They attempt to collect dead and fallen branches(which they are permitted to do so by the forestry agency) but

often it falls well short of their daily need and therefore, resort

to cutting down whole trees or chopping down branches. Theirinability to afford fodder for their cattle and other animalscauses them to cut down the branches of leafy type trees such

as Quercus in order to supplement their diet especially when it

isn't possible to graze these animals. Charcoal production is notopenly admitted for legal reasons although it may be assumed

that it is practiced by some individuals especially those withlittle or no alternative means of income. The average charcoal

136

pit produces about 3-4 sacks' (a local unit of measurement) eachweighing about 25-30 kilos. Every kilo is worth 13 Syrian

pounds, which means that the average pit generates an income

of 1900 Syrian pounds and takes approximately 3 days

intensive labour. As may be seen, the returns are quite high for

the amount of labour invested and therefore offers a verytempting and profitable source of income provided one is notcaught. Whilst the exact extent of this practice is unknown itappears to be more of a threat at Abu-Qubeis than in theFrunluq forests. Finally occasionally trees are cut down for

building/repair purposes or for illegal resale/freelance retailing.

Cutting of green leafy branches as fodder (Frunluq).

Cutting of green leafy branches as fodder (Abu-Qubeis).

iv) Grazing cattle, ungulates and other animals is commonly

practiced in the forest. Most common are goats or cows,

especially the local breeds, which are able to subsist almost

entirely on free grazing as opposed to the mixed breed types,

which require fodder and are grazed occasionally as a means ofreducing costs.

At Abu-Qubeis The figures given for the approximate numberof heads of goat currently grazing is around twenty thousand. Mostof these are located in the villages within the protected area such asthe Beereh complex and Nahel E1-Jerd. Other large herds are to be

found in the villages ofTamazeh, Tammoush and Msayyatt. Goats

are the primary source of income especially in the more isolated

villages either from the sale of kids or from, goat's milk dairy

products. Cows if kept are more likely to be used as draft animals

for ploughing rather than for their flesh or milk. Grazingboundaries appear to be well delineated between the various

villages, with each group ranging its territory and accessing its own

water sources for drinking. The causes for using the forest forgrazing are lack of alternative grazing grounds coupled with the

137

financial inability to purchase sufficient quantities of fodder tocover their needs. Current lack of alternative sources of income

would mean that any attempts at enforcing a ban on the grazing ofgoats without providing viable solutions would pose a very seriousthreat to the fragile existence of these communities and lead to notonly serious conflict with the authorities but probably also eventualforced abandonment and migration.

In the Frunluq forest, ungulates such as goat and sheep are

purchased and kept during the summer season and fattened bygrazing on the stubble left in the cultivated fields. They are usuallysold by the end of the summer or eaten by the locals on specialoccasion. The figures seen by myself are quite low and usually donot exceed a few head in some households with a few exceptionssuch as one household in Aterah which has about 20 sheep and

goats and another in A1-Kantara with about 40 head of goats. It isexpected that the majority of which will be sold by the end of thesummer. The causes for using tile forest for grazing are lack ofalternative grazing grounds especially during the autumn andspring seasons coupled with the financial inability to purchasesufficient quantities of fodder to cover their needs. It is notunreasonable to assume that as the local population grows and theamount of agricultural land and other forms of subsistence decline

or are reduced, keeping ungulates will become increasingly

attractive thus begin to pose a serious threat if it isn't doing soalready.

v) Forestry commission practices also present a serious problemsince they often attempt to restrict or limit the access of thelocals to the forest/forest resources, which are critical to the

already marginal subsistence strategies employed by the localinhabitants. As previously noted this not only increases the riskof confrontation between the two sides leading to acts ofvandalism but also further exacerbates the financial difficulties

experienced by the local inhabitants. This in turn might leadthem lead them to resorting to more extreme measures make

ends meet. Examples of such restrictions include at Frunluq,

the recent ban or severe restriction on the harvesting of wild

herbs and plants such as basil, thyme and zoufa (Micromaria

julian). The attempted closure of the stalls on the main roadrunning through the forest despite their beneficial value fromboth an economical and conservation point of view (this willdiscussed further on). The main cause of these problems in

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many cases is a lack of understanding or disregard for the needsof the local inhabitants coupled with a lack of coordination

between the various government agencies, which operate

within these forest regions. The often apparently random andarbitrary application of the rules and laws also add to theconfusion and lack of understanding.

vi) Land reclamation for agricultural practice mainly fruitorchards appears to be a common ongoing practice particularlyin the Abu-Qubeis region. The estimated current rate of landlost to reclamation so far this year at Abu-Qubeis is running at

around 75 to 100 dounum, mostly to the west. Bulldozers and

heavy machinery are used in this activity whenever possible.Other forms of land loss occur through road building. Currently

a new road is being built along the valley connecting the villageof Jerd E1-Nahel with A1-Daleh.

Recent land reclamation.

Further recent reclamation of land.

New road from Nahel El-Jerd to Daleh under construction.

vii) Migration is now a major feature of this area (as of mostregions in Syria) with many villages now witnessing a decline

of almost 50% in population during the winter months, who

then begin returning in the summer in time for the harvest and

tourist season. At Abu-Qubeis for instace, in the village of A1-

Khirbeh on the western side of the mountain, almost 80% of its

working age population, its youth in particular, have migrated

to the nearby costal cities seeking employment as mainly as low

waged labourers. The villages to the east tend to migrate to theGhab plain and the nearby cities of Homs and Hama. Whilst in

Frunluq, the village of Kmqais (Kaniseh), has now been

permanently abandoned and the original inhabitants currently

live in Lattakia. Poverty, lack of employment or viable means

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of subsistence along with an expanding population and

increasing competition for the ever decreasing resources,

housing, etc are the primary causes. This in turn is leading to

traditional family collapse and gradual communityfragmentation (numerous studies are currently being conducted

on the problems of migration throughout Syria most prominent

is probably that being carried out between FAFO and theNational Centre for Statistics).

viii) Hunting is still practiced in the forests of Abu-Qubeisand Frunluq though on a much reduced scale mainly due to thescarcity of game. The majority of hunters are from nearby

Kasab, Aleppo or even Lebanon. The locals usual take part in

these hunts as beaters or guides. Occasionally, the will however

seek out foxes or wild boars which are considered pests and can

cause considerable damage to crops and livestock.

Local Concerns:

The following list of the most prominent local concerns regardingthe establishment of the conservation-protected area has emerged.These are based on the interviews carried out with the localinhabitants in both areas. Where these concerns were a result of the

locals being misinformed about the nature and purpose of the project,

efforts were made to correct these impressions and provide accurateinformation. The outcome of these concerns will be dealt with in the

solutions section where appropriate.i) Fencing of proposed protected area is a major concern

especially where it may prevent or restrict local inhabitantsaccess to the forest.

ii)Restriction or prevention of the general public (tourists) fromaccessing the site and or the closure of the stalls and picnicking

areas, since that would divert tourist trade away from the forest.

Tourist trade has become an important source of supplementaryincome to a number of households within and around the

proposed protected area.iii) Further restrictions over use of habitat resources such as

gathering of firewood or herbs and wild plants. This would inmm lead to a rise in conflict between the authorities and thelocal inhabitants.

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iv) Restrictions on the use of chemical fertilizers and

pesticides. The latter plays a very crucial role, and in the local

inhabitants opinion the only effective means, of pest and

disease control especially their orchards.

v) Restrictions on current use and access to water, since most

households acquire their water directly from the local nearbysprings.

vi) Creation of a wild life animal reserve or a safari park

would lead to the introduction of dangerous or wild animals,

which may then attack their livestock (especially whilstgrazing).

vii) Ban on hunting would lead to a rise in pests such as wild

boars, foxes and more recently wild dogs which are known to

cause damage to crops and livestock as well as endanger humanlife on occasion.

In short The most prominent concern of the local inhabitants is thatthe establishment of the conservation protected area would lead tofurther restrictions on use and access of the site which in turn would

lead to further economic decline and hardship.

Solutions and Recommendations:

The primary aim of proposing solutions to the local inhabitants is to

provide viable and sustainable alternative sources of income, which

would in turn reduce their reliance on the habitat resources or divert

their exploitation into ecologically less harmful means and ways. Thesolutions outlined here have been put to various members of the local

community especially identified key stakeholders and their responsesand opinions have been noted.

i) Tourism as previously mentioned has become an importantalternative source of income. By organising and regulating it would

be possible to increase the level of income generation currentlyderived and protect the habitat at the same time. The licensing of

stalls and picnic/beauty spots within the protected area would helpcontrol tourist access to the forest since they would only be

permitted to sit in these specified areas. This should include the

provision of electricity, toilet and rubbish disposal facilities.

Regulating the use of fire to cook food would also be desirable

q41

whereby only the stall holders or licensed charcoal grillers wouldbe allowed to light fires in these spots. The tourists/picnickerswould then be required to pay the stallholder a predetermined feefor the services provided. In return the stallholders would be

required to maintain, protect and look after their licensed spot and

act as litter collectors, fire wardens and guides (services they

currently provide). Currently at Frunluq for example, there are 7

stalls on the roadside in the middle of the forest. Each stall employs2-3 persons and these stalls support a total of 12 families during thesummer months providing a very important additional source of

income. Two other spots were identified along the same road,

which are also capable of supporting between 5 and 7 stalls each. Itis likely that there are several other suitable beauty spots in andaround the proposed protected area. Most day visitors to the area

tend to bring their own food, but this is mainly due to the fact that

they are aware that no facilities or services exist. Should this

situation change then visitors requirements would change as wellthus increasing the business potential of these stalls or licensedeating places.

Picnic grounds in the Frunluq forest.

ii)Providing loans and credit facilities especially to the poorermembers of the community would be desirable. These could then

be used to set up small businesses most popular of which appear to

be: beekeeping and honey production, fattening of calves for resale

rearing mixed breed cows. Mushroom farming was suggested (seesocio-economic report) and whilst no one knew anything about itthey were receptive the idea. It should be noted however that

mushrooms require storage facilities and rapid access to markets as

they spoil quickly. Another idea proposed was keeping silk worms,

a traditional product in some parts of the Abu-Qubeis region anddiscontinued only relatively recently. Reintroducing silkwormproduction with appropriate training could be very profitable

especially where there are pre-existing, Mulberry trees. It should

be noted however that such credit schemes have already been triedout in this and other areas with very mixed results. The main

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reasons for failure is usually either impractical repayment schemesor more importantly very complicated and restrictive selection

criteria for loan qualification. Quite often these criteria such ashaving guarantors and property tend to exclude the very people

who need it most and you are trying to reach, since they represent

the poorest sections of the community and are most heavilydependent on the habitat resources. Furthermore these creditfacilities should be provided in conjunction with training and

education concerning the care, maintenance and upkeep of the

proposed project so that the investment is not lost due to the deathor mismanagement.

iii) Wild herbs such as Zoufa (Micromariajulian), basil, thyme,

capers, etc, are all gathered by the locals in season. Apart from

what is kept for personal consumption the rest is sold to dealersand merchants who frequent the ama. The sale of these herbsrepresents another important and viable source of income withexcellent potential fbr development. These herbs maybe packaged

and sold locally to the heavy passing tourist trade, which already

frequents the area in search of honey and olive oil. In particular,

those which are used for making herbal tea, decorations and basil

can become very marketable if packaged and presented/marketed

appropriately. The only thing currently limiting the sale of these

herbs, apart from seasonality, is availability and the forestry

commission. The local inhabitants at Frunluq for instance wererecently banned by the forestry commission from gathering and

selling these herbs, causing loss of income and hardship.

iv) Woodcutting for firewood, animal fodder, charcoal making

and other purposes is as previously mentioned, commonly

practiced in the forest regions. Whilst some of the local inhabitants

firewood needs are covered by collecting fallen dead branches,

they often have to resort to chopping down green ones to fulfiltheir daily requirements. More effective involvement by theforestry commission in organising and regulating access to timber

for fuel by identifying and encouraging the removal of diseased,

fallen or unwanted trees, appropriate pruning techniques, rotation

of areas being harvested from etc. Similarly it could further

encourage and help in organising and supervising the weeding of

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pathways and roadsides, which would be beneficial to both the

locals and help in reducing fire hazards. The ban on charcoalmaking however should remain in force.

Firewood collected for the winter (Frunluq).

Firewood collected for use (Abu-Qubeis).

v) Grazing of animals in the forests regions in general an at Abu-

Qubeis and Frunluq in particular, needs to be regulated to avoid

any serious damage to the habitat. Currently grazing goats is

practiced openly and whilst banning this practice, would cause a

collapse in the local economy and lead to conflict particularly at

Abu Qubeis,, it would be preferable to regulate and organize this

activity. Specially chosen areas could be set aside each year on arotational and or seasonal basis for grazing of livestock. This

should be coupled with effective public awareness and educationalprograms aimed encouraging the local communities to reduce thesize of their goatherds by building their confidence in some of thealternative schemes proposed. Furthermore a goat exchange

program is proposed, whereby for every so many goats sold a

mixed breed cow may be offered in exchange at a subsidised rate.

Although mixed breed cows cost more to keep since they require

feed almost exclusively and are more vulnerable to illness, they

have a much higher output of milk and more importantly eliminatethe need for grazing thus reduce pressure on the habitat. This

suggestion received mixed reactions with the older members of the

community many of whom, were very sceptical about the viability

and success of the mixed breed cows. The younger generations

however were more welcoming especially since many of them areno longer willing or even able to graze and follow goat herds in themountains.

vi) Scarcity of water resources is a serious problem in many

parts of the region, especially on the western side of Abu-Qubeis

where the villages rely almost exclusively on rainwater gathered incisterns over the winter months. If water collection could be

improved through water traps, dams and wells, the water could

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then be used to irrigate their crops. Most important is tobacco,

which is currently under dry farming conditions, but if irrigated, it

could increase output by almost tenfold. The increase in incomethat could be derived fi-om such a rise in productivity would besubstantial enough to have a very marked effect in reducing currentdependence on the habitat.

Tobacco leaves hanging out to dry.

vii) The ban on hunting should be strictly enforced and themanagement of wildlife and pest control be regulated by theappropriate authorities rather than being left to the localinhabitants. This could be coupled with organized programs andcommunity involvement for increasing public awareness as to thevalue of this wild life and used as a model not only for this area butthe country as a whole.

Conclusion:

The main problem facing the inhabitants of the region particularly

those within the protected area is that of sustainability and this is partiallydemonstrated by the high level of migration and gradual abandonment of

these villages. The current available land usage for agricultural activities,

grazing or other subsistence activities is insufficient to sustain existingpopulations and further restriction will inevitably be applied within theprotected area. Tourism is providing an important alternative to some ofthe local populace but the benefits are unevenly distributed and oftenhaphazard. Improving relations and greater involvement by theauthorities managing the proposed site in regulating and organizing manyof the suggested activities is essential and would provide much neededlocal employment opportunities. There is also a need for the involvementof local communities in the management of the protected area especiallywith regards to the balancing of conservation requirements with theireconomic needs.

The village of Aterah across the valley.

Steppe Mountain/Desert Habitats:

The sites chosen for the steppe mountain habitat are the Jebel

Abdul-Aziz in the north eastern part of the Syrian Jezira, A1-Lajat in the

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south near Jebel Al-Arab whilst the desert region is represented by

Palmyra and the associated Mouh Salina.. The major threats, issues and

causes at these sites are similar and mainly related to grazing with

variations reflecting local vagaries. In turn the solutions are similar too.

Jebel Abdul-Aziz:

The Jebel Abdel-Aziz lies in the north-eastern part of the Syrian Jeziraon an east west axis. It is rectangular in shape about seventy kilometers

long and about thirty kilometers wide. The north side is rather steep witha plateau in the cemral part and gradually settling down on the southside. It was originally called Jebel Mubarak but was changed to itscurrent name when the son of the local sheikh called Abdel-Aziz died

and was buried there. The shrine of Abdel-Aziz currently lies within a

mosque built by Circasian immigrants around 1893.

Jebel Abdel-Aziz from the north side.

The Jebel Abdel-Aziz is occupied mainly by Bedouins belonging

to the "Mountain Baqqara" tribe, which is a branch of the main and well-

known "Baqqara" of Der EI-Zor. They are located mainly on the plateausin the central region in villages or settlements of which there are aboutten. The current total population is about fifteen thousand although thisfigure fluctuates due to the seasonal influx of other groups (such as the

Jbour, Shrabin and Udwan clans) using areas of the Jebel Abdel-Aziz for

grazing especially in winter. The nearest urban center is the city ofHasakeh which is also the capital of the Mouhafaza of Hasakeh. It isworth noting that the Mouhafaza of Hasakeh has over 1.2 million people

living in it comprising nearly seven percent of the total population ofSyria the greater majority of which working in agriculture and animal

husbandry.

The main sources of subsistence in the Jebel Abdel-Aziz are

agriculture and animal husbandry. Agriculture is based on dry farming on

the plateaus and in the lowlands around the mountain, the main crops

being wheat and barley. There are also some vegetables grown but thistends to be on a very small scale mainly in gardens for personal use. Thishowever has been severely affected by the recent drought with most

people turning over their land for pasture. The drought has also affected

the main sources of drinking water (wells)many ofwhichhave turnedbrackish. Recently they have had to rely on water being brought in by

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trucks and some settlements have been abandoned at least temporarily.

The drilling of new wells is currently banned which has added to theproblems of water shortages.

Animal husbandry is a very important source of subsistence in the

Jebel Abdel-Aziz and the region as a whole. It is based mainly on

ungulates (sheep, goat and to a lesser extent camel). Their main pasture

areas are on the mountain especially during autumn/winter and spring.

The lowlands and plains are also used especially after the harvest season.

Overgrazing is one of the major problems in the region due to theuncontrolled use of the territory for grazing and has been a main sourceof conflict between the locals. These conflicts can sometimes take on a

very serious nature especially if deaths occur leading to clan feuds thatcan last for decades. One of the main sources of trouble has been the

annual influx of Kurds from the Malkiyyeh area who used to bring large

herds to graze on the mountain. This practice however has been bannedfor a number of years now and has had a dramatic effect on reducing theproblem of overgrazing.

Other sources of subsistence include the use of natural resources

such as huming and the gathering of wild plants and fruits. The Jebel

Abdel-Aziz has wooded areas, which include pistachio, fig, hawthorn

and terebinth. The terebinth was favoured by the locals for the oil that canbe extracted from its seeds and its wood is considered to be the best for

burning. This has in turn led to serious problems of deforestation and

ensuing soil erosion.

Finally there are a number of known prehistoric sites in the Jebeland a structure known as the "Succar" palace. There is also what appears

to be a Roman road, running straight from tell Tatar to the "Succar"

palace. The lowland areas and plains around the Jebel are rich in majorarchaeological sites especially in the Khabur valley.

Palmyra/Mouh Salina:

The main feature in this open desert region is the town of Palmyra

(Tadmor) and its associated "Sabkhat A1-Mouh" or Mouh sauna,. The

Mouh is about 10 by 25 kin. and lies in a depression, three hundred and

seventy metres above sea level acting as a drainage basin for the outlying

areas around it, which begin at four hundred metres. The oasis town of

Palmyra is a world famous archaeological and heritage site, it is a major

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stopping point on the old "Silk Road" and was once the capital of queenZenobia. The area surrounding it is open steppe and a main winteringcamp for many Bedouin groups.

The main population centre around the marshes is the town ofPalmyra itself with an estimated population of sixty five thousand

inhabitants (2000 census). There are also numerous outlying settlementsand encampments inhabited or seasonally occupied by Bedouins from the

Beni Khaled, Ruwala and other tribal groups. The most prominent and

nearest of these settlements include the following: a) Khan A1-Hallabat, a

major stopping point on the Horns, Damascus Palmyra route with about

150 households and is approximately thirty km west of Palmyra. b) Thevillage of Arak approximately thirty km. North east of Palmyra and has apopulation of about 2000 inhabitants. Further out to the south and southwest lie the main encampments of the Ruwala tribe at the Halba wells (45

km.) and the phosphate mines around which a large and recent settlementhas grown (40 ka_.). Although most of these Bedouins have been recentlysedentised (in the last 40-50 years) many still follow their traditional

route patterns. They winter around Palmyra (or deeper in the desert)making use of the lush spring pastures then head off to the west ornorthwest to their summer pasture areas.

The most important sources of subsistence in the area aroundPalmyra and the Mouh marshes (excluding tourism) are farming and

livestock rearing. The main agricultural produce nowadays is basedaround cash crops such as dates and olives. These are grown withinenclosed or walled gardens all around the southern and eastern edges of

Palmyra and the marshes. Some fruit and vegetables are also grown. Until

recently wheat, barley and pulses (corn to a much lesser extent)were

grown in the nearby outlying wadis and the moisture rich areas. Thishowever has been banned by the government for the last ten years due towater shortages and a plan to reopen these areas for pasture. There arealso large private farming estates which begin at Beida(10 km. fromPalmyra on the Horns road) and stretch out for tens ofkilometres in anorth- westerly direction. Crops grown there include all the major

cereals, fruits, cash crops, vegetables and until recently cotton.

Livestock rearing in the Mouh area is based mainly on ungulates

(sheep and goat) and camels (although this is declining). There are also afew cows for personal family use only. The total number of livestock isapproximately just over half a million heads. The main pasture and

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grazing areas are out in the steppe with some reliance on fodder locallygrown or imported.

Although salt extraction from the marsh probably is a very ancient

practice in Palmyra, recently (about 6 years ago) there has been a

dramatic and almost uncontrolled rise in salt production with about 500families involved. The main reason sited has been the hardship and loss

of income caused by the earlier ban on rainfed agriculture in the wadis.This misuse and over exploitation however has led to a dramatic drop inthe water levels of the marsh and forced the government to ban all saltextraction

There are a number of important industrial sites in the region nearthe Mouh marshes. Most prominent of these are the following: a) The T3

gas and oil pumping stations approximately 30 kin. due east. b)Rockquarries (20 km. from Palmyra due east) providing stone for building androad construction projects, c) The Phosphate mines previously mentioned.

Finally hunting for birds and rabbits is banned, its is still being carried

out by both locals and outsiders albeit on a reduced scale. It is also worthnoting here that there is also the nearby nature reserve of Tliyaleh (I 1 km.from Palmyra) where gazelles and other threatened species are beingprotected and preserved.

Tourism is becoming a major feature and source of income for theregion of Palmyra especially with the loss or reduction in more traditionalsources. The ninetees in particular witnessed a sharp rise in the number of

visitors over the years: 127,572 in 1994- 153,529 in 1998 and almost

200,000 in the year 2001. This in turn has led to a rapid expansion in the

tourist service and commercially allied or related sectors such as hotels,

restaurants and shops. This is mainly centred in the town of Palmyra,

which includes the Roman city, the temple of Beh amphitheatre, funerary

towers and necropolis as well as the museums. There are two high

seasons, one from around the 15 th of March to the end of May and the

other begins in September and may last until the middle of November. Anumber of these tourists attempt to visit the marshes but the exact figuresare not known.

In addition to the archaeological features, Palmyra holds an annual

festival known as Mahrajan A1-Badiya which attracts about fourty to fifty

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thousand visitors per annum. Activities include horse racing, tribal

dancing singing, etc.

Access to Palmyra is well served since it lies on the main highwayroad from Damascus to Deir Ezor and is also linked to Horns and Raqua

by major roads. New roads have also been laid out in the steppe linkingthe various settlements and encampments. These have improvedcommunication and helped reduce the effects of desertification caused bythe overuse of vehicles on the unprotected steppe. The main source ofwater for Palmyra currently comes from a Dam 16 km. away and theDouwara wells of which there are four. Finally main gas and oil pipelines

from the T3 pumping station supplying Damascus, Homs and Hama runwithin 2-3 kin. of the Mouh marshes.

The Laiat:

The Lajat consists ora lava flow and an accompanying basalt plainlying directly south of the city of Damascus right up to the Jebel

(mountain) Druse. The nearest major habitation centres to it are the townsof Sweida (approx. 35 km) and Bosra (approx. 50 kin) both lying to theSouth of it. The lava flow itself is largely uninhabited with a few"Bedouin" seasonal encampments and some shepherds herding their

flocks. The surrounding basalt plain however has some thirty villageseach with a population of between two and three thousand inhabitants.

The earliest settlements were established mainly in the mid -nineteenth century. Most of the villages lying in the southern end of theLajat tend to be Druse whilst the ones to the north are mostly Christian.Interspersed amongst them are villages inhabited by more recently settled

"Bedouins" from the "Salout" tribe, the oldest of which tending to be on

the westerly side of the Lajat. Over the last 30 years there has been asteady movement of people from the villages to the main towns and city

centres, whilst this has been compensated by the recent settlement of the

"Bedouins" in the fifties right through to the seventies. The movement

from the countryside to city centres and the recent settlement of"Bedouin groups is a nationwide phenomenon and not restricted to theLajat area.

The main sources of subsistence in the "Lajat" are farming and

livestock rearing. Crops grown usually include wheat, barley and pulses

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such as lentils, chickpeas and vetches. Large machinery is rarely used in

the processing of the crops due to the inaccessibility and rocky nature of

the land. More recently, in the seventies and eighties, the inhabitants

have been turning to planting and cultivating olive groves as a cash cropwith some limited success and there are a number of olive presses in the

region. During the last few years due to the ongoing drought and severewater shortages many farmers have been growing fodder type cropsand/or turning over their land for pasture.

The main livestock are ungulates (sheep and goat). Camels used to

be numerous because they were relied on as the main draft animal, but

this practice has fallen into disuse and their numbers have been decliningsince. There are small numbers of cows kept as well mainly for personal

use. The main pasture areas lie within and around the lava flow because itis unfit for agriculture. These are mainly used by the local Bedouinpopulations who have established territories and both permanent andtemporary stockades. There is also some influx of Bedouins from otherareas and this is a continual source of friction between the locals and the

incomers. The Lajat serves as a vital winter pasture for the Bedouinpopulation who spend up to six months encamped on it then move to the

plains in summer following the harvest season to graze on the stubble.Other sources include turning over the small plots of cultivated land inthe Lajat following the harvest season for grazing and fodder crops. Oneof the main sources of f¥iction between the locals is over grazing rights

and this has occasionally spilled over into internecine as well as crosscommunity violence.

The Lajat area is unsuitable for large scale commercial farming duethe nature and lie of the land it is too rocky and full of large basaltboulders which restrict the use of combined harvesters and other large

farm machinery. Finally bird hunting is a main feature of the area butmainly for personal use mostly by the locals.

Although tourism in the "Lajat" is minimal, there are major centres

of tourism in both Bosra (about 50 km), Shahba (about20 km) and

Sweida (about 37 km). Bosra was the ancient capital of the Nabateans

and later a major Roman town. It includes baths, public buildings and an

underground shopping mall. Most impressive of all however is the

Roman amphitheatre enclosed by the citadel. Both Sweida and Shahbaalso have important Roman and Byzantine ruins including the famous

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baths at Shahba. Latest figures for tourist visiting these sites are as

follows: Bosra receives around Thirty thousand visitors annually, while

Shahba and Sweida each receive annually around fifteen thousand and

twenty thousand respectively. Within the "Lajat" itself, there are some

important archaeological sites Sahar being the most prominent andincludes a Roman amphitheatre in addition to a number of public type

buildings. There is however no road access to it and can only be reachedon foot (about a 1 hour hike). There is also the old Roman road leadingIi'om Bosra to the "Lajat".

Access to the "Lajat" is relatively well served since the main Damascus-Deraa highway runs parallel to it in a north-south direction. Within the

"Lajat" however, the road structure is secondary between the major

villages and habitation sites. There are also numerous pathways, trails,

seasonal tracks and lesser accessible roads liking variousparts of thearea.

Threats, Issues and Causes:

The following threats have been observed att he sites ofJebel Abdel-

Aziz, the Lajat and Palmyran desert/Mouh salina. It should be noted that

the threats listed however do not necessarily apply to all three sites withequal importance mainly due to the environmental differences at thesites; so whilst fire might be a primary threat at the Abdel-Aziz and theLajat it is of only secondary importance at Palmyra.

ix) Fire hazards pose a serious threat and may be consideredone of the main causes of deforestation in the Abdel-Aziz

mountain and the Lajat. The causes of these fires tend to varybetween the intentional and unintentional. The most common of

the former are acts of revenge caused by the fi'ustration felt bymany of the locals against the forestry commission and its

agents. As for the latter, the primary cause seems to be

irresponsible tourists who inadvertently throw cigarette buttsinto the dry scrub lining the sides of the roads or lack of careand attention with cooking fires and barbecues. This can beeither during cooking or in the disposal of the ash and charcoal

fags after they finish or upon departure. In some instances therehave also been cases of unsupervised children being responsiblefor fires as well. The most recent major fire at Abdel-Aziz for

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example was in spring 1995 probably caused by passingtourists. A more unusual example is that of the television

station employee who started a small fire, reported it and then

helped put it out in the hope of claiming a reward. Localinhabitants are usually expected to exercise vigilance withregards to fires and provide assistance when one breaks out.Fires on the other hand don't seem to be a problem in the

Palmyra area.x) Unregulated mass tourism is an important threat and closely

related to that of fires. All three areas are popular with tourists

and day-trippers in particular Palmyra because of thespectacular archaeological ruins located there. The peak seasonis in spring mostly end of March and April when the steppe ormountains are green and the weather still cool. Hundreds ofday-trippers will come and picnic on Fridays and Sundaysleaving behind their litter. Pahnyra has a second season in theautumn as well. It suffices to say that the most important issuesrelate to waste disposal congestion on the roads andunauthorised access into the protected or more ecologically

sensitive parts of the protected area in addition to the previouslymentioned problem of fires.

xi) Woodcutting for firewood, animal fodder and other

purposes is commonly practiced in the steppe mountain areas.The wood is used for both heating in the cold winter months

and cooking to supplement diesel, gas and dung fuel. The local

inhabitants rely on firewood because they cannot afford to

purchase other forms of fuel. At Jebel Abdul-Aziz, they are

permitted to collect dead and fallen branches by the forestryagency but often it is insufficient to cover their daily needs and

therefore, resort to chopping down branches and in rare

instances whole trees.

xii) Overgrazing by ungulates (sheep and goats) and otheranimals is a primary threat in all three areas. The most common

livestock are sheep (90-95%) and to a lesser extent goats,

forming the primary source of income for the majority of thelocal inhabitants. Furthermore they act as a repository for any

surplus income that a family has so that a person's wealth maybe measured in these parts by how many heads of sheep heowns. Hence there is a social as well as economic dimension to

this issue that needs to be taken into account when dealing with

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this problem. The Jebel Abdul-Aziz for instance has

traditionally been a very important autumn, winter and spring

pasture with grazing boundaries very well delineated between

the various tribal groups and villages. During the summer, theflocks are moved onto the stubble left in the wheat and barleyfields down in the plains followed by the cotton shrubs after theharvest. Several years ago the ministry of agricultureestablished a protected area within the Jebel Abdul-Azizcovering an area of 4220ha out of a total area of 8000ha.Grazing along with access to any of the habitats resources

traditionally exploited by the local inhabitants, were prohibitedin the area. This ban had an immediate and marked effect on the

patterns of subsistence and livelihoods of the local inhabitants.It cut off many of the villages from their traditional pasturesmost seriously affected being those on the north side of themountain west of the village of A1-Kafra and the road into themountain. These villages currently have nowhere to graze theirflocks during the autumn and spring seasons since they areflanked by the mountain and the protected area to the south andagricultural lands to the north. The result has been a nearcollapse of their traditional way of life resulting in deprivationand hardship coupled with abandonment or enforced migrationduring the spring and autumn seasons. One of the more seriouseffects observed is that the children are having to follow their

parents and thus unable to attend school, a catastrophic event if

you take into account the already exceptionally high illiteracyrate among the local inhabitants. On the southern side of the

protected area, the situation is a little bit easier. Although the

local inhabitants were also deprived of their traditional pasturesthere is room for them to graze further south and to the east.This has meant however that they had to encroach upon andshare with other groups and communities what is left of themountain which is currently shrinking yearly due to an

aggressive forest expansion program, run by the forestry

commission (discussed in the next section). This in turn has tedto a sharp and steady decline in the size of sheep flocks in theJebel Abdul-Aziz by more than two thirds and has been

exacerbated by a recent drought, which may be interpreted as a

local economic disaster and a collapse of their current mode ofsubsistence leading to a rise in forestry law violations.

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Sheep and goats sheltering fi'om the mid-day heat in the disusedschool at the village of Sabaa Ez-lam.

xiii) The activities and programs of various government

agencies can sometimes inadvertently have a negative impactthe highly fragile local subsistence strategies especially in the

more marginal areas, which in turn affect the social fabric of

these communities. For example, the forestry commission

programs and activities at the Jebel Abdel-Aziz including thedeclaration of most of the eastern half of the mountain by the

ministry of agriculture as a protected area has restricted access

of the locals to the protected area's resources, which are critical

to the already overstretched subsistence strategies that the local

inhabitants are dependent upon. As previously noted, both here

and in other areas, this increases the risk of confrontation

between the two sides leading to repeated acts of vandalism,

violence and revenge. It also adds the financial burdens felt by

the local inhabitants, which in turn often leads them to breaking

the law in order to make ends meet. Examples of(restrictions

imposed by government) such restrictions include: the banningor severe restriction on the harvesting of wild herbs and plants

such as truffles, ahnonds, pistachio, etc. This year was a good

season for truffles and helped save many a family from ruin.

Yet according to those interviewed in the Jebel Abdul-Aziz,

any woman or child caught gathering truffles had their harvest

confiscated and faced legal action, fines, etc. Another example

is that of Palmyra where a restriction on use of the local "wadi"beds for cultivation about 10 years ago was partially

responsible for the dramatic and uncontrolled rise in saltproduction at the nearby Mouh salina with almost 500 familiesbeing involved at its peak. This misuse and over exploitationhowever has led to a dramatic drop in the water levels of themarsh and forced a ban all salt extraction which in turn has

exacerbated the cycle of hardship. The root of these problems in

many instances lies in a lack of understanding or disregard forthe needs of the local inhabitants coupled with a lack of

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coordination between the various government agencies, which

operate in these areas. The lack of consistency and sometimes-arbitrary application of the rules and laws often leads to a

perception by the locals of abuse of power and favouritism,which also adds to the confusion and lack of understanding.

The final matter is a very strong grievance held by many of the

local community against these agencies, which makes any

collaboration or stakeholder participation in the management of

the proposed sites unlikely or difficult in the least.xiv) Migration is now a major feature of these areas (as of

most regions in Syria) with many villages now witnessing adecline in population during the autumn winter and springmonths in search of pasture for their livestock or employment.The effects on children's education has been mentioned

elsewhere. Those who return, do so in the summer in time for

the harvest and season. In the case of some villages, they have

now been permanently abandoned and the original inhabitantscurrently live with relatives from some of the other villages and

nearby towns. Poverty, poor employment prospects and a lack

of alternative means of subsistence along with a rapidly

growing population and increasing competition for the ever

decreasing resources, housing, etc are the primary causes. This

in turn has had a dramatic effect on traditional family ultimately

resulting in gradual community fragmentation and increasedtensions in inter and cross community relations. Numerousstudies are currently being conducted on the problems of

migration throughout Syria most prominent is probably thatbeing carried out between FAFO and the National Centre forStatistics.

xv) Hunting is still practiced in the in all three areas thoughon a reduced scale mainly due to the scarcity of game. The

majority of hunters are from nearby towns, governmentofficials or outsiders fi'om the Lebanon and the Gulf States. The

locals occasionally take part in these hunts as beaters or guides.

Local Concems:

The following local concerns regarding the establishment ofconservation-protected area have emerged. These are based on the

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interviews conducted with the local inhabitants. Where these concerns

were a result of the locals being misinformed about the nature and

purpose of the project, efforts were made to correct these impressions

and provide accurate information. The outcome of these concerns willbe dealt with in the solutions section where appropriate.viii) Fencing of proposed protected area appears to be a very

important concern especially where it may prevent or restrictlocal inhabitants access or movement of goods livestock etc.

ix) The forestry commission tree-planting program is causinggreat alarm amongst the local inhabitants especially at the JebelAbdul-Aziz as it not only intends to ring the mountain thusrestricting movement of livestock to and from the villages to

their pastures, but has began planting trees in the existing

available pastureland on the south side of the mountain as well.This in turn will have a dramatically negative effect on the

southern located villages, which until now have escaped the

worst of the problems faced by the north side communities.x) Any further restrictions over the use of habitat resources such as

gathering of firewood, herbs and wild plants or salt extraction

in the case of Palmyra would lead to continued conflict betweenthe authorities and the local inhabitants as well as add to the

hardships already facing them.xi) Restrictions on current access to water and enforcing the

existing ban on well drilling.xii) Further restriction on grazing leading to further decline

and loss of their traditional way of life, which relies primarily

on herding large flocks of sheep and in some casetranshumance.

In short The primary concern of the local inhabitants is that theestablishment of the conservation protected area would lead to graterrestrictions on use and access of the site which in turn would lead to

further economic decline and hardship.

Solutions and Recommendations:

The primary aim of proposing these solutions to the local inhabitants

is to provide alternative sources of income, that are both viable and

sustainable, which would in turn reduce reliance by them on the

habitat resources or divert their exploitation into ecologically less

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harmful means and ways. The solutions outlined here have been put tovarious members of the local community especially identified key

stakeholders and their responses and opinions have been noted.

viii) Provision of loans and micro-credit facilities especially tothe least well offmembers of the community could then be used toset up small businesses such as fattening ofcatves for resale orrearing mixed breed cows. In Palmyra and the Lajat these couldalso be directed at establishing and reviving traditional arts and

crafts, which could then become part of the local tourist trade and

industry. Similar credit schemes have already been tried out in

this and other areas with very mixed results as previouslymentioned. The main reasons for lhilure is often due to unworkable

repayment schemes coupled with very complicated and restrictivebureaucratic procedures for loan qualification. Quite often thesecriteria such as having guarantors and proof of ownership of

property tend to exclude the very people who need it most, since

they represent the poorest sections of the community and are mostheavily dependent on the habitat resources. Furthermore these

credit facilities should be provided with training and education

concerning the care, maintenance and upkeep of the proposed

project so that the investment is not lost due to the death ormismanagement.

ix) Chopping down trees and branches for firewood, animal

fodder and other purposes is as previously mentioned, commonly

practiced in the Jebel Abdel-Aziz. Although the local inhabitantsattempt to cover their firewood needs by collecting fallen dead

branches, they often have to resort to chopping down green ones to

fulfil their daily requirements. Greater involvement andorganization by the forestry commission in encouraging the

removal of diseased, fallen or unwanted trees, and teaching the

local inhabitants appropriate pruning techniques, rotation of areas

being harvested from etc. Similarly it could encourage and help in

organising and supervising the weeding of pathways and roadsides,

which would be beneficial to both the locals and help in reducingfire hazards.

x) Overgrazing by animals mainly sheep is a very serious problemand needs to be addressed in order to avoid any further seriousdamage to the habitat. However rather than introducing or

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enforcing the existing laws banning this practice throughout the

entire protected area, which would increase the existing hardship

and conflict, it would be preferable regulate and organize this

activity. Specially chosen areas could be set aside each year on arotational and or seasonal basis for grazing of livestock. Permission

to graze in the autumn season on the margins of the proposedconservation protected area and halting the forestation programwithin the existing pasturetand would greatly alleviate the hardship

currently facing the local communities. Encouraging a reduction inthe herd size of every village or setting a limit on the number of

sheep a person/family may own is also recommended. This should

be supported by public awareness and educational programs, both

in building confidence in the proposed solutions and the investmentof capital in alternatives to sheep. The ban on goats howevershould remain in force.

Pastureland available on the southern side of the Jebel Abdel-Aziz

xi) An exchange program of sheep for mixed breed cows wherepossible should be encouraged and supported since it wouldalleviate the need for grazing and the much higher yields

obtainable from this breed should if properly managed, cover the

increased costs of relying almost exclusively on animal feed.Current local experiences with this breed have been mixedhowever but that is mainly due to lack of experience in managingit.

xii) Providing water for irrigation either through rain traps,

cisterns and small or wells would greatly improve crop yields andallow for more variety to be cultivated.

xiii) Although some of the local inhabitants gather and sell in the

local markets herbs, seeds and fruits, the majority shy away from

this form of activity or will not openly admit to participating in itfor social taboo reasons. The sale of truffles however appears to be

more acceptable probably due to its high profit returns.

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