REZIME PREGLEDNI RAD · Effect» (SME), a metali odnosno legure koje posjeduju ovaj efekat nazivaju se «Shape Memory Alloys» (SMA). 1. INTRODUCTION That polymers and rubber-based

Mainstvo 2(6), 83 – 92, (2002) D.]ubela: LEGURE KOJE PAMTE SVOJ OBLIK

LEGURE KOJE PAMTE SVOJ OBLIK

mr. Diana ]ubela, vii asistent, Fakultet za metalurgiju i materijale, Zenica, Travni~ka cesta 1, e-mail: [email protected];

D REZIME

Legure koje pamte oblik su legure ~ije intenzivno ispitivanje po~inje u osnovi ovog fenomena je fazna transformacija viskotemperaturne faze niskotemperaturnu fazu tzv. termoelasti~ni martenzit. Osnovno njegovo Zagrijavanjem legura se ponovo v aa u visokotemperaturnu fazu, austsistema legura imaju komercijalnu primjenu. To su Ni-Ti i legure nanajvie koriste u biomedicini (filteri za krvne sudove, ortodontski elemsl.), a otvaraju se i nova polja primjene kao to je tehnologija mik« nteligentne materijale». Veliki progres na ovim poljima se o~ekuje u na

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Klju~ne rije~i: Shape Memory Effect (SME), Shape Memory martenzit, jednosmjerno pamenje oblika, dvosmjerno pamenje prisilno oporavljanje, djelimi~no oporavljanje, superelasti~nost

SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY

Diana ]ubela, MSc, senior assistant, Faculty of MetallurTravni~ka cesta 1, e-mail: [email protected];

SUMMARY

Intensive research of the Shape Memory Alloys started in the 1960's. Tis transformation of the high-temperature phase, austenite, when coolicalled thermoelastic martensite. The particularity of the thermoelastic mhea ing, the alloy returns to high-temperature phase and its original shcommercial application. These: Ni-Ti and copper base alloys. The greabiomedicine (filters, orthodontic implants, guide wires for cathetersapplication fie ds, such as mircoactuator technology and smart materialsprogress in these fields might be expected in the year to come.

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Key words: Shape memory Effect (SME), Shape Memory Alloys (Sone-way shape memory, two-way shape memory, free recoveryrecovery, superelasticity

1. UVOD Odavno je poznato svojstvo polimera i materijala na bazi gume da se skupljaju prilikom zagrijavanja i da apsorbuju toplotu kada se izduùju pod dejstvom neke vanjske sile. Neto sli~no se deava i kod metala. Naime, neki metali koji se plasti~no deformiu na niskim temperaturama ponovno se vraaju u prvobitan oblik nakon zagrijavanja. Ovaj fenomen je poznat pod imenom «Shape Memory Effect» (SME), a metali odnosno legure koje posjeduju ovaj efekat nazivaju se «Shape Memory Alloys» (SMA).

1. INTRODUCT That polymers contract during helongated by exteknown properties similar happens wimetal materials deafter heating to This phenomenonEffect - SME; ancalled Shape Mem

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PREGLEDNI RA

60-tim godinama 20. v jeka. U austenita u toku hla|enja u svojstvo je visoka elasti~nost. enit, i u prvobitan oblik. Dva bazi bakra Ove legure se enti, ìce-vodi~i za katetere i ropobu|iva~a i ugra|ivanje u rednim godinama.

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Alloys (SMA), termoelasti~ni oblika, slobodno oporavljanje,

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gy and Materials, Zenica,
SUBJECT REVIEW
he basis of this phenomenon ng in low temperature phase, artensite is high elasticity. By ape. Two alloy systems have test use of these alloys is in , etc.) and some the new , are being opened. A lot of

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MA), thermoelastic martensite, , force actuator, constrained

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and rubber-based materials, eating and absorb heat when rnal force, have been their well-for a long time. Something

th metal materials. Namely, some formed at low temperature return the shape prior to deformation. is known as Shape Memory d alloys having this effect are ory Alloys - SMA.

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]


SME je rezultat deformacije ili transformacije u ~vrstom stanju u fazu koja se naziva termoelasti~ni martenzit. Unutar temperaturnog podru~ja u kojem se odvija deformacija ili transformacija, SMA, iako unutar ograni~enog podru~ja deformacije, izvodi pretvaranje toplotne energije u elasti~nu. Ponaanje je sli~no gasu u cilindru. Bitno obilje`je ovog fenomena je da se mehani~ka energija moè dobiti iz veoma male temperaturne razlike od svega nekoliko desetina stepeni. [vedski fizi~ar Olander je prvi otkrio ovu pojavu 1932. godine i nazvao je superelasti~nost. Iste godine L.C. Chang i T.A. Read [1] su primjetili reverzibilnost transformacije u sistemu Au-Cd metalografskim posmatranjem i promjenom elektri~nog otpora i tako otkrili «efekat pamenja oblika» [1]. Godine 1938 ista pojava je uo~ena i u sistemu Cu-Zn. Pravi zna~aj ovog fenomena, me|utim, nije shvaen sve do otkria legure tzv. NITINOL1. (50 at.%Ni/50 at.% Ti) od strane William J. Buehler-a. Ovaj istraìva~ u Naval Ordnance Laboratory u White Oaku-u, Maryland, USA se smatra prvim koji je u stvari otkrio SMA [1,2,7]. Do otkria je dolo slu~ajno na sastanku efova laboratorija gdje je ova legura predstavljena sa svojom izvanrednom sposobnou viestruke deformacije. Jedan od prisutnih, Dr. David S. Muzzey [2], je plamenom upalja~a zagrijao deformisanu traku ~ija je toplota izazvala ispravljanje trake NITINOL- a. Iako je danas poznat relativno irok spektar legura koje pokazuju SME samo one koje mogu povratiti zna~ajnu koli~inu deformacije ili stvoriti zna~ajnu silu mijenjanjem oblika su od prakti~nog interesa, tabela 1 [1]. Legure koje pokazuju SME samo nakon zagrijavanja imaju tzv. jednosmjerno pamenje oblika, «one-way shape memory», dok materijali koji mijenjaju oblik i nakon ponovnog hla|enja imaju dvosmjerno pamenje oblika, «two-way shape memory» [3].

2. EFEKT PAM]ENJA OBLIKA - SME SMA se mogu definisati kao legure koje imaju termoelasti~ni martenzit, tj. legura trpi martenzitnu transformaciju koja dozvoljava da se legura deformie mehanizmom dvojnikovanja ispod temperature transformacije. Deformacija je povratna kada se dvojnikovana struktura nakon zagrijavanja vraa u polaznu fazu. Termoelasti~ni martenzit se razvija iz visokotemperaturne (polazna faza) austenitne faze sa dalekose`nim redom mehanizmom smicanja. Viskotemperaturna austenitna faza ima karakteristi~nu krivu σ-ε veine metala, dok niskotemperaturna martenzitna faza ima krivu σ-ε koja vie li~i krivama za elastomere (javlja se «plato» napona), sl. 1 [4].

1 NITINOL je skraenica od Naval Ordnance Laboratory

The SME is a result of deformation or transformation in solid state to a phase called thermoelastic martensite. Within the temperature range in which is occured, the deformation or transformation, or the SMA, although within a limited strain range, converts energy from heat to elasticity. The behavior is similar to the behavior of a gas-contained cylinder. An important fetaure of this phenomenon is getting the mechanical energy from a small temperature difference of just several tens of degrees. This effect was first dicovered by a Swedish physicist Olander in 1932, who named it superelasticity. L.C.Chang and T.A.Read noted reversibility of the transformation in Au-Cd alloys by metallographic observation and resistivity changes in the same year and so they discovered «the shape memory effect» [1]. The same phenomenon was obeserved in Cu-Zn alloys in 1938. The true importance of this phenomenon was not realized up to the invention of the alloy called NITINOL2 (50 at.%Ni/50 at.% Ti) by William J. Buehler in 1962. This researcher at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory in White Oak, Maryland, USA, is considered to be the inventor of the SMA [1, 2,7]. The discovery came by accident at a laboratory managment meeting where the NITINOL–strip was presented with its outstanding ability of multiple deformation. Dr. David S. Muzzey [2], one of the people present, heated it with his pipe ligther. The heat of the lighter caused returning of the strip to its original shape. Although today a relatively wide spectrum of the alloys having the SME is known of only those that can recover substantial amounts of the deformation or create significant force upon changing shape are of the practical interest, Table 1 [1]. The alloys that exhibit the SME only after heating have a so called «one-way shape memory», whereas the alloys that exhibit the SME also change their shape after recooling have the «two-way shape memory» [1, 3].

2. SHAPE MEMORY EFFECT - SME SMA can be defined as alloy that produce thermoelastic martensite, in other words the alloys undergoing martensitic transformation that allows a deformation of the alloy by a twinning mechanism below the transformation temperature. The deformation is returnable when the twinned structure reverts after heating to the original phase. The thermoelastic martensite is developed from the high-temperature austenitic phase (original phase) with long-range order by a shear mechanism. High-temperature austenitic phase has the characteristic σ-ε curve of most metals, whereas the low-temperature martensitic phase has the some σ-ε curve as elastomers (there is «plateau» stress), Figure 1 [4].

2 NITINOL is an abbreviation of Naval Ordnance Laboratory

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Tabela 1. Legure koje pamte svoj oblik Table 1: Shape Memory Alloys

Legura Alloy

Sastav Composition

Temp. podru~je transf. [oC] Transformation temperature

range, [oC]

Ag - Cd 44 – 49 at.% Cd -190 - -50 Au - Cd 46,5/50 at. Cd 30 - 100 Cu – Al - Ni 14/14,5 mas. % Al, 3/4,5 mas.% Ni -140 - 100 Cu - Sn ~ 15 at.% Sn -120 - 30 Cu - Zn 38,5/41,5 mas.% (wt. %) Zn -180 - -10

Cu–Zn–X (X = Si, Sn, Al) nekoliko mas.% X a few mas.% of X

-180 - 200

In - Ti 18/23 at.% Ti 60 - 100 Ni - Al 36/38 at.% Al -180 - 100 Ni - Ti 49/51 at.% Ni -50 - 110 Fe - Pt ~25 at.% Pt ~ -130 Mn - Cu 5/35 at.%Cu -250 - 180

Fe – Mn - Si 32 mas.% Mn, 6 mas.% Si

-200 - 150

Sl. 1: Krive σ - ε austenita i martenzita SMA Figure 1: Austenite and Martensite σ - εcurves of SMA

Slika 2: [ematski prikaz promjena u kristalnojreetki u toku hla|enja, deformacije izagrijavanja SMA Figure 2. Scheme of the crystallographicchanges during the cooling, deformation andheating of SMA

Sve deformacije do 8% su elasti~ne, tj. mogu se ukloniti ali to nije prosto osloba|anje naprezanje dok je legura u martenzitnom stanju, sl. 2 [4]. Legura se prvo hladi i prelazi u martenzitnu fazu; u tom stanju leguru je mogue mehani~ki deformisati. Sve dok se odràva niska temperatura legura je deformisana, ali ako se zagrije, martenzit se ponovo transformie u austenit i legura se vraa u prvobitan oblik. Ovaj ciklus je beskona~no ponovljiv i to je ono to se zove «slobodno oporavljanje», ali to je jednosmjerni proces – moè se ii samo u smjeru kazaljke na satu. Martenzit se obi~no javlja u vidu naizmjeni~no smaknutih plo~ica, koje su vidljive kao strelasta struktura kada se metalografski posmatraju. Transformacija, iako fazna promjena prvog reda, se ne javlja na nekoj odre|enoj temperaturi nego u temperaturnom podru~ju koje moè varirati za svaki sistem, sl. 3 [1].

All the deformation up to about 8% is elastic, in other words it can be recovered but that is not simply relaxation of the stress while the alloy is in the martensitic condition, Figure 2 [4]. After cooling, the alloy undergoes transition to martensite; in that condition the alloy can be deformed mechanically. As long as the alloy stays cooled it will be deformed, but if it is warmed up, martensite again transforms to austenite and the alloy comes back to its original shape. This cycle is repeatable indefinitely and is what it is called «free recovery», but it is one-way process that can go only clockwise. Marteniste usually appears as alternately sheared plates, which are seen as a herringbone structure when they are observed metallographically. Transformation, although a first-order phase change, does not occur at a specific temperature but over a range of temperatures that can vary with each alloy system, Figure 3 [1].

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Transformacija tako|e pokazuje histerezis u tome da se transformacije zagrijavanjem i hla|enjem ne poklapaju. Termoelasti~ni martenzit se karakterie malom energijom i kliznim granicama koje mogu biti pokrenute malim temperaturnim promjenama ili promjenama naprezanja. Kao posljedica ovoga i skupljanja uslijed gubitka simetrije u toku transformacije termoelasti~ni martenzit je kristalografski povratan. Strelasta struktura atermi~kog martenzita se sastoji od povezanih dvojnika, samopodeavajuih varijanti, sl.4 [1]. Promjene oblika izme|u varijanti teè da eliminiu jedna drugu. Rezultat toga je stvaranje malih makroskopskih deformacija. U slu~aju naponom indukovanog martenzita ili kada je naprezanje samopodeavajue strukture, varijanta koja moè transformisati i proizvesti najveu promjenu oblika u pravcu primjenjenog naprezanja se stabilizuje i postaje dominantna u konfiguraciji, sl. 4c. Ovaj proces stvara makroskopsku deformaciju koja je povratna kada se kristalna struktura vraa u austenit u toku povratne transformacije.

The tranformation also exhibits hysteresis in that the transformations on heating and cooling do not overlap. Thermoelastic martensit is characterized by low energy and glissile interfaces, which can be driven by small temperature or stress changes. As a consequence of this, and of the constraint due to the loss of symmetry during transformation, thermoelastic martensite is crystallographically reversible. The harringbone structure of athermal martensite consists of twin-related, self-accomodating variants, Figure 4 [1]. The shape changes among the variants tend to eliminate each other. The result of this are generated little microscopic strains. In the case of stress-induced marteniste, or when stressing a self-accomodating structure, the variant that can transform and yield the greatest shape change in the direction of the applied stress is stabilized and becomes dominant in the configuration, Figure 4c. This process creates a macroscopic strain which is recoverable as the crystall structure reverts to austenite during the reverse transformation.

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Slika 4: a Kristal β faze, b) samopodeavajua varijantadvojnika A, B, C i D nakon hla|enja i transformacije umartenzit, c) varijanta A postaje dominantna kada seprimjeni napon; nakon zagrijavanja materijal se vraa uβ fazu i svoj prvobitni oblik Figure 4: a β phase crystal, b) self-accommodatingtwin-related variants, A, B, C and D, after cooling andtransformation to martensite, c) variant A becomesdominant when stress is applied; upon heating thematerial reverts to β phase and recovers its originalshape

Slika. 3: Dilatometrijska kriva SMA uzorka pokonstantnim optereenjem prilikom hla|enja zagrijavanja; T1 – transformacioni histerezis, Ms As – po~etak martenzitne odnosno austenitnetransformacije, Mf i Af – zavretak martenzitne,odnosno austenitne transformacije Figure 3: Dilatometric curve for an SMAspecimen under constant load as it is cooledand heated; T1 – transformation hysteresis,Ms and As – martensite, austenite start, Mfand Af – martensite, austenite finish

Mehani~ka svojstva SMA se mijenjaju iroko u temperaturnom podru~ju transformacije, sl. 5 [1]. Kriva se odnosi na leguru NiTi koja je ispitivana na zatezanje ispod, u sredini i iznad njenog temperaturnog podru~ja transformacije. Martenzit se lako deformie do nekoliko procenata kod prili~no niskog napona, dok austenit ima veu zateznu ~vrstou i napon te~enja, tabela 2 [1,2,5,6]. Isprekidana linija na martenzitnoj krivoj ukazuje da nakon zagrijavanja i uklanjanja napona, uzorak se «sjea» svog prvobitnog oblika i vraa se u austenit. Kriva σ-ε, sl. 5c, e pokazati interesantno svojstvo kada se materijal ispituje malo iznad njegove temperature transformacije.

The mechanical properties of SMA change greatly over the temperature range, Figure 5 [1]. The curves refer to an Ni-Ti alloy that was tested in tension below, in the middle of, and above its transformation temperature range. Martensite is easily deformed to several percent strain at quite a low stress, whereas the austenite has much higher ultimate and yield strength, Table 2 [1, 2, 5, 6]. The dashed line on the martensite curve indicates that upon heating and removing the stress, the sample remembered its unstrained shape and reverted to austenite. The σ-ε curve, Figure 5c, will show an interesting feature when the material is tested sligthly above its transformation temperature.

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Na ovoj temperaturi martenzit moè biti indukovan naponom. U tom slu~aju kriva σ-ε pokazuje rast izduènja pri konstantom naponu, AB. Nakon rastereenja, iako se materijal vraa u austenit pri nièm naponu, linija CD, i javlja se oporavljanje oblika, ne nakon zagrijavanja nego nakon redukcije napona. Ovaj efekt koji uzrokuje ekstremnu elasti~nost materijala je poznat kao pseudoelasti~nost koja je nelinearna.

At this temperature martensite can be induced by stress. In that case, the σ-ε curve shows an increase of strain at the constant stress, AB. After unloading, though, the material reverts to austenite at a lower stress, line CD, and shape recovery occurs, not upon the application of heat but upon a reduction of stress. This effect which causes an extreme elasticity of the material, is known as pseudoelasticity.

Sl. 5: Krive σ - ε za razli~ite temperature s obzirom na transformaciju pokazuju austenit (a), martenzit (b), i pseudoelasti~no ponaanje (c) Figure 5: σ - ε curves at different temperatures relative to the transformation, showing austenite (a), martensite (b), and pseudoelastic behavior (c)

Tabela : Osobine binarne legure NiTi Table 2: The properties of an NiTi alloy

Fizi~ke osobine - Physical properties

Temperatura topljenja, [oC] - Melting Temperature, [oC] 1300 Gustina, [g/cm3] - Density, [g/cm3] 6,45 Elektri~ni otpor, Resistivity, [µΩcm] austenit, austenite martenzit, martensite

∼ 100 ∼ 70

Toplotna provodnost, Thermal Conductivity [W/moC] austenit, austenite martenzit, martensite

18 8,5

Koroziona otpornost - Corrosion Resistance

Sli~na 300 serija ner|ajueg ~elika ili legura titana

Similar 300 series stainless of steel or titanium alloys

Mehani~ke osobine - Mechanical properties

E, [GPa]: austenit, austenite martenzita, martensite

∼ 83

∼ 28 - 41 Re, [MPa] austenit, austenite martenzita, martensite

195 - 690 70 - 140

Rm, [MPa] 895

Osobine pamenja oblika - Shape Memory Properties

Temperatura transformacije, [oC] – Transformation Temperatures, [oC]

od -200 do 110

Elasti~na deformacija, Recoverable Strain, [%] max. 8,5 Latentna toplota transformacije, [kJ/kgatom] Latent Heat of Transformation, [kJ/kgatom]

167

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3. LEGURE SA EFEKTOM PAM]ENJA OBLIKA - SMA

Do danas su samo dva sistema legura nala komercijalnu primjenu: Ni-Ti i legure na bazi bakra. Ova dva sistema se zna~ajno razlikuju po svojim osobinama. Tako legure NiTi imaju veu sposobnost deformacije (do 8% za razliku od legura na bazi bakra koje se mogu deformisati od 4 do 5%), termi~ki su stabilnije, bolje korozione otpornosti i vie duktilnosti. Legure na bazi bakra su jeftinije, mogu se topiti i oblikovati na zraku i imaju iri potencijal transformacije.

3.1. Legure Ni-Ti (Nitinol) Osnova sistema Ni-Ti je binarno ekviatomsko intermetalno jedinjenje NiTi. Viak nikla jako potiskuje temperaturu transformacije i poveava napon te~enja austenita. Elementi koji se obi~no koriste kao dodaci su èljezo i krom koji sniàvaju temperaturu transformacije i bakar koji smanjuje histerezis i sniàva deformaciono naprezanje martenzita. Kisik i ugljik, uobi~ajeni kontaminirajui elementi u ovim legurama, mogu pomjeriti temperaturu transformacije i degradirati mehani~ke osobine zbog ~ega je poèljno minimizirati koli~inu ovih elemenata. Selektivno deformaciono oja~avanje i odgovarajui termi~ki tretman mogu zna~ajno olakati deformaciju martenzita uz istovremeno veu ~vrstou austenita. Na taj na~in se dobije materijal koji se spontano kree zagrijavanjem i hla|enjem (dvosmjerno pamenje oblika). Problem ovih legura je tehnologija izrade legure èljenih osobina. Zbog velike reaktivnosti titana topljenje se mora izvoditi u vakuumu ili u inertnoj atmosferi. Komercijalni postupci topljenja su: plazma-elektrolu~nog pra`njenja, topljenje laserom, vakuum-indukciono topljenje. Standardne tople obrade (kovanje, valjanje, izvla~enje) se mogu izvoditi na zraku. Veina postupaka hladne obrade je primjenjiva na ove legure ali je problem veoma brzo deformaciono oja~avanje zbog ~ega je neophodno ~esto àrenje. Vu~enje ìce je vjerovatno najire koritena tehnika. @ica ima izvrsna povrinska svojstva a pre~nik od 0,05 mm se danas proizvodi rutinski. Neki uobi~ajeni procesi mainske obrade su prili~no problemati~ni. Buenje i glodanje zahtijeva specijalne alate. Zavarivanje, tvrdo i meko lemljenje su generalno problemati~ni. Materijal se dobro brusi, moè se odsjecati i probijati ako je debljina mala. Temperaturni interval za èljeni oblik je obi~no izme|u 500o i 800oC ali se termi~ka obrada moè izvoditi i u temperaturnom intervalu od 300o do 350oC ako je vrijeme dovoljno dugo [1].

3. SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS - SMA Until now, only two alloy systems have found their commercial application: the Ni-Ti and the copper-base alloys. The properties of the two systems are quite different. The Ni-Ti alloys can be stronger deformed (up to 8% versus 4 to 5% for the copper-base alloys), they are much more thermally stable, have excellent corrosion resistance and higher ductility.The copper-base alloys are cheeper, can be melted and extruded in air and have a wider range of potential transformation temperatures.

3.1. Ni-Ti alloys (Nitinol) The basis of the Ni-Ti system is equiatomic intermetallic compound of NiTi. Excess of nickel strongly depresses temperature transformation and increases the yield strength of the austenite. The elements frequently used as common alloying addition are iron and chromium which lower the transformation temperature, and copper, which decreases the hysteresis and deformation stress of the martensite. Oxigen and carbon, common contaminants in these alloys, can shift transformation temperature and degrade the mechanical properties. Because of that, it is desirable to minimize the amount of these elements. Selective work hardening and proper heat treatment can make easer the deformation of martensite and give an austenite with much greater strength. In that way material is created a that spontaneously moves itself both on heating and on cooling (two-way shape memory). A problem of these allos is the manufacture of the alloys with properties desired. Because of the great reactivity of the titanium, the melting must be done in a vacuum or an inert atmosphere. Commercial melting methods are plasma-arc, electron-beam and vacuum-induction melting. Standard hot-forming (forging, rolling, extrusion) can be performed in air. Most cold-forming processes can be applied to these alloys but the problem is extremely rapid work hardening, because of which the frequent annealing is necessary. Wire drawing is probably the most widely used of an the techiques. Wire has excellent surface properties and sizes as small as 0,05 mm are made routinely today. However, some of the usual processes are quite problematic. Machining by turning or milling require special tools. Welding, brazing, or soldering is generally difficult. The materials do respond well to grinding, shearing or punching if thicknesses are kept small. Temperature interval to impart the desired memory shape is usually between 500o and 800oC, but heat treating can be done at 300o to 350oC if sufficient time is allowed [1].

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3.2. Legure na bazi bakra Legure na bazi bakra koje se komercijalno koriste su CuZnAl i CuAlNi ili njihove ~etverokomponentne modifikacije koje sadrè mangan. Bor, cerij, kobalt, èljezo, titan, vanadij i cirkonij se dodaju za profinjenje zrna, tabela 3 [1,2]. Temperatura martenzitne transformacije se moè podeavati hemijskim sastavom. Topljenje legura na bazi bakra je sli~no topljenju bronzi. Veina komercijalnih legura se topi u indukcionim peima. Za sprije~avanje isparavanja cinka i oksidacije aluminija neophodno je koristiti zatitini fluks na talini i prilikom livenja koristiti kao zatitu azot ili neki inertni gas. Prakasta metalurgija i proces brze solidifikacije se tako|e koriste za proizvodnju ovih sitnozrnastih legura bez dodataka za profinjenje zrna. Mogu se vrue obra|ivati na zraku. Legure CuZnAl sa manje od 6% Al mogu se hladno obra|ivati sa me|uàrenjem, a sa veim sadràjem aluminija nisu tako lako obradive na hladno. Legure CuAlNi su prili~no krte na niskim temperaturama i jedino se mogu vrue obra|ivati. Zbog prirodne nestabilnosti legura na bazi bakra tretman rastvarajueg àrenja u podru~ju mati~ne β faze i zatim kontrolisano hla|enje su neophodni da bi se β faza zadràla za efekat pamenja oblika. Termi~ka stabilnost legura na bazi bakra je ograni~ena kinetikom razlaganja, zbog ovoga treba izbjegavati duè izlaganje legura CuZnAl i CuAlNi temperaturama iznad 150o, 200oC, respektivno [1].

3.2. Copper-base alloys Commercially used copper-base alloys are CuZnAl and CuAlNi or their quaternary modifications containing manganese. Boron, cerium, cobalt, iron, titanium, vanadium and zirconium are also added for grain refinement, Table 3 [1, 2]. The martensitic transformation temperatures can be adjusted by varying chemical compostion. Copper-base alloys melting is similar to that of aluminium bronzes. Most commercial alloys are induction melted. To prevent zinc evaporation and aluminium oxidation it is necessary to use protective flux on the melt and nitrogen or inert-gas shielding during pouring. Powder metallurgy and rapid solidification processing are also used to produce fine-grain alloys without grain-refining additives. These alloys can be hot worked in air. CuZnAl alloys with less than 6 % of Al can be cold worked with interpass annealing. Alloys with higher aluminium content are not as easily cold workable. CuAlNi alloys are quite brittle at low temperatures and can only be hot formed. Because copper-base alloys are metastable in nature, solution heat treatment in the parent β-phase region and subsequent controlled cooling are necessary to retain β-phase for shape memory effects. Thermal stability of copper-base alloys is limited by cinetics of decomposition, because of which long exposure of CuZnAl and CuAlNi alloys at temperatures above 150o and 200oC should be avoided, respectively [1].

Tabela 3: Osobine legura na bazi bakra Table 3: The properties of copper-base alloys

Fizi~ke osobine - Physical Properties CuZnAl CuAlNi

Temperatura topljenja, [oC] - Melting Temperature, [oC] 950 – 1020 1000 – 1050 Gustina, [g/cm3] - Density, [g/cm3] 7,64 7,12 Elektri~ni otpor, [µΩcm] - Resistivity, [µΩcm] 8,5 – 9,7 11 – 13 Toplotna provodnost, [W/moC] - Thermal Conductivity, [W/moC] 120 30 – 43 Toplotni kapacitet, [J/kgoC] - Heat Capacity, [J/kgoC] 400 373 - 574

Mehani~ke osobine - Mechanical Properties

E, [GPa]: β - faze, β phase martenzita, martnsite

72 70

85 80

Re, [MPa] β - faze, β phase martenzita, martensite

350 80

400 130

Rm, [MPa] 600 500 – 800

Osobine pamenja oblika - Shape Memory Properties

Temperatura transformacije, [oC] Transformation Temperatures, [oC]

< 120 < 200

Elasti~na deformacija, [%] - Recoverable Strain, [%] 4 4 Histerezis, [∆oC] - Hysteresis, [∆oC] 15 - 25 15 - 20

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4. PRIMJENA LEGURA SMA Legure SMA su u osnovi funkcionalni materijal, tj. va`nije je ta ~ine, nego zato to ~ine. Funkcije koje ove legure mogu izvoditi su podijeljene u pet kategorija: 1. Slobodno oporavljanje [1,7]. Jedina funkcija elementa pamenja je da se vrati u prvobitan oblik, ~inei minimalan rad u toku zagrijavanja, sl. 6a i b [7]. Ova funkcija je iskoritena u dizajniranju filtera za krvne ugruke, kojeg je razvio M. Simon [1]. @ica od NiTi legure se oblikuje tako da se sama uhvati u veni i hvata ugruke. Elemenat se hladi kako bi se mogao deformisati do potrebnog oblika i uvodi u venu gdje je temperatura tijela dovoljna da elemenat poprimi funkcionalni oblik. 2. Prisilno oporavljanje [1,7]. Elemenat pamenja se sprje~ava da se vrati u prvobitan oblik ~ime se stvara napon od 800 MPa [1,7], sl. 6c. Najbolji primjer primjene ove funkcije je Cryofit hidrauli~no spajanje Raychem korporacije [1]. Ova armatura je izra|ena kao cilindri~ni rukavac neto uì nego metalne cijevi koje se spajaju. U martenzitnom stanju pre~nik armature se iri a nakon zagrijavanja do austenita se skuplja i ~vrsto drì krajeve cijevi, slika 7 [4]. Cijevi sprje~avaju cilindar da se vrati u potpunosti u prvobitan oblik, tj. da poprimi prvobitni pre~nik, a napon stvoren te`njom cilindra da se vrati u to stanje je dovoljno velik da stvori spoj koji je na odre|eni na~in superiorniji od zavarenog spoja. Isti elemenat se pravi i od legure CuZnAl za bakarne i aluminijske cijevi. U ovom slu~aju cilindar od CuZnAl legure se skuplja zagrijavanjem i djeluje kao pobu|iva~ pritiska kojim se cjevasta podloka pritisne na cijevi koje se spajaju. Ja~ina spoja se poja~ava zaptivnom prevlakom podloke. 3. Prisilna pobuda [1,7]. Kretanje elementa pamenja se koristi protiv neke sile i tako se ostvaruje rad do 5 J/g [7], sl. 6d. U nekim aplikacijama elemenat pamenja se dizajnira tako da proizvede silu u zna~ajnom podru~ju kretanja ~esto sa mnogo ciklusa. Primjer takve aplikacije su elektri~ni konektorski sistemi. SMA komponenta se koristi da silom otvori oprugu kada se konektor zagrijava. Nakon hla|enja NiTi pobu|iva~ postaje slabiji i opruga lako deformie pobu|iva~ dok ne zatvori kolo i ne formira vezu. I legure CuZnAl imaju istu primjenu. Takav primjer su poàrni sigurnosni ventili koji sadrè CuZnAl pobu|iva~ dizajniran tako da zaustavi protok toksi~nih ili zapaljivih materijala kada se javi poàr. 4. Djelimi~no oporavljanje [1]. Mogue je samo koristiti djelimi~no oporavljanje za precizno pozicioniranje mehanizma koritenjem odre|enog dijela oporavljanja jer se transformacija odvija u irokom temperaturnom podru~ju. Na primjer ventil kontrolie brzinu toka fluida pa`ljivim zagrijavanjem SMA komponente taman toliko da zatvori ventil kod postignute koli~ine.

4. APPLICATION OF SMA SMA-s are basically functional materials, in other words it is more important what they do than why they do it. The functions those alloys can perform can be divided into five categories. 1. Free recovery [1,7]. The only function of the memory element is to return to its previous shape doing minimal work upon heating, Figure 6a and b [7]. This function was exploited for designing blood-clot filter developed by M.Simon [1]. The NiTi wire is shaped to anchor itself in a vein and catch the passing clots. The element is cooled so that it can be deformed into a desired shape and inserted into the vein where the body temperature is sufficient to turn the element to its functional shape. 2. Constrained recovery [1,7]. The memory element is prevented from changing shape and thereby generates stresses up to 800 MPa [1, 7], Figure 6c. The best example of this function are Cryofit hydraulic couplings made by Raychem Corporation [1]. These fittings are manufactured as cylindrical sleeves slightly smaller than the metal tubing they are to join. In martensitic condition the diameters of the fittings are expanded and after heating to austenite, they shrink and strongly hold the tube ends, Figure 7 [4]. The tubes prevent a return of the cylinder to original shape and the attempts of the cylinder to do that create the stresses that are great enough to make a joint that, in some ways, is superior to a weld. The same element is made of a CuZnAl alloy for copper and aluminium tubing. In this case, the cylinder of the CuZnAl alloy shrinks on heating and acts as a driver to squeeze a tubular liner onto the tubes being joined. The joint strength is enhanced by a sealed coating on the lines. 3. Force Actuators [1, 7]. Moving of the shape memory element against some force does a work up to 5 J/g [2], Figure 6d. In some applications, shape memory element is designed to exert force over a consideration range of motion, often for many cycles. An example of such an application is the circuit-board edge connector. The SMA element is used to force open a spring when the connector is heated. Upon cooling, the NiTi actuators becomes weaker and the spring easily deformes the actuator while it closes on the circuit-board and forms connection. CuZnAl alloys also have the same application. One such example is fire safety valve which incorporates a CuZnAl actuator designed to shut off toxic or flammable gas flow when fire occurs. 4. Partial recovery [1]. It is possible to use only a part of the shape recovery to accurately position the recovery because the transformtion occurs over a range of temperatures. For example, a valve controls the rate of fluid flow by carefully heating a shape memory element just enough to close the valve at the desired amount.

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5. Superelasti~nost ili pseudoelasti~nost [1,7,8]. Ova funkcija je po svojoj prirodi izotermalna i obuhvaa akumulaciju potencijalne energije, sl. 6e. Najpoznatiji primjer ove funkcije su visokofleksibilni okvirovi za nao~ale, koji mogu apsorbovati veliku koli~inu deformacije bez oteenja. Drugo veliko polje primjene je biomedicina gdje je ovo svojstvo ugra|eno u ìce-vodi~e za katetere, ìce za zubne korekcije, ortodontske implatante i sl. Pouzdanost ure|aja sa SMA elementima zavisi od unutranjih i vanjskih parametara. Vrijeme, temperatura, napon, deformacija, na~in deformacije i broj ciklusa su u ovom smislu va`ni vanjski parametri. Unutranji parametri koji mogu imati jak uticaj na radni vijek su: vrsta legure, njen hemijski sastav, termi~ki tretman i obrada. Za generalne svrhe maksimalan efekat pamenja, deformacije i/ili napona se bira prema potrebnom broju ciklusa, tabela 4 [2,7]. Legure podvrgnute posebnim tretmanima ili sa modifikovanim hemijskim sastavom mogu imati mnogo vie vrijednosti maksimalne deformacije i napona nego to su date u tabeli 4.

5. Superelasticity or pseudoelasticity [1, 7, 8]. This function is isothermal in nature and involves the accumulation of potential energy, Figure 6e. The most known example of this function are high-flexible eyeglass frames, which can abosrb large deformation without damaging the frames. Second large field of the application is biomedicine, where this function is used in guide wires for catheters, arch wires for orthodontic correction and implants, etc. The realibility of shape memory devices depends on internal and external parameters. Time, temperature, stress, strain, strain mode and the number of cycles are in this respect important external parameters. Internal parameters that can have a strong influence on the lifetime are: the alloy system, the chemical composition, the heat treatment and the processing. For general purposes, the maximum memory effect, strain and/or stress is selected depending on the required number of cycles, Table 4 [2, 7]. The alloys exposed to the special treatments or with the special chemical composition can have much higher values of maximum strains and stresses than those given in the Table 4.

jSl. 6: Slobodno oporavljanje: jednosmjerni efekatpamenja (a), dvosm erni efekat pamenja (b),prisilno oporavljanje: TC temperatura kontakta (c),prisilna pobuda (d), superelasti~nost (e) Figure 6: Free recovery: one-way memory effect(a), two-way memory effect (b), constrainedrecovery: TC – contact temperature (c), forceactuators (d), superelasticity (e)

Sl. 7: Primjer primjenefunkcije prisilnog oporavljanjaSMA Figure 7: An example ofapplication constrainedrecovery function of SMA

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Tabela 4: Odnos izme|u broja ciklusa i maksimalnog napona i deformacije Table 4: Relation among cycle numbers and maximum stress and strain

Broj ciklusa Cycles

Maksimalna deformacija Max. Strain [%]

Maksimalni napon Max. stress [MPa]

1 8 500 100 4 275 10000 2 140

100000+ 1 70

5. ZAKLJU^CI

Danas najvie iskoritena funkcija legura sa efektom pamenja - SMA je superelasti~nost u aplikacijama za biomedicinu. Nova polja primjene su tehnologija mikropobu|iva~a i inteligentni materijali. Prednosti SMA komponenti u odnosu na materijale za klasi~ne pobu|iva~e ili senzore su: mnogo vea reverzibilna deformacija (do 8%), sposobnost stvaranja ekstremno visokih napona (do 800 MPa), velike reverzibilne promjene mehani~kih i fizi~kih osobina, visok kapacitet priguivanja i sposobnost stvaranja stepenovane deformacije ili napona [7]. SMA komponente se mogu lako ugra|ivati u matriksne materijale dajui tako inteligentne ili adaptivne materijale. Veliki interes za ove materijale je uzrokovan ~injenicom da se SMA ìca moè lako inkorporirati u nove strukturne materijale, kao to su kompoziti polimernog matriksa bez gubljenja strukturne cjeline materijala matriksa. Ugra|ivanjem SMA elementa u takve materijale mogu se dobiti nove karakteristike materijala: vei efekat pamenja oblika i manja osjetljivost na degradaciju, samoporavljajua svojstva to je posljedica vee otpornosti na zamor i izvijanje kompozita polimernog matriksa, kombinacija osobina (npr. strukturni kompozit polimernog matriksa sa podeavajuim oblikom), potpuno nove osobine kao kompozit polimernog matriksa sa adaptivnom krutosti [7]. Inteligentni materijali sa ugra|enim SMA elementima imaju vrlo obeavajuu budunost ali ovo polje zahtijeva jo mnogo istraìva~kog rada prije komercijalne primjene a veliki progres bi se mogao o~ekivati u narednim godinama [7].

5. CONCLUSION

Nowadays, the most used function of SMA is superelasticity in biomedical application. The new application fields are microactuator technology and smart materials. The advantages of the SMA elements in comparison with the materials for “classic” actuators and sensors are: much larger reversible strains (up to 8%), the ability to generate extremely high stresses (up to 800 MPa), large reversible changes of mechanical and physical characteristics, high damping capacity and ability to gradually generate stresses and strains [7]. SMA elemets can be easily incorporated in matrix materials, yielding smart or adaptive materials. A large interest in these materials is also caused by the fact that SMA wires can be easily embedded into new structural materials, such as polymer matrix composites without losing the structural integrity of the matrix material. By embedding SMA elements into such materials, new material characteristics can be generated larger SME and less sensitivity to degra-dation, self-repairing properties resulting in an increa-sed resistance against fatique and buckling of the polymer matrix composite, combination characteristics (for example structural polymer matrix composite with adjustable shape), completely new properties as polymer matrix composites with adaptive stiffness and frequency modes. Smart materials with incorporated shape memory elements have very promising future but this field still requires a lot of research before commercial application and a great deal of progress might be expected in the years to come [7].

6. LITERATURA - REFERENCES [1] www.sma-inc.com/SMAPaper.html

[2] www.uni.uiuc.edu/~richlin/sma.html [3] www.memory-metalle.de/thermal

_memory.html

[4] www.aerofit.com/sma/memory.html [5] www.sma-mems.com/intro.htm

[6] www.tiniaerospace.com.html/ ShapeMemoryAlloys.html

[7] www.mtm.kuleuven.ac.be/Research/ADAPT/ publicat/Shape memory/smatext.htm

[8] www.memory-metalle.de/superelasticity.html [9] www.toki.co.jp/BioMetal/_SMA.html

[10] www.aem.umn.edu/people/faculty/shield/ research/htm

[11] http://dmtwww.epfl.ch/isr/hpr/sma.html [12] www2gol.com/users/sst/jst/surbled.htm [13] http://aml.seas.ucla.edu/index/SMA/index.html

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http://www.sma-inc.com/SMAPaper.html

http://www.memory-metalle.de/thermal_memory.html

http://www.memory-metalle.de/thermal_memory.html

http://www.sma-mems.com/intro.htm

http://www.tiniaerospace.com.html/ShapeMemoryAlloys.html

http://www.tiniaerospace.com.html/ShapeMemoryAlloys.html

http://www.memory-metalle.de/superelasticity.html

http://www.toki.co.jp/BioMetal/_SMA.html

http://www.aem.umn.edu/people/faculty/shield/research/htm

http://www.aem.umn.edu/people/faculty/shield/research/htm

http://dmtwww.epfl.ch/isr/hpr/sma.html

http://aml.seas.ucla.edu/index/SMA/index.html

Mainstvo 2(6), 93 – 110, (2002) S.Salihovi,...: MATERIJALI ZA IZRADU REZERVOARA...

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r

rf

MATERIJALI ZA IZRADU REZERVOARA VAGON CISTERNI NAMIJENJENIH ZA PRIJEVOZ OPASNIH MATERIJA

Mr. Sabira Salihovi, dipl. in`. ma.; Prof. dr. Eref Ga~anin, dipl. in`. ma., Univerzitet u Sarajevu, Fakultet za saobraaj i komunikacije, Sarajevo, Zmaja od Bosne br. 8 REZIME

T ansport opasnih materija, zbog prirode njihovog sastava ili osobinsvakodnevnom ìvljenju, kao i same funkcije transportnog procesa, u mnogostalih materijala i roba, to je, u skladu sa opim drutvenim interesima regstandarda i preporuka na svim nivoima. U okviru Pravilnika o me|unaroopasnih materija - RID, definisani su minimalni zahtjevi za izbor ugradbenih mU radu je izloèn metodoloki pristup izbora i toka ispitivanja materijalprovjerenog materijala za izradu rezervoara vagon cisterne namijenjenesvih razreda.

Klju~ne rije~i: transport, vagon cisterne, opasne materije

MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION OF RFOR TRANSPORTATION OF DANGER

Sabira Salihovi. M.Sc.,B.Sc., Mech. Eng., Eref Ga~anin, Ph.D.,profof Sarajevo, Faculty for Traffic and Communication, Sarajevo, Zma

SUMMARY

Due to the nature of their composition o characteristics their presence ifunction of transport process transporting of dangerous goods is in mtransportation of other materials and goods. Transportation of dangerous general social interest. They a e regulated by several technical recommendations at all levels. As a part o the Rule Book on Internationalgoods-RID, minimal requirements are defined for the choice of in-built mateThis paper presents a metodological approach to the choice and procedufully tested material for construction of railway tanks for transportation of da

Key words: transport, railway tanks, dangerous goods

1. UVOD U lancu ukupne drutvene reprodukcije, od proizvodnje, preko raspodjele i razmjene, do kona~ne potronje, transport materijala predstavlja nu`nost, bez obzira da li se radi o internom ili eksternom transportu. Transport materijala, kao uslov povezivanja proizvodnje sa potroa~em ima za cilj, prvenstveno, o~uvanje upotrebne vrijednosti robe u svim fazama transportnog procesa. Da bi se taj cilj ostvario, neophodno je poznavanje materijala koji se transportuju, kao i materijala u kojima se vri transport, odnosno, materijala od kojih je izra|ena transportna ambalaà, transportna sredstva i transportna infrastruktura.

1. INTRODUCT Transport of mateneed within the towith production, final utilization. Transport of maproduction and copreserving the utiliphases of the tranIn other to accomknowledge and ubeing transported. material was used vessels, and other

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PREGLEDNI RAD

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a, ogromnoj zastupljenosti u ome se razlikuje od transporta ulisano nizom tehni~kih propisa, dnom èljezni~kom transportu aterijala u transportni sud. a za sticanje sta usa potpuno za prijevoz opasnih materija

AILWAY TANKS OUS GOODS

., B.Sc. Mech. Eng., University ja od Bosne, 8.
SUBJECT REVIEW
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n everyday living and the very any ways different from the

goods are in accordance with regulations, standards and

railway transport o dangerous rials in transport vessel.. re of acquiring the status of a ngerous goods of all classes.

ION

rials, internal, or external, is a tal social reproduction starting distribution and exchange to the

terials, is a link between nsumers, primarily aimed at the ty value of goods throughout all sport process. plish this objective, we need the nderstanding of the substances We also need to know what for the construction of transport transport means.


Pojam opasnih materija vezan je za proizvode koji, zbog prirode njihovog sastava ili osobina (zapaljivost,

otrovnost, eksplozivnost i dr.), u nekontrolisanim uslovima mogu izazvati, direktno ili indirektno, odre|ene posljedice na zdravlje ljudi, imovinu i ìvotnu okolinu. Te posljedice mogu biti katastrofalne na nivou lokalnih, regionalnih , pa ~ak i planetarnih razmjera. Savremeni uslovi svakodnevnog ìvljenja i rada nezamislivi su bez koritenja ovih materija. Me|utim, zbog opasnosti koje one nose, bez obzira u kojoj se fazi nalaze (proizvodnja, prerada, pakovanje, skladitenje, transport, primjena), predstavljaju permanentni rizik po ljude, materijalna dobra i okolinu. Kontinuirano praenje (po broju, vrstama, koli~inama i rasprostranjenosti) prisustva takvih materija, praeno je i aktivnostima obezbje|enja od svih potencijalnih opasnosti koje te materije mogu da izazovu, od nivoa Ujedinjenih nacija, preko regionalnih do nacionalnih nivoa. Prema podacima posebne agencije u okviru Organizacije Ujedinjenih nacija, danas se u svijetu proizvodi preko 4 500 000 vrsta materijala ~ije koritenje predstavlja veu ili manju opasnost po ljude i okolinu. Sretna okolnost je to se, od tog broja, u irokoj potronji, koristi samo oko 7 000 vrsta tih materija [2].

Djelovanje opasnih materija na ~ovjeka i okolinu moè biti direktno i indirektno. Opasnim materijama koje direktno djeluju smatraju se one koje se hemijski veù za ìvi organizam (kao otrovi) ili nekim drugim fizikalno – hemijskim djelovanjem izazivaju zna~ajne funkcionalne promjene na materijalu na koji djeluju ( korozija, oksidacija organskih materija). Indirektno djelovanje opasnih materija o~ituje se, naj~ee, kao poàri, eksplozije, te posljedice od zra~enja radioaktivnih materija. S toga se i transport opasnih materija, zbog dodatnih rizika u transportu (djelovanje promjenljivih sila, promjena klime, prometne nezgode…) razlikuje od transporta ostalih materija i zahtijeva organizovane drutvene aktivnosti u vidu donoenja niza propisa na svim nivoima [3]. Tako je Organizacija Ujedinjenih nacija objavila preporuke o transportu opasnih materija, a odgovarajue me|unarodne organizacije su donijele posebne propise po specifi~nim granskim aspektima: èljezni~ki, drumski, pomorski i zra~ni transport. U okviru navedenih propisa, shodno osobinama pojedinih opasnih materija i potencijalnih opasnosti koje one mogu da proizvedu, ne samo u incidentnim situacijama, nego i u normalnom tehnolokom procesu realizacije transportne usluge, definisani su uslovi pakovanja, kao i minimalni zahtjevi za materijale u kojima se vri pakovanje i transportovanje opasnih materija.

The concept of dangerous substances relates to the products which, due to the nature of their composition or characteristics (flammability, poisonousness, explosion) could under uncontrolled conditions, either directly or indirectly effect health of people, property or living environment. These consequences might be catastrophic on local, regional, or even planetary scale. Modern living and working conditions cannot be ensured without those materials. However, due to their dangerous nature, regardless of the process phase (production, processing, packing, storing, transport, utilization) these materials pose a risk to people, property and environment. Continuous monitoring (based on number, types, quantities and range) of these substances and activities aimed at ensuring safety against all possible hazards have been established on all levels, from the United Nations through regional and national levels. In accordance with the information obtained from a separate agency within the United Nations there are more than 4 500 000 types of materials manufactured worldwide which during their use might be harmful to people and environment. It is a mere chance that only about 7 000 types of those materials are in use[ 2]. Dangerous materials can impact people and environment in direct or indirect way. Dangerous substances which have a direct impact are those materials which develop chemical reactions with live organisms (like poison), or through other physical-chemical reactions cause significant functional changes of the material (corrosion, oxidation of organic matters). Indirect impact of dangerous substances are fires, explosions and radiation hazards. Therefore, transportation of dangerous substances due to additional transport risk (action of changing forces, climate changes, traffic accidents) differs from the transportation of other substances and requires a number of regulations which have to be defined at all levels. The United Nations Organization published recommendations concerning transport of dangerous substances, while some international organizations passed different regulations concerning specific profession aspects: railway, road, marine and air transport. Packaging conditions are defined as minimum packaging requirements for the transportation of dangerous substances. Those conditions have been set in accordance with the said regulations, based on characteristics of dangerous substances, as well as potential hazards faced not only in incident sitautions but in normal technological processes concerning transportation services also.

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2. TRANSPORT OPASNIH MATERIJA @ELJEZNICOM

Me|unarodni èljezni~ki transport ure|en je Konvencijom o me|unarodnom èljezni~kom saobraaju – COTIF koju propisuju zemlje ~lanice∗ u obliku:

- dodatak A Konvencije: Jedinstvena pravila ugovora o me|unarodnom prijevozu putnika i prtljaga èljeznicama) i

- dodatak B Konvencije: jedinstvena pravila ugovora o me|unarodnom prijevozu roba èljeznicom, u okviru kojeg je, u prilogu I, sadràn pravilnik RID.

Me|unarodnim pravilnikom RID opasne materije svrstane su u devet razreda i to: Razred 1. Eksplozivne materije i predmeti Razred 2. Gasovi; komprimirani, pretvoreni u te~nost i rastvoreni pod pritiskom** Razred 3. Zapaljive te~ne materije Razred 4.1. Zapaljive ~vrste materije Razred 4.2 Samozapaljive materije Razred 4.3. Materije, koje u dodiru sa vodom, razvijaju zapaljive gasove Razred 5.1 Oksidirajue materije Razred 5.2. Organski peroksidi Razred 6.1. Otrovne materije Razred 6.2. Zarazne (infektivne) materije Razred 7. Radioaktivne materije Razred 8. Korozivne materije Razred 9. Ostale opasne materije i predmeti. Kod transporta opasnih materija èljeznicom obavezno je pridràvanje tehnolokih postupaka propisanih RID Pravilnikom za svaki razred posebno i potivanje posebnih propisa definisanih u odgovarajuim dodacima RID- a: Dodatak II RID-a: A. Propisi o kvalitetu sudova od aluminijumovih

legura za izvjesne gasove razreda 2. B. Propisi u pogledu materijala i izrade sudova

prema iv. br. 207 za prijevoz gasova pretvorenih u te~nost dubokim hla|enjem razreda 2.

C. Propisi za materijale i izradu vagon cisterni i sudova kontejner cisterni za koje je propisan probni pritisak od najmanje 1 MPa (10 bara), kao i za one vagon cisterne i sudove kontejner cisterni koji se koriste za prijevoz gasova pretvorenih u te~nost dubokim hla|enjem, razreda 2.

∗Zemlje ~lanice ugovora COTIF-a, sa stanjem 1.1.1997. god. su:

Albanija, Alìr, Belgija, Bosna i Hercegovina, Bugarska, Danska, Njema~ka, Finska, Francuska, Gr~ka, Irak, Iran, Irska, Italija, Hrvatska, Libanon, Lihtentein, Litvanija, Luksemburg, Maroko, Makedonija, Monako, Holandija, Norveka, Austrija, Poljska, Portugal, Rumunija, [vedska, [vicarska, Slova~ka, Slovenija, [panija, Sirija, êka republika, Turska, Tunis, Ma|arska,Velika Britanija. ** Gasovi rastvoreni pod pritiskom: amonijak rastvoren u vodi, … acetilen rasvoren u acetonu…

2. RAILWAY TRANSPORTATION OF DANGEROUS SUBSTANCES

International railway transport is regulated by the Convention on the International Railway Transport defined by the member countries∗ in the following way:

- Annex A to the Convention: Uniform Contract Provisions on International Railway Transport of Passengers and Luggage, and

- Annex B to the Convention: Uniform Contract Provisions on International Railway Transport of Goods, which in the Attachment I includes the RID Rule Book .

International RID Rule Book classifies dangerous goods in the following nine classes: Class 1. Explosive substances and articles Class 2. Gases: compressed,liquefied or dissolved under pressure** Class 3. Flammable liquids Class 4.1. Flammable solids Class 4.2 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion Class 4.3. Substances which, in contact with water, encit flammable gases Class 5.1 Oxidising substances Class 5.2. Organic peroxides Class 6.1. Toxic substances Class 6.2. Infections substances Class 7. Radioactive material Class 8. Corrosive substances Class 9. Miscellaenous dangerous substances and articles. Technological procedures defined in RID Rule Book for all classes and special provisions defined in the related RID Annexes, must be fully observed with the transportation of dangerous substances of all classes: Annex II to RID: A. Provisions relating to the nature of aluminium alloy vessels for certain gases of Class 2.

B. Requirements concerning the materials and construction of vessels intended for the carriage of deeply-refrigerated liquied gases of Class 2.

C. Requirements concerning the materials and construction of railway tanks and tank-containers, intended for the carriage of deeply-refrigerated liquefied gases of Class 2, or if a test pressure not lower than 1 Mpa (10 bar) is required.

∗ COTIF member countries as of January 1,1997: Albania, Algeria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Denmark, Germany, Finland, France, Greece, Iraq, Iran, Ireland, Italy, Croatia, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Litvania, Luxemburg, Marocco, Macedonia, Monaco, Holland, Norwey, Austria, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Sweden, Switzerland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Chezk Republic, Turkey, Tunisia, Hungary, Great Britain. ** gases dissolved under pressure: ammonia dissolved in water,… acetilen soaked with acetone…

- 95 -


Dodatak V - Opi propisi o pakovanju, vrste pakovanja, zahtjevi i propisi o ispitivanju

ambalaè; Dodatak VI - Odredbe koje se odnose na velike sudove za rasuti teret; Dodatak X - Propisi za izradu, ispitivanje i upotrebu kontejner cisterni i Dodatak XI - Propisi za izradu, ispitivanje i upotrebu vagon cisterni.

Za ta~no definisanu opasnu materiju, ako se materija nalazi u UN-listi, dio podataka se moè pronai u RID-u, a ostali podaci vezani za osobine materijala, opasnosti koje mogu proizvesti, rukovanje i zatitu, dobivaju se ili ispitivanjima ili direktno od proizvo|a~a. U svakom slu~aju, vei broj tehni~ko-informativnih podataka o opasnim materijama u transportu, daju sigurniji transport.

Annex V - General packing conditions, types of packing, requirements applicable to packagings and test requirements for packagings. Annex VI - Conditions for the use of intermediate bulk containers; Annex X - Requirements to construction, tests and use of tank-container; and Annex XI - Requirements to construction, tests and use of railway tanks.

Some information concerning specifically defined dangerous substances, if these substannces are specified in the UN list, could be found in RID. Other information concerning characteristics of materials, danger, handling and protection could be obtained through tests, or directly from manufacturers. In either case, better transport safety could be achieved if more technical-information data on the transport of dangerous substances are available.

2.1. Propisi za vagon cisterne koji su definisani RID pravilnikom

Pravilnikom RID, kroz Dodatak XI , definisani su opi pojmovi, izrada, oprema, ozna~avanje i eksploatacija za sve materije u gasovitom, te~nom i prakastom ili zrnastom stanju, a posebnim propisima u okviru ovog Dodatka definisani su uslovi upotrebe i izrade za svaki razred pojedina~no. U odredbama opeg dijela Dodatka XI podrazumijeva se da je : rezervoar : omota~ i dno rezervoara

(uklju~ujui otvore i njihove poklopce); ure|aj za opsluìvanje – oprema rezervoara:

ure|aj za punjenje, pra`njenje, provjetravanje, osiguranje, zagrijavanje, toplotnu zatitu, kao i mjerni instrumenti;

sastavni ure|aj: spoljanji ili unutranji elementi za ukruivanje, za pri~vrivanje i zatitu rezervoara;

2.1. Provisions relating railway tank defined in RID Rule Book

The RID Rule Book, Annex XI, defines general terms, construction, equipment, labelling and use for all substances in gaseous, liquid and powder or granular state. Conditions for the use and construction of each class are defined under special provisions within this Annex as well. Provisions specified in the general part of the Annex XI have the following meaning: shell : means the sheathing containing the

substances (including the opening and their closures;

service equipment – of the shells: means the filling, discharge, venting, safety, heating and heat – insulating devices and the measuring instruments;

structural equipment: means the external or internal reinforcing, fastening, protective or stabilizing members external to the shell;

Pri projektovanju i izradi rezervoara vagon cisterni moraju biti ispunjeni sljedei minimalni zahtijevi: Sudovi moraju biti izra|eni od pogodnih metala

koji, ukoliko kod pojedina~nih razreda nisu predvi|ena druga temperaturna podru~ja, pri temperaturi izme|u – 200C i + 500C moraju biti otporni na lom i neosjetljivi na naponsku koroziju.

Ugradbeni materijali moraju biti zavarljivi sa garantovanom vrijednou udarne ìlavosti na – 200C u zavarenim avovima i zoni uticaja zavarivanja. Pri prora~unu debljine zida suda cisterne mora se uzeti u obzir faktor zavarenog ava.

The following minimum requirements must be met in the designing of railway tank shells: Vessels shall be made of suitable metallic

materials which, unless other temperature ranges are prescribed in the various classes, shall be resistant to brittle fracture and to stress corrosion cracking between – 200C i + 500C .

For welded shells only materials of faultless weldability and whose adequate impact strength at an ambient temeprature of – 200C can be guaranteed, particularly in the weld seams and the zones adjacent thereto, shall be used.

- 96 -


Materijal sudova ili njihove unutranje zatitne prevlake koji dolaze u dodir sa sadràjem,

moraju biti inaktivni. Ako dodir izme|u materije koja se prevozi i materijala suda prouzrokuje progresivno smanjenje debljine sudova, onda se, pri prora~unavanju debljine zidova, mora uzeti u obzir faktor istroenosti.

Pritisak mjerodavan za odre|ivanje debljine zida suda ne smije biti niì od prora~unskog pritiska.

The materials of vessels, or their protective linings in contact with the contents, shall not contain substances liable to react dangerously with the contents. If contact between the substance carried and the materials used for the construction of the vessel entails a progressive decrease in the thickness of the walls, this thickness shall be increased at manufacture by an appropriate amount.

The pressure on which the wall thickness of the vessel is based shall not be less than the calculation pressure..

2.2. Posebni propisi za pojedine razrede

Posebnim propisima u okviru RID-a Dodatak XI, Propisi za izradu, ispitivanje i upotrebu vagon cisterni, definisani su uslovi upotrebe i izrade za svaki razred pojedina~no. Pojam "upotreba" podrazumijeva " brojeve nabrajanja" materija odgovarajuih ivi~nih brojeva koje smiju da se prevoze u vagon cisternama. Pojam "izrada" podrazumijeva zahtjeve za izbor ugradbenih materijala i prora~unske pritiske za sudove za prijevoz materija definisanih prethodnim stavom. Detaljna analiza pojedina~nih materija ili zbirnih naziva koji grupiu sutinski srodne materije, ukazuje da se za izradu sudova i njima pripadajuih dijelova smiju upotrebljavati samo oni materijali podobni za najniù radnu temperaturu koja se pojavljuje u toku eksploatacije. Ova ograni~enja se posebno odnose na sudove za prijevoz gasova pretvorenih u te~nost dubokim hla|enjem, to je regulisano posebnim propisima RID-a, Dodatak II, kao i sve druge materije ostalih razreda koje podlijeù zahtjevima definisanim u Posebnim propisima dodatka X. Prema RID Dodatku II C. za proizvodnju sudova treba koristiti sljedee materijale: a) ~elici koji pri najniòj temperaturi u toku

eksploatacije ne podlijeù lomu usljed krtosti: 1. opi konstrukcioni ~elici; 2. finozrnasti konstrukcioni ~elici do

temperature –600 C; 3. legirani ~elici sa niklom (sa sadràjem

nikla od 0,5 do 9%) do temperature – 1960 C u zavisnosti od sadràja nikla;

4. austenitni hrom-nikl ~elici do temperature –2700 C;

b) aluminij sa sadràjem od najmanje 99,5% aluminija ili aluminijeve legure;

c) bakar koji ne sadrì kiseonik, sa sadràjem od najmanje 99,9% bakra ili bakarne legure sa sadràjem bakra veim od 56%.

2.2. Special provisions relating specific Classes

Special provisions under the RID, Annex XI, Provisions relating the construction, testing and use of railway tanks are defined as conditions for the use and construction for each Class. The term “use” means “enumeration numbers” of adequate marginal numbers of substances which are allowed for railway tank transportation. Term “construction” means the requirements concerning the selection of construction and calculation pressure for materials defined in the above paragraph. Detailed analysis of specific materials or collective terms which group essentilly similar materials, indicates that only those materials which are suitable for the lowest working temperature during their exploatation are allowed for the construction of vessels and their related elements. These limitations primarily relate to the tank-containers intended for the carriage of deeply-refrigerated liqufied gases, as defined under special provisions in the RID, Annex II, as well as other substances from other Classes liable to requirements defined under the Special provisions in Annex X. In accordance with RID, Annex II C, the following materials shall be allowed for the construction of shells: a) steels not subject to brittle fracture at the

lowest working temperature: 1. mild steels; 2. fine-grained unalloyed steel down to the

temeprature of –600 C; 3. nickled steels (with a nickel content of 0.5

to 9%) down to a temperature of – 1960

C, depending on the nickel content; 4. austenite chrome-nickel steels down to a

temperature of –2700 C; b) aluminium not less than 99.5% pure or

aluminium alloys; c) deoxidized copper not less than 99.9% pure,

or copper alloys having a copper content of over 56%.

- 97 -


3. IZBOR MATERIJALA ZA IZRADU REZERVOARA VAGON CISTERNI

Najvei broj pozicija vagon cisterne je standardizovan, kako u pogledu konstruktivnog rjeenja, tako i u pogledu materijala od kojih su izra|eni, ~ime se obezbje|uje njihova zamjenjivost i prilagodljivost uslovima saobraaja. Rezervoar, kao glavni funkcionalni sklop, mora biti izra|en od materijala koji, pored osnovnog zahtjeva za o~uvanje upotrebne vrijednosti robe u toku transporta, odnosno inaktivnosti, tako|e zadovoljavaju i zahtjeve koji se direktno odraàvaju na pouzdanost i sigurnost transporta.. Pored toga, od izabranog materijala, uz zadovoljenje osnovnih tehni~ko-tehnolokih karakteristika, o~ekuje se i manja sopstvena masa, to rezultira ekonomskim i ekolokim pogodnostima. Prema odredbama Opeg dijela Dodatka XI RID Pravilnika, rezervoari moraju biti izra|eni od pogodnih, zavarljivih metala koji pri temperaturi izme|u – 200C i + 500C moraju biti otporni na lom i neosjetljivi na naponsku koroziju, ukoliko kod pojedina~nih razreda nisu predvi|ena druga temperaturna podru~ja. Posebnim propisima Dodatka II C RID-a za vagon cisterne za koje je predvi|en probni pritisak iznad 1 MPa (10 bara), kao i vagon cisterne koje se koriste za prijevoz te~nih gasova, materijali za izradu vagon cisterni su definisani kao ~elici koji pri najniòj temperaturi u toku eksploatacije ne podlijeù lomu usljed krtosti. Ovako definisani materijali za izradu vagon cisterni nude irok izbor materijala, a odgovarajuim standardima koji se odnose na posude pod pritiskom, te definisanim uslovima eksploatacije (temperatura, pritisak i djelovanje radne materije), taj izbor je relativno suèn. Ispitivanja materijala za izradu rezervoara vagon cisterne, pored ispitivanja osnovnog materijala, obuhvataju i ispitivanja koja se odnose na ponaanje materijala u toku procesa zavarivanja, kao i ispitivanja sklonosti materijala prema nastanku naprslina, kako je prikazano na slici 1. Osnovna ispitivanje osobina osnovnog materijala obuhvataju standardna ispitivanja: dimenziona kontrola, ispitivanje homogenosti, hemijska, mehani~ka i metalografska ispitivanja. Za ner|ajue ~elike ispituje se i otpornost prema me|ukristalnoj koroziji Dopunska ispitivanja su u direktnoj funkciji definisane klase posude, odnosno uslova eksploatacije. Dopunska ispitivanja na povienim temperaturama podrazumijevaju ispitivanje zatezanjem, kao i trajno ispitivanje puzanjem. Mehani~ka ispitivanja pri sniènim temperaturama se naj~ee odnose na odre|ivanje sklonosti metala prema krtom lomu. Ispitivanja se sprovode na istim ure|ajima kao i ispitivanje na sobnoj temperaturi uz dodatak posude za hla|enje epruveta.

3. SELECTION OF MATERIAL FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF RAILWAY TANKS Most railway tank positions are standardized, concerning both structural solution and material used for the construction of railway tanks, which ensure their substitution and adaptability to traffic conditions. A shell, as a major functional element, must be made of material which meets the requirements concerning the value of use preservation during the transport, i.e. inactivity, and those concerning a direct maintenance, reliability and saftey during the transport. Also, the selected material, must comply with the basic technical-technological requirements. The material is expected to decrease its own mass and produce both economic and environmental benefits. In accordance with the provisions defined in the General part of the Annex XI RID Rule Book, shells shall be made of suitable, weldable metallic materials, resistant at a temperature ranging from – 200C to + 500C and must be fracture resistant and non-sensitive to stress corrosion, unless other temperature ranges had been planned for individual classes. Special provisions under RID, Annex II C concerning railway tanks designed to a test pressure higher than 1 MPa (10 bar) as well as railway tanks for carriage of liqufied gases, define steels as the material for the construction of railway tanks which are not liable to brittle fracture at the lowest exploitation temprature. In this way defined materials for the construction of railway tanks offer a wide range of materials for the selection. However, this selection is significantly reduced as a result of defined standards concerning pressure vessels, as well as defined exploitation conditions (such as temperature, pressure, and acting of the working substance). Examinations of materilas for the construction of railway tank, besides basic materials examination, include examinations concerning behavior of material in a welding process and examinations of sensitivity cracking. Basic examinations concerning characteristics of basic material include standard examinations: dimension control, homogeneity tests, chemical, mechanical and metallographic examinations. For stainless steels, tests shall be made on the inter-crystal corrosion sensitivity. Additional examinations directly relate to the defined vessel class, i.e. exploitation conditions. Additional examinations concerning elevated temperatures include tension tests, as well as permanent creep examination. Mechanical examinations at lower temperatures mainly relate on the determination of brittle fracture tendency. Examinations are conducted in the same devices as those used for examinations at room teperatures. The only difference is that the former requires cooling test pieces.

- 98 -


Zna~ajan element u procjeni ponaanja osnovnog materijala je i odre|ivanje prijelazne temperature

krtosti – PTK pri razli~itim eksploatacionim uslovima. Naj~ee koritena metoda odre|ivanja PTK je preko dijagrama promjene ìlavosti pri niskim temparaturama. Jedan od poznatih i priznatih kriterijuma naziva se PTK 50% duktilni – 50% krti lom[4]. U cilju odre|ivanja komponenata kvaliteta zavarenih spojeva ispitivanje se vri po raznim osnovama. êsto se koristi podjela na ispitivanja bez razaranja (vizuelna i dimenziona kontrola, penetrantska, radiografska, ultrazvu~na, magnetna i elektromagnetna ispitivanja) i ispitivanja sa razaranjem ( hemijska, mehani~ka, metalografska). Ispitivanjem i kontrolom zavarenih spojeva utvr|uju se karakteristike metala ava, zone uticaja toplote, osnovnog materijala i zavarenog spoja kao cjeline. Me|u fenomenima koji ograni~avaju zavarljivost metala neosporno je najva`nija sklonost osnovnog materijala prema pojavi naprslina koje se mogu javiti u toku zavarivanja. U praksi je razvijen ~itav niz postupaka za ispitivanje sklonosti prema obrazovanju pojedinih tipova naprslina, a neke metode su: [4]. a) za ispitivanje sklonosti prema obrazovanju

toplih naprslina: odre|ivanje HCS (Hot Cracking Sensitivity), VARESTRENT test, MUREX ispitivanje, KSLA test, ispitivanje sa kru`nim zarezom prema THOMASU, metoda po KIHLGRENU i LAEY-u, KAUTZ-OVA proba, BROWN-BOVERI proba, U.I.C. proba i dr.

b) za ispitivanje sklonosti prema obrazovanju hladnih naprslina: ispitivanje prema TEKKENU, CTS proba (controled thermal-severity), LEHIGH metoda, krstasta proba, ispitivanje sa usa|enim ~epom, ÂBELKA-MILLION proba, odre|ivanje sadràja vodonika u zavarenim spojevima i dr.

c) za odre|ivanje sklonosti prema lamelarnom cijepanju: ultrazvu~no ispitivanje kojim se otkrivaju grupe uklju~aka koji mogu biti potencijalni uzrok naprslina pri zavarivanju, CRANFIELDOVO ispitivanje, WINDOW test, FARAROVA proba, metoda savijanja odrezaka.

d) za ispitivanje osjetljivosti prema pojavi naprslina usljed naknadnog zagrijavanja: TANAKINO ispitivanje, test sa H prorezom, ispitivanje uzoraka sa kru`nom rupom i dr.

Ovako opse`na propisana ispitivanja, te usaglaavanje rezultata ispitivanja sa tehni~kom regulativom i konstrukcionom dokumentacijom, daju odabranom materijalu za izradu rezervoara vagon cisterne status potpuno provjerenog materijala, to se naj~ee potvr|uje dokumentacijom od strane proizvo|a~a. Verifikacija materijala se vri, ili analizom dokumenata o kvalitetu materijalu i identifikacijom priloènim dokumentom, ili provjerom kvaliteta primjenom ulazne kontrole i sprovo|enjem osnovnih ispitivanja.

An important element for assessment of the basic material behavior is the determination of transit brittle temperature in different conditions for the use. Mostly used method for the determination of transit brittle temperature is a sensitivity change diagram of toughness at low temperature. One of the recognized criteria is transit brittle temperature 50% ductile – 50% brittle fracture. Determination of welded joints quality is made on the basis of different elements. Very often used examinations are non-destructive examinationstes (visual and dimension control, penetrating, radiographic, ultrasound, magnetic and electromagnetic examinations). Determination of metallic seams, basic material and welded joint as a whole is done with both examinations and control of welded joints. Among the phenomena which limit metals weldability, the most important is cracking sensitivity of a basic material which might occur during the welding. A number of procedures have been developed for testing of specific cracks in practice. Some of those methods are: a) hot cracking sensitivity examination

determination of HCS (Hot Cracking Sensitivity), VARESTRENT test, MUREX examination, KSLA test, THOMAS circular notch examination, KIHLGREN and LAEY method, KAUTZ test, BROWN-BOVERI test, U.I.C. test etc.

b) cold cracking sensitivity examination:: TEKKENU examination, CTS test (controled thermal-severity), LEHIGH method, cross-shaped test, socket plug examination, ÂBELKA-MILLION test, determination of hydrogen contents etc.

c) lamellar cleavage sensitivity: ultrasound testing which discovers groups of inclusions as potential cause of cleavages during welding, CRANFIELDOVO testing, WINDOW test, FARAROVA trial, the cut-offs bending method.

d) Cracking sensitivity as a result of additional heating testing: TANAKINO testing, test with H cut,testing pieces with circural hope etc.

Very detailed examinations, and coordination of examination results against technical regulations and construction documentation give to a selected material for the construction of a railway tank shell a fully tested status, which very often complies with the manufacturer' documentation. Verification of material is done either with the analysis, of documents on quality of material and identification of attached documents, or quality control based on the application of input control and performance of basic examinations.

- 99 -


Mehanička ispitivanja na sniženim temp.

Osnovna ispitivanja

Izbor tehnologije zavarivanja

Rezultati zadovo-ljavaju

Ispitivanje hemijskog sastava

B

Izbo

r nov

og

mat

erija

la


da

da

ne

Dimenziona kontrola

Metalografska ispitivanja

Ispit. korozione postojanosti

Mehanička ispitivanja

Ispitivanje osnovnog materijala B

Izbor osnovnog materijala

dopunska ispitivanja

A

C

Mehanička ispitivanja na povišenim temp.

Ispitivanje homogenosti

- eksploatacioni zahtjevi - projektni zahtjevi - tehni~ka regulativa

START

- 100 -


naprslina

ne da

no

ne da

da

Nema naprslina

Ispitivanje sklonosti ka nastanku naprslina

Ispitivanja sa razaranjem

Ispitivanje zavarenih spojeva

Ispitivanje bez razaranja

A B C

A

Promjena uslova ili metode

C ne da

C Promjene

tehnologije zavarivanja

IZLAZ: OSNOVNI MATERIJAL

ZADOVOLJAVA POSTAVLJENE

ZAHTJEVE

A

Ispitivanje sklonosti ka

pojavi naprslina

usljed ponovnog

zagrijavanja

Ispitivanje sklonosti

prema lamelarnom

cijepanju

Ispitivanje osjetljivosti

prema pojavi toplih

Ispitivanje osjetljivosti

prema pojavi hladnih

naprslina


Slika 1. Blok dijagram ispitivanja materijala za izradu rezervoara vagon cisterni

- 101 -


Mechanical examinations at lower temperature

Basic examinations

Selection of welding technology

Results satisfa- ctoriy

Determination of chemical content

B

Sele

ctio

n of

ne

w m

ater

ial

Results satisfa- ctoriy

yes

yes

no

Dimension control

Metallographic examinations

Examination of corrosion stability

Mechanical examination

Examination of basic material B

Selection of basic material

Additional examinations

A

C

Mechanical examination at elevated temperature

Homogenity examination

- use requirements - design requirements - technical regulations

START

- 102 -


h of repeated

no yes

no

no yes

yes

No cracks found

Examination of cracking sensitivity

Destructive examinations

Examination of welded joints

Non-destructive examinations

A B C

A

Conditions or methods

change C no yes

C Cgange of technology as a result of welding

OUTPUT: BASIC MATERIAL

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS TECHNICAL

REGULATIONS

A

Examination of cracking sensitivity as a result

heating

Exami-nation of lamellar cleavage

sensitivity

Exami-nation of ot crackingsensitivity

Exami-nation of

cold cracking

sensitivity

Results satisfa-ctoriy

Picture 2. Block diagram of examination of materials for construction of railway tank shell

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4. SPECIFIKACIJA BAS STANDARDA ZA ISPITIVANJE METALNIH MATERIJALA

Prema uputstvima i procedurama koje je donio Institut za standarduzaciju, mjeriteljstvo i patente BiH, a koje su usaglaene sa ISO Direktivama i CEN/CENELEC (European Committe for Standardization/European Committe for Electrotechnical Standardization) Regulativama, a koje su u skladu sa zakonom o standardizaciji, obavljaju se sve aktivnosti vezane za pripremu i prihvatanje dokumenata bosanskohercegova~ke standardizacije. U daljnjem tekstu navedeni su neki od BAS standarda, doneseni zaklju~no sa 2000.god., koji se odnose na odgovarajua ispitivanja metalnih materijala[9, 10]. Za sva ostala standardna ispitivanja koja nisu navedena u okviru ove ta~ke, jo uvijek vrijede JUS standardi izdati do kraja 1991. god.

4. SPECIFICATION OF BAS STANDARDS FOR METALLIC MATERIALS TESTS

All activities necessary for the preparation and adoption of documents for Bosnian and Herzegovinian standardization are done in accordance with the guidelines and instructions defined by the Institute for Standardization, Measurements and Patents, BiH, coordinated with ISO Directives and CEN/CENELEC (European Committe for Standardization/European Committe for Electrotechnical Standardization) Regulations, consistent with the Law on Stanadardization. Some BAS standards defined by the year 2000, concerning appropriate metallic material tests will be presented in the following paragraphs [9,10]. Other standard examinations which are not mentioned here are still valid under JUS standard published by the end of 1991.

4.1. Ispitivanje hemijskog sastava

BAS ISO 4552-1: 1998. Ferolegure. Uzorkovanje i priprema uzoraka za hemijsku analizu. Dio 1: ferokrom, ferosilikrom, ferosilicijum, ferosilikomangan, feromangan. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 481: 1978.

BAS ISO 4552-2: 1998. Ferolegure. Uzrokovanje i priprema uzoraka za hemijsku analizu. Dio 2: ferotitan, feromolibden, ferovolfram, feroniob, ferovanadij. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 481. 1978.

BAS ISO 26352: 1998. Feronikl. Odre|ivanje sadràja nikla. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 431: 1987.

BAS ISO 4829-2: 2000. êlik i èljezo: odre|ivanje ukupnog sadràja silicija. Spektrofotometrijska metoda. Dio 2: sadràj silicija izme|u 0,01 i 0,05 %. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 049: 1989.

BAS ISO 439: 2000. êlik i èljezo: odre|ivanje ukupnog sadràja silicija. Gravimetrijska metoda. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 052: 1986.

BAS ISO 629: 2000. êlik i liveno èljezo: odre|ivanje sadràja mangana. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 055: 1986.

BAS ISO 10714: 2000. êlik i èljezo: odre|ivanje sadràja fosfora. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 056: 1986.

4.1. Determinatin of chemical content

BAS ISO 4552-1: 1998. Ferroalloys. Sampling and sample preparation for chemical analysis. Part 1: Ferrochromium, ferrosillicochromium, ferrosilcon, ferrosilicomanganese, ferromanganese. Change: JUS C. A1. 481: 1978.

BAS ISO 4552-2: 1998. Ferroalloys. Sampling and sample preparation for chemical analysis. Part 2: Ferrotitanium, ferromolybdenum, ferrotungsten, ferroniobium, ferrovanadium. Change: JUS C. A1. 481. 1978.

BAS ISO 26352: 1998. Ferronickel. Determination of nickel content. Change: JUS C. A1. 431: 1987.

BAS ISO 4829-2: 2000. Steel and iron. Determination of total silicon content. Spectrophotometric method. Part 2: Silicon content between 0,01 i 0,05 %. Change: JUS C. A1. 049: 1989.

BAS ISO 439: 2000. Steel and iron. Determination of total silicon content. Gravimetric method. Change: JUS C. A1. 052: 1986.

BAS ISO 629: 2000. Steel and iron. Determination of manganese content. Change: JUS C. A1. 055: 1986.

BAS ISO 10714: 2000. Steel and iron. Determination of phosphorus content. Change: JUS C. A1. 056: 1986.

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BAS ISO 4140: 2000. Ferolegure. Ferokrom i feroslikokrom: odre|ivanje

sadràja kroma. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 401:1980.

BAS ISO 4158: 2000. Ferolegure. Ferosilicij, ferosilikomangan i ferosilikokrom. Odre|ivanje sadràja silicija. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 402: 1980.

BAS ISO 4159: 2000. Ferolegure. Feromangan i ferosilikomangan. Odre|ivanje sadràja mangana. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 405: 1978.

BAS ISO 4937: 2000. êlik i èljezo. Odre|ivanje sadràja kroma. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 062: 1988.

BAS ISO 4139: 2000. Ferosilicijum: odre|ivanje sadràja aluminija. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 424: 1980.

BAS ISO 6467: 2000. Ferovanadijum: odre|ivanje sadràja vanadijuma. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 425: 1980.

BAS ISO 4173: 2000. Feromolibden: odre|ivanje sadràja molibdena. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 426: 1980. NS/ BAS ISO 10280: 2000. êlik i èljezo: odre|ivanje sadràja titana. Zamjenjuje JUS C. A1. 071: 1970. NS/ BAS ISO 3713: 2000. Ferolegure: uzorkovanje i priprema uzoraka. Opa pravila. Zamjenjuje: BAS ISO 3713: 1998, koji zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 480: 1977.

BAS ISO 4140: 2000. Ferroalloys. Ferrochromium and ferrosilicochromium. Determination of chromium content. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A1. 401: 1980.

BAS ISO 4158: 2000. Ferroalloys. Ferrosilicon, ferrosilicomanganese and ferrosilicochromium Determination of silicon content. Change: JUS C. A1. 402: 1980.

BAS ISO 4159: 2000. Ferroalloys. Ferromanganese and ferrosilicomanganese; Determination of manganese content. Change: JUS C. A1. 405: 1978.

BAS ISO 4937: 2000. Steel and iron. Determination of chromium content. Change: JUS C. A1. 062: 1988.

BAS ISO 4139: 2000. Ferrosilicion: Determination of aluminium content. Change: JUS C. A1. 424: 1980.

BAS ISO 6467: 2000. Ferropvanadium:Determination of vanadium content. Change: JUS C. A1. 425: 1980.

BAS ISO 4173: 2000. Feromolibden: Determination of molybdenum content. Change: JUS C. A1. 426: 1980.

NS/ BAS ISO 10280: 2000. Steel and iron. Determination of titanium content. Change: JUS C. A1. 071: 1970.

NS/ BAS ISO 3713: 2000. Ferroaloys:Sampling and preparation of samples. General rules. Change: BAS ISO 3713: 1998, which change: JUS C. A1. 480: 1977.

4.1.1. Novi prihvaeni BAS standardi iz oblasti ispitivanja hemijskog sastava: BAS ISO 4829-1: 2000. êlik i liveno èljezo: odre|ivanje ukupnog sadràja silicija. Dio 1: sadràj silicija izme|u 0,05 i 1,0% BAS ISO 4943: 2000. êlik i liveno èljezo. Odre|ivanje sadràja bakra

4.1.1. New accepted BAS standards for determinatin of chemical content BAS ISO 4829-1: 2000. Steel and cast iron. Determination of total silicon content. Part 1: Silicon content between 0.05 i 1.0 %. BAS ISO 4943: 2000. Steel and cast iron. Determination of cooper content.

4.2. Ispitivanje bez razaranja BAS EN 444:1998 Ispitivanje bez razaranja. Opi principi za radiografska ispitivanja metalnih materijala. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. T3. 040: 1966.

4.2. Non destructive testing BAS EN 444:1998 Non destructive testing. General principles for radiographic examination of metallic materials. Change: JUS C. T3. 040: 1966.

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BAS EN 571-1: 1998 Ispitivanje bez razaranja-Penetrantska ispitivanja.

Dio 1: Opi principi. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A7. 080: 1990. BAS ISO 3057: 1998 Ispitivanje bez razaranja-Metoda ispitivanja povrine pomou metalografskih replika. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A7. 091: 1985

BAS EN 571-1: 1998 Non destructive testing. Penetrant testing. Part 1: General principles. Change: JUS C. A7. 080: 1990. BAS ISO 3057: 1998 Non destructive testing. Metallographic replica techniques of surface. Examination. Change: JUS C. A7. 091: 1985

4.2.1. Novi prihvaeni BAS standardi koji se odnose na ispitivanje bez razaranja: BAS ISO 4987: 1999 êli~ni odlivci. Penetrantska kontrola. BAS ISO 4993: 1999 êli~ni odlivci. Radiografska kontrola.

BAS ISO 5948: 2000 Materijali za èljezni~ka vozila. Postupak ispitivanja ultrazvukom kod prijema.

BAS ISO 6933: 2000 Materijali za èljezni~ka vozila. Postupak ispitivanja magnetnim ~esticama kod prijema. BAS ISO 7452: 2000 Toplo valjani konstrukcioni ~eli~ni limovi. Tolerancije dimenzija i oblika.

4.2.1. New accepted BAS standards for non destructive testings

BAS ISO 4987: 1999 Steel castings. Penetrant inspection.

BAS ISO 4993: 1999 Steel castings. Radiographic inspection. BAS ISO 5948: 2000 Railway rolling stock material. Ultrasonic acceptance testing.. BAS ISO 6933: 2000 Railway rolling stock material. Magnetic particle acceptance testing.

BAS ISO 7452: 2000 Hot – rolled structural steel plates. Tolerances on dimensions and shape.

4.3. Mehani~ka ispitivanja BAS EN 10002-1: 2000 Metalni materijali. Ispitivanje zatezanjem. Dio 1: Metoda ispitivanja. Zamjenjuje: BAS ISO 6892: 1999 koji zamjenjuje: JUS C. A4. 002. BAS ISO 7438: 1999. Metalni materijali-Ispitivanje savijanjem Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A4. 005: 1986. BAS EN 10045-1: 1998. Metalni materijali. [arpijev test udarom. Dio 1: Metoda ispitivanja. Zamjenjuje : JUS C.A4. 004: 1985 (epruveta sa U zarezom) JUS C.A4. 025: 1985 (epruveta sa V zarezom). NS/BAS EN ISO 6506-1: 2000 Mehani~ka ispitivanja metala. Ispitivanje tvrdoe po Brinelu. Zamjenjuje: BAS ISO 6506: 1998, koji zamjenjuje: JUS C. A4. 003: 1987. BAS ISO 410: 1998 Metalni materijali. Ispitivanje tvrdoe. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A4. 032: 1986.

4.3. Mechanical testing BAS EN 10002-1: 2000 Metallic materials. Tensile testing. Part 1: Method of test. Change: BAS ISO 6892: 1999 which change: JUS C. A4. 002.

BAS ISO 7438: 1999. Metallic materials. Bend test. Change: JUS C. A4. 005: 1986.

BAS EN 10045-1: 1998. Metallic materials. Charpy impact test. Part 1Test method. Change: JUS C.A4. 004: 1985 (test pieces with U – shoped notch) JUS C.A4. 025:1985 (test pieces with V–shoped notch). NS/BAS EN ISO 6506-1: 2000 Metallic materials. Brinell hardness test. Part 1: Test method. Change: BAS ISO 6506: 1998, which change: JUS C. A4. 003: 1987. BAS ISO 410: 1998 Metallic materials. Hardness test. Change: JUS C. A4. 032: 1986.

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BAS ISO 6507-1:1998 Metalni materijali. Tvrdoa po Vikersu.

Dio 1: Metoda ispitivanja Zamjenjuje JUS C. A4. 030: 1986. BAS ISO 6508: 1998 Metalni materijali- Ispitivanje tvrdoe po Rokvelu. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A4. 031: 1980. BAS ISO 783: 1998 Metalni materijali – zatezna ~vrstoa na povienim temperaturama Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A4.002: 1985.

BAS ISO 6507-1:1998 Metallic materials. Vickers hardness. Part 1. Test method. Change: JUS C. A4. 030: 1986. BAS ISO 6508: 1998 Metallic materials. Hardness test. Rockwell test. Change: JUS C. A4. 031: 1980. BAS ISO 783: 1998 Metallic materials. Tensile testing at elevated temperature. Change: JUS C. A4.002: 1985.

4.3.1. Novi prihvaeni BAS standardi koji se odnose ma mehani~ka ispitivanja materijala: BAS ISO 377: 1999 êlik i ~eli~ni proizvodi – Lokacija i proprema uzoraka i ispitnih komada za mehani~ka ispitivanja. NS/BAS EN 10002-5: 2000 Metalni materijali: ispitivanje zatezanjem. Dio 5: metoda ispitivanja na povienim temperaturama.

4.3.1 New accepted BAS standards for mechanical testing BAS ISO 377: 1999 Steeel and steel product. Location and preparation of samples and test pieces for mechanical testing. NS/BAS EN 10002-5: 2000 Metallic materials. Tensile testing. Part 5: method of testing at elevated temperature

4.4. Metalografska ispitivanja BAS ISO 643: 1998 êlik. Mikroskopsko odre|ivanje feritnog ili austenitnog zrna. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A3. 004: 1985. BAS ISO 3763: 1999 Plasti~no prera|eni ~elici. Mikroskopske metode odre|ivanja sadràja nemetalnih uklju~aka. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A3. 014: 1987. BAS ISO 4969: 1999 êlik. Makroskopska ispitivanja nagrizanjem jakim mineralnim kiselinama. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A3. 015: 1987. BAS ISO 3887: 1999 êlik, nelegirani i niskolegirani; Odre|ivanje dubine razugljeni~enja Zamjenjuje: JUS C. A3. 011: 1985. BAS ISO 4967: 2000 êlik. Odre|ivanje sadràja nemetalnih uklju~aka – mikroskopska metoda koritenjem referentnih slika. Zamjenjuje: BAS ISO 4967: 1998, koji zamjenjuje. JUS C. A3. 013: 1978.

4.4. Metallographic tests BAS ISO 643: 1998 Steels. Micrographic determination of the feritic or austenitic grain size. Change: JUS C. A3. 004: 1985. BAS ISO 3763: 1999 Wrought steels. Microscopic methods for assesing the content of non-metallic inclusions. Change: JUS C. A3. 014: 1987. BAS ISO 4969: 1999 Steels. Macroscropic examination by etching with strong mineral acids. Change: JUS C. A3. 015: 1987. BAS ISO 3887: 1999 Steel, non-alloy and low-alloy. Determination of depth of decarburization. Change: JUS C. A3. 011: 1985. BAS ISO 4967: 2000 Steel. Determination of content of nonmetallic inclusions-micrographic method using standard diagrams. Change: BAS ISO 4967: 1998, which change: JUS C. A3. 013: 1978.

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4.5. Ispitivanje zavarenih spojeva 4.5.1. Ispitivanje sa razaranjem zavarenih spojeva: BAS EN 876: 1999 Ispitivanje razaranjem zavarenih spojeva na metalnim materijalima-ispitivanje zatezanjem zavarenog spoja nastalog kod zavarivanja topljenjem. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. T3. 051: 1961. BAS EN 910: 1999 Ispitivanje razaranjem zavarenih spojeva na metalnim materijalima-ispitivanje savijanjem Zamjenjuje: JUS C. T3. 051. 1961, JUS C. T3.054. 1984, JUS C. T3. 055: 1984. BAS EN 875: 1999 Ispitivanje razaranjem zavarenih spojeva na metalnim materijalima-Ispitivanje udarne ìlavosti-Poloàj ispitnog uzorka, zareza i ispitivanje; Zamjenjuje: JUS C. T3. 051: 1961,

4.5. Tests on welds 4.5.1. Destructive tests on welds

BAS EN 876: 1999 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - Longitudinal tensile test on weld metal in fusion welded joints. Change: JUS C. T3. 051: 1961. BAS EN 910: 1999 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials – Bend tests. Change: JUS C. T3. 051. 1961, JUS C. T3.054. 1984, JUS C. T3. 055: 1984. BAS EN 875: 1999 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials – Impact tests – test speciment location, notch orientation and examination. Change: JUS C. T3. 051: 1961,

4.5.1.1. Novi prihvaeni BAS standardi za ispitivanje razaranjem zavarenih spojeva:

BAS EN 1043-2: 1999 Ispitivanje razaranjem zavarenih spojeva na metalnim materijalima-ispitivanje tvrdoe Dio 2: ispitivanje mikro tvrdoe na zavarenim spojevima; BAS EN 1320: 1999 Ispitivanje razaranjem zavarenih spojeva na metalnim materijalima-Ispitivanje prijeloma; BAS EN 1321: 1999 Ispitivanje razaranjem zavarenih spojeva na metalnim materijalima-makro i mikro ispitivanje zavarenog spoja;

BAS EN 895: 2000 Ispitivanje razaranjem zavarenih spojeva na metalnim materijalima-ispitivanje zatezne ~vrstoe;

BAS CR 12361: 2000 Ispitivanje razaranjem zavarenih spojeva na metalnim materijalima-sredstva za nagrizanje za mikroskopsko i makroskopsko ispitivanje;

BAS CR 12361/AC: 2000 Ispitivanje razaranjem zavarenih spojeva na metalnim materijalima-Sredstva za nagrizanje za mikroskopska i makroskopska ispitivanja.

4.5.1.1. New accepted BAS standards for destructive tests on welds

BAS EN 1043-2: 1999 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials – Hardness test – Part 2: Micro hardness testing on welded joints. BAS EN 1320: 1999 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials – Fracture tests. BAS EN 1321: 1999 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials – Macroscopic and microscopic examination of welds. BAS EN 895: 2000 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials – Transverse tensile test. BAS CR 12361: 2000 Destructive tests on welds in materials – Etchants for macroscopic and microscopic examination. BAS CR 12361/AC: 2000 Destructive tests on welds in materials – Etchants for macroscopic and microscopic examination; Amendment AC.

Amandman AC.

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4.5.2. Ispitivanje bez razaranja zavarenih spojeva:

BAS EN ISO 13920: 2000 Zavarivanje-ope tolerancije za zavarene konstrukcije - Dimenzije duìne i uglova- Oblik i poloàj; Zamjenjuje: JUS C. T3. 013: 1986, JUS C. T3. 014: 1986.

4.5.2.1. Novi prihvaeni BAS standardi za ispitivanje bez razaranja zavarenih spojeva

BAS EN 970: 1999 Ispitivanje bez razaranja zavarenih spojeva nastalih topljenjem-Vizualno ispitivanje;

BAS EN 1290: 1999 Ispitivanje bez razaranja zavarenih spojeva nastalih topljenjem-Ispitivanje magnetnim prahom;

BAS EN 1712: 1999 Ispitivanje bez razaranja zavarenih spojeva nastalih topljenjem-Ultrazvu~no ispitivanje zavarenih spojeva-Nivoi prihvatljivosti. BAS EN 1714: 1999 Ispitivanje bez razaranja zavarenih spojeva nastalih topljenjem-Ultrazvu~no ispitivanje zavarenih spojeva; BAS EN 12062: 1999 Ispitivanje bez razaranja zavarenih spojeva nastalih topljenjem-Opa pravila za metalne materijale;

BAS EN ISO 13916: 1999 Zavarivanje-Smjernice za mjerenje temperature predgrijavanja, temperature izme|u prolaza i odràvanje temperature predgrijavanja;

BAS EN 1289: 2000 Ispitivanje bez razaranja zavarenih spojeva-ispitivanje zavarenih spojeva penetrantima-Nivoi prihvatljivosti;

BAS EN 1291: 2000 Ispitivanje bez razaranja zavarenih spojeva-Ispitivanje zavarenih spojeva magnetnim ~esticama - Nivoi prihvatljivosti;

BAS EN 1713: 2000 Ispitivanje bez razaranja zavarenih spojeva-ultrazvu~no ispitivanje-Karakterizacija indikacija u zavarenim spojevima;

4.5.2. Non destructive tests on welds BAS EN ISO 13920: 2000 Welding – General tolerances for welded constructions – Dimensions for lengths and angles – Shape and position Change: JUS C. T3. 013: 1986, JUS C. T3. 014: 1986. 4.5.2.1. New accepted BAS standards for non-destructive tests on welds BAS EN 970: 1999 Non-destructive examination of welds – Visual examination. BAS EN 1290: 1999 Non-destructive examination of welds – Magnetic particle examination of welds. BAS EN 1712: 1999 Non-destructive examination of welds – Ultrasonic examination of welded joints – Acceptance levels. BAS EN 1714: 1999 Non-destructive examination of welds – Ultrasonic examination of welded joints. BAS EN 12062: 1999 Non-destructive examination of welds – general rules for metallic materials. BAS EN ISO 13916: 1999 Welding – Guidance for measurement of preheating temperature, interpass temperature and preheat maintenance temperature. BAS EN 1289: 2000 Non destructive examination of welds – Penetrant testing of welds – Acceptance levels. BAS EN 1291: 2000 Non destructive examination of welds – Magnetic particle testing of welds – Acceptance levels. BAS EN 1713: 2000 Non destructive examination of welds – Ultrasonic examination – Characterization of indications in welds.

4.5.3. Ispitivanje postupka zavarivanja i stru~ne osposobljenosti zavariva~a:

BAS EN 288-1 do 288-8:1999 Specifikacija i odobrenje za postupke zavarivanja metalnih materijala. Dio 1 do 8: Opa pravila za zavarivanje topljenjem. Zamjenjuje: JUS C. T3. 075: 1988.

4.5.3. Testing of welding procedures and approval testing of welders

BAS EN 288-1 to 288-8:1999 Specification and approval of welding procedures for metallic materials – Part 1 to Part 8 Change: JUS C. T3. 075: 1988.

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BAS EN 288-1/A1 do 288-4/A1:1999 Specifikacija i odobrenje za postupke zavarivanja

metalnih materijala. Dio 1 do 4: Opa pravila za zavarivanje topljenjem. Amandman 1 Zamjenjuje: JUS C. T3. 075: 1988. BAS EN 25817: 2000 Elektrolu~no zavareni spojevi na ~eliku-Uputstvo za nivoe prihvatljivosti nedostataka. Zamjenjuje. JUS C. T3. 010: 1984. BAS EN 287-1: 1999 Ispitivanje stru~ne osposobljenosti zavariva~a-zavarivanje topljenjem-Dio 1: êlici Zamjenjuje JUS C. T3. 061: 1991.

BAS EN 288-1/A1 to 288-4/A1:1999 Specification and approval of welding procedures for metallic materials – Part 1 to Part 4 Amendment A1 Change: JUS C. T3. 075: 1988. BAS EN 25817: 2000 Arc – welded joints in steel – Guidance on quality levels for imperfection. Change: JUS C. T3. 010: 1984. BAS EN 287-1: 1999 Approval testing of welders – Fusion welding – Part 1: Steels

Change: JUS C. T3. 061: 1991.

5. ZAKLJUÂK Razuman izbor materijala za izradu rezervoara vagon cisterni za prijevoz opasnih materija je kompleksan posao koji treba da pre|e dug put od definisanja liste apsolutnih tehni~ko-tehnolokih zahtjeva do vrednovanja, ne manje zna~ajnih efekata u smislu ekolokih pogodnosti, redukcije teìne, tednje energije, korozione postojanosti, cijene, ìvotnog vijeka i dr. Prikazani metodoloki pristup redosljeda i vrste ispitivanja daje ugradbenom materijalu status potpuno provjerenog materijala.

5. CONCLUSION Reasonable selection of material for the construction of railway tank shells for the transportation of dangerous substances is a very complex job which has to pass a long pathway. This pathway starts with the definition of absolute technical-technological requirements list to the validation of no less important effects in terms of environment adavantages, weight reduction, energy saving, corrosion stability, price, life, etc. The presented methodolgy approach on the sequence and type of examinations gives a fully tested status to the construction material.

6. LITERATURA - REFERENCES [1] "Regulations Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail - (RID)"-Economic Commision for Europe-Inland Transport Committee, New York and Geneva, 1997. [2] Transportno tarifni vesnik – TTV, Informacije, Beograd, 1990.

[7] "Opasne materije", Priru~nik osnova sigurnosti pri transportu, manipulaciji. Institut zatite od poàra i eksplozije, Sarajevo, 1991.

[3] H. Dàni: "Tehnologija materijala u prometu" Sveu~ilite u Zagrebu - Fakultet prometnih znanosti, Zagreb, 1989. [4] M. Nikoli: "Ispitivanje i kontrola posuda pod pritiskom" Zavod za zavarivanje, Beograd, 1988. [5] S. Tomaevi: "Dizajniranje tehni~kih materijala" APEX/IZDANJA NAUKA I INDUSTRIJA, Zenica, 1999.

[6] H. Dàni: "Tehnologija materijala za prometnu tehniku" Sveu~ilite u Zagrebu – Fakultet prometnih znanosti, Zagreb, 1995.

[8] "Pravilnik o tehni~kim normativima za pokretne zatvorene sudove za komprimirane, te~ne i pod pritiskom rastvorene gasove". "Sl. list SFRJ" br. 25/80. [9] Slu`bene objave, "Glasnik", Zavod za standardizaciju, mjeriteljstvo i patente Bosne i Hercegovine, br. 3, br. 4, Sarajevo, 1999. [10] Slu`bene objave, "Glasnik", Zavod za standardizaciju, mjeriteljstvo i patente Bosne i Hercegovine, br.1-2, br.3, Sarajevo, 2000.

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Mainstvo 2(6), 111 – 124, (2002) E.Kuli: KORI[TENJE ENERGIJE U ZGRADARSTVU….

KORI[TENJE ENERGIJE U ZGRADARSTVU BiH I SVIJET DIO II

SPECIFI^NI POKAZATELJI ENERGETSKE POTRO[NJE U ZGRADARSTVU

RAZVOJNI TOK DOMA]IH PROPISA O IZRAÛNU GUBITAKA TOPLOTE

Prof. dr. Emin Kuli, profesor, Mainski fakultet Sarajevo, Univerzitet u Sarajevu, Sarajevo, BiH

BUILDING ENERGY USE – SITUATION IN B&H AND WORLDWIDE - PART II

SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION CHARACTERISTICS DEVELOPMENT OF DOMESTIC STANDARDS ON HEAT

LOSS CALCULATIONS Prof. Emin Kuli, M.Sc. Ph.D., Mechanical Engineering Faculty Sarajevo, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

1. SPOLJNJA PROJEKTNA TEMPERATURA

Definisanje spoljnje projektne temperature za potrebe KGH tehnike je imalo dug razvojni put u ta se ovdje nee posebno uputati. Samo e se navesti ~injenica da su vrijednosti ovih temperatura veoma zavisne od njene definicije-metodologije izra~una. Direktna posljedica toga je i razli~ita vrijednost izra~unate potrebne koli~ine toplote za zagrijavanje zgrade, vidjeti jedna~inu (1). Naime, saglasno toj jedna~ini koli~ina toplote je direktno proporcionalna razlici unutarnje i spoljnje temperature. Drugim rje~ima, ovako izra~unata koli~ina toplote je u direktnoj sprezi sa odre|ivanjem veli~ine opreme postrojenja grijanja (kotlovi, cjevovodi, pumpe), te je njeno pouzdano odre|ivanje od izuzetnog zna~aja za ekonomiju svake zemlje. Svako predimenzionisano postrojenje zna~i “ba~en” novac u nepotrebno glomaznu KGH opremu. U tekstu koji slijedi dae se kratak pregled danas najrairenijih na~ina izra~una ove temperature.

1. EXTERNAL AIR DESIGN

TEMPERATURE The definition of external air design temperature for the needs of the HVAC technique has had a long development path. This problem will not be dealt with here separately. It will be stated only that the values of these temperatures are very dependant on its definition-methodology of calculation. Direct consequence is different values of calculated building heat losses, too (see equations (1), (2) and (3)). Namely, in agreement with these equations, the quantity of heat is directly proportional to difference of inside and outside air temperature. In other words, the quantity of heat calculated in this manner is directly related with the size of relevant heating equipment (boilers, pipes, pumps). Having that in mind, its reliable determination - calculation, is of extreme importance for economy of any country. Each oversized system implies “waste of money” on needlessly bulky HVAC equipment. In the text to follow, a short survey of the most spread methods of this temperature calculation will be given.

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1.1. Neke definicije spoljnjih projektnih temperatura

DIN 4701(1995)1: Najnià dvodnevna srednja vrijednost spoljnje temperature υs koja je u periodu od 20 godina (1951-1970) deset puta dostignuta ili podba~ena, ili u prosjeku jednom svake dvije godine. Stvarna ra~unska temperatura υR se odre|uje iz:

υR = υs + ∆υ (4) gdje vrsta gra|evinske konstrukcije definie vrijednost korekcija υs, kako slijedi:

∆υ=0,2 i 4K, 1983; ∆υ= 0 K, 1995 (4a)

Za potrebe izra~una ventilacionih gubitaka toplote nu`no je poznavati koincidentne vrijednosti srednje brzine vjetra. Saglasno DIN 4701 “slab” i “jak” vjetar odgovara brzinama 2 i 4 [m/s], respektivno, kao srednjednevnim zaokruènim vrijednostima brzina vjetra, mjerenim na referentnoj visini 10 m. ASHRAE(2001.)2: ZIMA: Godinje procentualne vrijednosti 99,6% i 99 %, to implicira da su ovi projektni elementi manji od projektnih uslova 35 odnosno 88 sati tokom godine, respektivno. LJETO: Godinje procentualne vrijednosti 0.4% (35 h/a), 1% (88 h/a) i 2% (176 h/a), temperature suhog termometra i srednje koincidentne temperature vla`nog termometra.

2. STANJE U BIV[OJ JUGOSLAVIJI Saglasno informacijama u Todorovia3: Izbor odre|ivanja spoljnjih projektnih temperatura za nae klimatske uslove su prilago|eni raspoloìvim meteorolokim podacima iz ranih 60-tih godina. Usvojena je metodologija âplina na osnovi koje se projektna temperatura odre|uje zavisno od srednje temperature najhladnijeg mjeseca u periodu od 10 godina (tm) i apsolutnog minumuma (tmin) iz istog perida, koji bi trebalo da je najaktuelniji. Odnos u~ea ove dvije temperature u vrijednosti projektne temperature, ts, dat je sljedeim izrazom:

ts = 0,4tm + 0,6tmin (5) gdje je tm srednja temperatura najhladnijeg mjeseca, a tmin minimalna temperatura u razmatranom periodu (obi~no 10 godina).

1 DIN 4701-1: Regeln für die Berechnung der Heizlast von Gebäuden, Teil 1: Grundlagen der Berechnung, DIN Taschenbuch 84, Beuth, Berlin, 1997.

1.1 Some definitions of external air design temperatures

DIN 4701(1995)1: The lowest average two-day value of external air temperature υs which is in twenty-year time period (1951-1970) reached or not reached ten times, or in average once every two years. Real calculation temperature υR is determined from:

υR = υs + ∆υ (4) where the type of building construction defines the correction value υs, as follows: ∆υ=0,2 i 4K, 1983; ∆υ= 0 K, 1995 (4a)

In order to calculate ventilation heat losses it is necessary to know coinciding values of average wind velocity. DIN 4701 defines “weak” and “strong” wind with velocity values 2 and 4 [m/s], as rounded average daily values measured at the referent height of 10 m. ASHRAE (2001.)2: WINTER: Dry bulb temperature corresponding to 99,6 % (35 h/a) and 99 % (88 h/a) of annual cumulative frequency of occurrence respectively. SUMMER: Dry bulb temperature corresponding to 0.4% (35 h/a), 1% (88 h/a), and 2% (176 h/a) of annual cumulative frequency of occurrence and the mean coincident wet bulb temperature respectively.

2. SITUATION IN FORMER YUGOSLAVIA According to the information in Todorovi3, the choice of determination of external design parameters for climatological conditition in former Yugoslavia is adjusted to existing data from early 60's. The methodology of âplin is accepted, based on which, design temperature is determined as a function of average temperature of the coldest month in 10-year time period (tm) and absolute minimum (tmin) in the same time period. Time period should be the latest availble one. Ratio of these two temperature participations in the value of design temperature, ts, is given by the following relationship:

ts = 0.4tm + 0.6tmin (5) where tm is average temperature of the coldest month, and tmin minimal temperature in the respective time period (usually 10 years).

2 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, Chapter 27. Climatic Design Information, ASHRAE, Atlanta, 2001. 3 Todorovi, B.: Projektovanje postrojenja za centralno grijanje, SMEITS, Beograd, 1996.

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Novak (1987, JUS U.J5.600) sa saradnicima je za potrebe JUS standarda razvio vrijednosti ovih temperatura za niz gradova prethodne Jugoslavije, a spoljnja projektna temperatura je definisana kao jednaka srednjoj vrijednosti najhladnije trijade – najhladnija tri uzastopna dana u godini, u vremenskom nizu razmatranih godina. Citirani projektni parametri za spoljnju projektnu temperaturu samo su jedan od niza podataka potrebnih pri projektovanju KGH postrojenja i pripadne opreme. Naàlost, takvih informacija kod nas prakti~no nema. Osnovni razlog za to je neorganizovanost-nespremnost da se na nivou prethodne Jugoslavije formira i finansira odgovarajui tim koji bi takve paremetre priredio, na osnovi informacija koje su redovno skupljane na pojedinim hidrometeorolokim stanicama. To se naravno prenijelo na sadanje stanje u BiH. Radi kompletnosti pristupa i sagledavanja potreba za formiranjem-izradom takve baze podataka za BiH (ako se i dalje ne èli nepotrebno bacati novac u gradnju preglomazne energetske infrstrukture), u Prilogu 2 je naveden pregled potrebnih projektnih parametara za niz postrojenjea KGH tehnike, odnosno energetike. U ovom prilogu su navedeni samo podaci za dostupne lokalitete prethodne Jugoslavije. Po kojim kriterijima je ASHRAE birao navedene lokalitete nije poznato, no u svakom slu~aju je interesantno da su citirani-obra|eni svi glavni gradovi bivih republika izuzev glavnog grada BiH. Zainteresirani ~italac moè nai vie informacija o pojedinim veli~inama-pojmovima u citiranom ASHRAE Fundamentals poglavalju 27 i/ili u poglavlju 64. U svrhu prikazivanja evidentnih razlika postojeih – koritenih projektnih informacija, prema onome to je dostupno u ASHRAE sa~injena je Tabela 1 u kojoj je izveno pore|enje vrijednosti za dostupne lokalitete. Na osnovi usporedbi prikazanih u Tabeli 1 slijedi da su postrojenja grijanja, pod pretpostavkom da su ASHRAE podaci mjerodavni (a trebalo bi biti jer su dobijeni na osnovi o~itanja 8312, vidjeti Prilog 2, satnih vrijednosti spoljnjih temperatura) KGH sistemi-postrojenja u nas za potrebe zagrijavanja zgrada predimenzionisani u rasponu od 12 do 30 % (u prosjeku se moè rei da je to oko 20%), sa aspekta i transmisionih i ventilacionih gubitaka toplote, zavisno od razmatranog lokaliteta.

4 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, Chapter 6. Psychrometrics, ASHRAE-American Society of Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, 2001.

Novak (1987, JUS U.J5.600) with co-workers has developed, for the needs of JUS, the calculated values of these temperatures for a number of cities in former Yugoslavia, and the design temperature of external air is defined as the average value of the coldest triad – the coldest three consecutive days within the considered time period. The stated design parameters for outside air design temperature are just one in a row of data needed when designing HVAC systems and its elements. Unfortunately, such information is mostly not available in B&H. The main reason for that is lack of adequate organization and will at the level of former Yugoslavia to make and finance corresponding research project-team, which then would prepare the necessary parameters, based on information collected regularly at Hydro-meteorological stations. That situation has had an effect on the current situation in B&H. In order to complete the approach and insight in the needs to form such a data basis for B&H (if one does not want to waste the money needlessly to build bulky energy systems infrastructure), in Appendix 2 is derived a survey of the required design parameters for a number of the HVAC technique systems, and/or energy infrastructure is presented in the Appendix 2. The Attachment presents only the data for the available locations of ex. Yugoslavia. The ASHRAE criteria used in selecting the locations are hot familiar. However, it is interesting that all the capital cities of the former republics of Yugoslavia have been processed, except for the capital of B&H. More information on indiidual sizes/terms can be found in the ASHRAE Fundamentals Chapter 27 quoted and/or Chapter 64. In order to show evident differences between the existing - used design information, compared with the ASHRAE data, Table 1 presents a comparison of the values for the available locations. Based on comparisons shown in Table 1, it follows that the KGH heating systems, assuming that ASHRAE data are justified (and it should be so since they are determined based 8312 hourly data (Appendix 2) from 12 years of observations), are here (former Yugoslavia) oversized in the range from 12 to 30 %, depending on locality, or in average around 20 %. It points out towards the necessity to produce reliable data base for these needs for B&H.

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Tabela 1: Usporedba spoljnje projektnih temperatura za grijanje odre|enih po razli~itim pristupima za neke gradove prethodne Jugoslavije Table 1: Comparison of outside air temperature design parameters for heating determined by different approaches for different cities of former Yugoslavia

ASHRAE Metodologija ASHRAE Methodology

Naziv mjesta Location name

Todorovi (âplin)

0C

Novak (Trijada)

0C 99,6 % OC 99 % OC

Odstupanje od ASHRAE 99 % u [%]2

Diference from ASHRAE 99 % in [%]2

Banja Luka -21.0 -20.0 -12.0 -8.9 30

Beograd -18.0 -15.0 -11.5 8.9 24

Ljubljana - 18.0 -18.0 -13.0 -10.4 20

Pali/Novi Sad -18.0 -12.5 -12.5 -9.6 22

Podgorica -6.0 -5.0 -4.1 -2.8 12

Pula -6.0 -6.0 -4.1 -2.8 12

Sarajevo1 -18.0 -16.0 - - -

Skopje -15.0 -14.0 -12.4 -9.3 16

Split -6.0 -5.0 -1.9 -0.1 23

1) Za Sarajevo je izra|ena posebna klimatoloka studija5 u kojoj je Sarajevo prikazano kao toplotno ostvrvo sa varijacijama projektnih temperarura od -16 0C u centru Grada do — 22 0C na rubnim podru~jima Grada (Butmir, Hrasnica, Ilidà). 2) Odstupanje je definisano kao odnos razlika temperatura (unutar minus vani) po Todoroviu i ASHRAE 99 %, pri ~emu je za unutarnju prosje~nu temperaturu objekta koritena vrijednost 200C.

To evidentno ukazuje na neophodnost izrade pouzdane baze podataka za ove potrebe za BiH. Rezultat izrade takve baze podataka se onda moè saèti u odgovarajuu geografsku kartu BiH, analognu karti u Prilogu 3, koja saìma, sadanje informacije o projektnim temperaturama za prethodnu Jugoslaviju. Prilog 4 sadrì analogne informacije o klimatskim zonama, koje e tako|er vjerovatno trebati preraditi za potrebe BiH.

3. TOPLOTNA ZA[TITA

Za potrebe odre|ivanja mjesta eventualne pojave kondenzacije odnosno ugradnje “parne brane” u gra|evinskoj konstrukciji, cijeli geografski prostor prethodne Jugoslavije je podijeljen u tri klimatske zone: Zona I sa pripadnom “projektnom” temperaturom –12 0C te zone II i III sa temperaturama – 18 i –24 0C, respektivno. Sukladno ovoj podjeli su u Tabeli 2 navedene vrijednosti koeficijenata prolaza toplote za pojedine elemente gra|evinske konstrukcije propisane 1970-te godine. Analogno tome tabele 3 i 4 prikazuju vrijednosti ovih koeficijenta propisanih odgovarajuim standardima 1980. i 1987. godine, respektivno. 5 Fazlagi, S. i drugu: Studija klimatolokih parametara za potrebe projektovanja i gradnje u Sarajevu, Hidrometeoroloki zavod BiH, Sarajevo, 1987.

1) A separate climatologic study for Sarajevo has been made5, in which Sarajevo is presented as heating island where temperatures vary from -16 0C in city center to — 22 0C at the city edges (Butmir, Hrasnica, Ilidža). 2) The difference is defined as the ratio of temperature differences (inside minus outside) in accordance with the data from Todorović and ASHRAE 99 %. For inside air temperature the value of 200C is used. The results of this data base can be then compressed in the relevant B&H geographical chart, analogous to one shown in the Appendix 3, which comprises the existing information on design temperatures for former Yugoslavia. Appendix 4 comprises analogous information about climatologic zones, which nedd to be worked out for B&H.

3. THERMAL CONTROL OF INSULATED STRUCTURES

In order to check eventual occurrence appearance of condensation plane and a position of “vapor barrier” within an insulated structure, all the geographic area of former Yugoslavia is divided in three climatic zones: Climatic zone I, with its design temperature of -12 0C, and Zones II and III, with temperatures of –18 and –24 0C, respectively. In congruence with this geographic division, Table 2 contains values of heat transfer coefficients for specific construction elements as specified by JUS standards in 1970. Analogously, Tables 3 and 4 show the values of these coefficients as specified by JUS standards in 1980 and 1987, respectively.

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Tabela 2. Najvei doputeni koeficijent prolaza toplote k u [W/m2K] (propis, Sl. list SFRJ br.35/70, 1970.) Table 2. Highest acceptable values of heat transfer coefficients k in [W/m2K] (JUS standard, Official Gazette of SFRJ No 35/70, 1970.)

Gra|evinska klimatska zona – Construction climatic zone Gra|evinski element – Construction element

I. II. III.

Vanjski zidovi – Outside walls 1.69 1.45 1.28

Pod na tlu – Ground floor 0.93 0.93 0.93

Strop prema tavanu – Top – roof ceiling 1.16 1.16 1.16

Strop iznad podruma – Ceiling above basement

1.05 1.05 1.05

Strop iznad otvorenih prolaza – Ceiling above open-walking spaces

0.70 0.58 0.52

Kosi i ravni krovovi – Inclined and flat roofts 0.93 0.93 0.93

Tabela 3. Najvei doputeni koeficijent prolaza toplote k u [W/m2K] (propis JUS U.J5.600 iz 1980.) Table 3. Highest acceptable values of heat transfer coefficients k u [W/m2K] (JUS Standard U.J5.600, 1980.)

Gra|evinska klimatska zona – Construction climatic zone Gra|evinski element Construction elements

I. II. III.





0.75 0.63 0.52


0.50 0.46 0.43


Sutinska novost propisa iz 1987. godine, u odnosu na ranije propise, je ograni~avanje toplinskih gubitaka, ne samo kroz pojedine gra|evinske elemente omota~a zgrade, dakle koeficijenta prolaza toplote k, nego i specifi~nih toplotnih gubitaka za zgradu kao cjelinu. Zadovoljenje toga zahtjeva je iziskivalo u sutini zna~ajno smanjenje propisanih koeficijenata prolaza toplote k pojedinih navedenih gra|evinskih elemenata, pri ~emu su, naravno, mogue razli~ite me|usobne kombinacije navedenih vrijednosti. To je dovelo do toga da su procjenjene6 vrijednosti koeficijenata prolaza toplote k, konkretnih zgrada, bazirano na prora~unima, znatno niè, kao to je pokazano u Tabeli 5.

6 KUEN Zgrada, Program energertske efikasnosti u zgradarstvu, Energetski institut “Hrvoje Poàr”, Zagreb, 1988.

Essential change of the 1987 standards in comparison with previous standards is the limitation of heat transfer losses, not only through building construction elements of building envelope, i.e. heat transfer coefficient “k”, but of specific heat losses loads for the whole building, too. Fulfillment of this requirement causes considerable decrease of heat transfer coefficients “k” of some building construction elements. Naturally, there is always a possibility of combination of these decreases with different “k” values of construction elements. This requirement led to new estimated6 and lower values of heat transfer coefficients “k”, of the stock of erected buildings, as shown in Table 5.

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Tabela 4. Najvei doputeni koeficijent prolaza toplote k u [W/m2 K] (propis JUS U.J5.600 iz 1987.) Table 4. Highest acceptable values of heat transfer coefficients k in [W/m2 K] (JUS Standard U.J5.600, 1987.)

Gra|evinska klimatska zona – Construction climatic zone Gra|evinski element - Construction element

I. II. III.





0.75 0.60 0.50


0.50 0.44 0.40


Tabela 5. Procjenjene vrijednosti koeficijenata prolaza toplote k u [W/m2 K] (saglasno dodatnim zahtjevima kroz propis JUS U.J5.600 iz 1987.) Table 5. Estimated values of heat transfer coefficient k in [W/m2 K] (in accordance with additional requirements of JUS standard U.J5.600, 1987.)

Gra|evinska klimatska zona – Construction climatic zone Gra|evinski element – Construction element

I. II. III.





0.70 0.50 0.45


0.50 0.40 0.35


Slika 11 daje grafi~ku interpretaciju vrijednosti iz Tabela 1 do 4, za koeficijente prolaza toplote kroz spoljnje zidove.

Figure 11 is a graphical interpretation of values in Tables 1 to 4; of heat transfer coefficients “k” for outside walls.

Slika 11: Promjena doputenih koeficijenata prolaza toplote spoljnjih zidova k u [W/m2K], u periodu 1970. –

1987. godine, za bivu Jugoslaviju Figure 11: Changes of the lowest values of heat transfer coefficients for outside walls “k” in [W/m2K] in the

time span from 1970–1987, for former Yugoslavia

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Tabela 6 prikazuje put razvoja toplotne zatite tokom zadnjih tridesetak godina (SR Njema~ka), za pojedine elemente gra|evinske konstrukcije. Ovi gra|evinski elementi pokazuju jo samo oko 10% gubitaka zgrada stare gradnje. Pored poboljnja tehni~ko-termi~kih svojstava toplotne zatite to je omogueno ekstremnim reduciranjem transparetnog dijela obvojnice zgrade. Rezultati toga su, na slici 12, prikazane vrijednosti energetske potronje novogra|enih objekata.

Table 6 shows the development path of thermal control of insulated building structures during the last 30 years in FRG for different construction elements. The newest transfer coefficients have values of around 10%, in comparison with oldest constructions. Beside improved techno-thermal characteristics of building structures, is a exists considerable decrease of transparent part of building envelope. The results of these activities are in Figure 12. They represent the values of specific heating energy consumption for the newest building constructions.

Tabela 6 Razvoj toplotne zatite obvojnice objekta koja razmjenjuje toplotnu energiju, poslednjih godina Table 6 Development of thermal control of building envelope in recent years

Toplotna zatita u pore|enju (k-vrijednost u [W/m2K]) Comparison of different thermal characteristics of building envelope (k -values in [W/m2K])

Dio gra|evine Envelope element

Stara gradnja prije 1970. Old-existing

building stock, before 1970.

Propisi o TZ 1984. 1884

Standards

Propisi o TZ 1995. 1995

Standards

NEK Low energy house LEH

Ultra NEK Kua

Ultra LEH

Kua nulte energije grijanja

–KNEG Zero energy house - ZEH

Zid – Wall 1.40 0.60 0.50 0.30 0.15 0.08

Prozor – Windows 5.20 2.60 1.80 1.40 0.75 0.60

Ostaklenje – Glass 5.70 3.10 2.00 1.30 0.50 0.40

Krov – Roof 1.00 0.30 0.22 0.18 0.12 0.08

Strop podruma – Basement ceiling 0.80 0.55 0.35 0.24 0.18 0.10

Slika 12: Godinja energetska potronja novogra|enih objekata Figure 12: Annual specific energy consumption of newly built buildings

Iz iznesenih izlaganja se moè konstatovati da su u svijetu daleko odmakla istra ivanja na polju gradnje objekata niske, pa do prakti~no nulte energetske potro-nje, dok kod nas takva nastojanja prakti~no ne postoje. Tehnologija gradnje nisko energetskih kua sa speci-fi~nom potronjom energije od 20 do 50 [kWh/m2a] je ve komercijalno dostupna. Prevedeno na svakodnevni jezik to zna~i da cijena zagrijavanja tako izvedenog objekta od npr. 100 [m2], kada bi se zagrijavao ~ak izuzetno skupom elektri~nom energijom sa cijenom od cca 10 pfen/kWh, bi se kretala od 200 do 500 KM/god ili 16.66 do 41.66 KM/mjes. Pri direktnom zagrijavanju iz fosilnih goriva transformisnom toplotnom energijom cijena bi trebal biti bar jo 2 puta ni a, zavisno od vrste kori-tenog goriva i efikasnosti ure|aja (npr. kotla) za transfo-rmaciju hemijske energije goriva u toplotnu energiju.

Based on the above considerations it is possible to state that the worldwide researches in the field of building constru-ction with low to practically zero energy consumption are widely spread, but such researches in B&H do not exist. Construction technology of buildings with low energy consumption, 20 to 50 [kWh/m2a] is commercially available. When translated in everyday language it implies that heating of 100 [m2] flat-building when heated by extremly expensive electrical energy, with price of 10 Pfenings/kWh would cost from 200 to 500 KM annually, or 16.7 to 41.7 KM per month. If this flat-bulding is heated by fossil fuel transformed heat, the price should be at least twice lower, depending on the fuel used, equipment efficiency (e.g. boiler) etc.

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Stoga se smatra neophodnim pristupanju izrade (i/ili reviziji) Novih propisa o toplotnoj zatiti u zgradarstvu, kako bi se svi novoprojektovani objekti podvrgli kriterijima gradnje sli~nim onim kako se to radi u razvijenim i bogatim zemljama svijeta. Prelaznim odredbama treba predvidjeti postepenu rekonstrukciju uz odgovarajuu stimulaciju revitalizacije postojeeg stambenog fonda, kako bi se u dogledno vrijeme sav stambeni fond doveo na savremeni nivo toplotne zatite, a time i na smanjeni nivo energetske potronje!

Tako npr. Njema~ka je 1995. donijela propise o toplotnoj zatiti, a ve je 2001. na saveznom nivou, izglasan Zakon o tednji energije, koji uvodi dodatna ograni~enja o maksimalnim potrebama toplote/energije za potrebe grijanja7. Sa slike 13 se mogu vidjeti detalji usporedbe ovih propisa sa propisima o toplotnoj zatiti u Njema~koj iz 1995., potrebnoj koli~ini energije za pripremu sanitarne vode, maksimalnim energetskim potrebanma saglasno EU propisima EN 832, te ex YU proposima o maksimalnom dozvoljenim toplotnim gubicima u stanogradnji i industriji iz 1987. godine8, saglasno jedna~inama (6) i (7), respektivno.

Za prera~unavanja koritena je prosje~na visina sprata zgrade 3 m, broj stepen dana GSD≅3000 [Kdan] (Sarajevo), i temperaturna razlika unutar – vani, – 40 K).

q ≤ qT + qV = 7 + 14fo + 0,25(ti - ts), [W/m3], (6)

gdje su: q – ukupni gubici toplote zgrade, qT, qV – transmisioni i ventilacioni gubici zgrade respektivno, f0 = A/V – odnos ukupne povrine (omota~a) i zapremine objekta [m2/m3], ti - prosje~na unutarnja temperatura objekta, ts – spoljnja projektna temperatura.

Prema ex YU propisima za industrijsku gradnju postoji neznatna razlika u na~inu odre|ivanja maksimalno dozvoljenih specifi~nih potreba, kao to je pokazano jedna~inom (7).

q ≤ qT + qV = 8 + 14fo + 0,25(tu - ts), [W/m3], (7) Sa slike 13 se vidi da su razlike u specifi~noj potronji objektat stanogradnje saglasno domaim propisima (ex YU) prema takvim propisima u Evropi (Njema~ka) drasti~ne, posebno na donjoj skali odnosa povrine i zapremine – oko 3 puta - (za stambene objekte), a na gornjoj skali ovog odnosa skoro dvostruke (za porodi~ne kue).

7 Verordnung über energiesparenden Wärmeschutz und energiesparende Anlagentechnik bei Gebäuden (Energieeinsparverordnung — EnEV 2000), Die Tagung der Bunderegierung, 21, März, 2001.

Therefore, it is necessary to approach the problem of making (or thorough revision of) New Standards of thermal control of building construction envelope. In such a way, newly constructed buildings would have similar construction criteria to those in developed-rich industrial countries. Pending requirements should foresee step-by-step reconstruction of previous building stock. Thus, in a foreseeable future (15 to 20 years), the whole building stock would have contemporary thermally controlled envelope, and at the same time decreased level of energy consumption. Germany for example has introduced new thermal envelope control standards in 1995, and only 6 years later in 2001, they passed Federal Low on energy saving, which introduces additional limitations on maximum building heating loads7. Figure 13 shows the details of comparison of this latest information with 1995 standards in Germany. Energy needed for sanitary water heating is also included. There is information on maximum energy requirements as prescribed by EU standards EU 832. JUS standards on maximum specific heating loads allowed in residential and industrial building sector8, as prescribed by equations (6) and (7), respectively, are shown, also. In recalculations of information from the equations (6) and (7), an average etage height of the building of 3 m, number of heating degree days GSD≅3000 [Kday] (Sarajevo), and temperature difference , inside-outside, – 40 K, were used. q ≤ qT + qV = 7 + 14fo + 0,25(ti - ts), [W/m3], (6) where: q – total specific heating losses of a building, qT, qV – specific transmission and ventilation building losses, respectively, f0 = A/V – ratio of total building envelope area and building volume, [m2/m3], ti – average inside building temperature, ts – outside air design temperature. JUS standards for industrial building sector show very small difference in the manner of determination of prescribed specific heating loads, as one can se by comparison of equations (6) and (7).

q ≤ qT + qV = 8 + 14fo + 0,25(tu - ts), [W/m3], (7)

In Figure 13, one can see that the differences in specific energy consumption of building sector, as given by ex Yu standards and German standards are drastic. On the lower side of the scale of area-volume ratio, it is around 3 times (for residential building sector), and on the upper level of area-volume ratio is around 2 times (for family houses).

8 JUS U.J5.600: Tehni~ki uslovi za projektovanje i gra|enje zgrada, Beograd, 1987.

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Slika 13: Usporedba maksimalno dozvoljenih godinjih energetskih potreba za grijanje i maksimalnih godinjih toplotnih potreba (uklju~ujui dodatak za sanitarnu vodu) saglasno EnEV 2000 i propisa o toplotnoj zatiti iz 1995. Na slici su unesene maksimalne toplotne potrebe objekta stanogradnje u ex YU iz 1987. i

iste potrebe prema EU propisima EN 832 Figure 13: Comparison of maximum annual heating energy needs by different standards with EnEv 2000 Kod ovoga treba imati u vidu da saglasno ex-YU propisima nema ograni~enja za 1,05≤ f0 ≤ 0,2 nego se trendovi krivih nastavljaju prema dole i/ili prema gore linearno. To naravno nije prihvatljivo jer je kod kompaktnih visokih objekata veoma teko postizati vrijednosti karakteristike zgrade ispod 40 [kWh/m2K].

One should have in mind that according to the ex Yu standards there are no limiting values for 1,05≤ f0 ≤ 0,2, but the curve trends are continuing down and/or up linearly. Naturally, that is unacceptable, since at compact and/or high buildings it is very difficult to achieve the characteristic values below 40 [kWh/m2K].

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Za objekte sa odnosom f0 preko 1,05 treba razu|enost obvojnice slobodno stojeih porodi~nih kua vezati za odre|enu, vrijednost ove karakteristike odnosno treba je limitirati, to je kroz Nejma~ki propis EnEV 2000 ura|eno sa vrijednou 100 [kWh/m2K]. Napominje se da je usporedba izvrena za Sarajevo koje ima broj stepen dana oko 3000 [Kdan], a prosje~an broj stepen dana za Njema~ku iznosi 3030 [Kdan]9. Najnovije informacije10, ukazuju da su u Sloveniji u pripremi propisi o minimalnoj toplotnoj zatiti zgrada11, prema kojima se specifi~na toplota za zagrijavanje zgrada odre|uje na osnovi jedna~ine (8), kako slijedi:

q < 17,36 + 13,89 [kwh/m3a], (8)

ili svedeno na prosje~nu visinu sprata objekta od 3 m, odnosno na jedinicu povrine slijedi:

q < 52,08 + 41,67 [kwh/m2a] (8a)

Iz jedna~ine (8a) slijede vrijednosti specifi~ne energetske potronje, za f0=1 i f0=0,2, q=93,75 odnsono 60,41 [kWh/m2a], respektivno. Kada se na sliku 13 ucrta pravac kojeg determiniu ove dvije ta~ke, vidi se da je ona veoma bliska analognim krivama savremene toplotne zatite u Evropi. Radi kompletnosti informacija navode se polazne jedna~ine za izra~un minimalnih specifi~nih toplotnih gubitaka stambenih i komercijalnih objekta, saglasno citiranom propisu R. Slovenije:

q ≤ 3 + 10fo + 0,25∆t, [W/m3] (9)

dok se za industrijske objekte minimalni specifi~ni toplotni gubici izra~unavaju saglasno jedna~ini (10).

q ≤ 5 + 12fo + 0,25∆t, [W/m3] (10)

Za energetski u~inkovite nastambe navedena koli~ina toplote se odre|uje iz jedna~ine (11), kako slijedi:

q ≤ 2 + 7fo + 0,075∆t, [W/m3] (11)

Dodaci za pripremu sanitarne tople vode (vidjeti sliku 13)

Kod stanova sa centralnom pripremom sanitarne vode skopa~nom sa postrojenjem grijanja i postrojenja sa razdjelnim mreàma za vie stanova su predvi|eni dodaci za pripremu sanitarne vode. Oni dozvoljavaju prekora~enje najvee vrijednosti godinjih enegetskih potreba za iznos saglasno jedna~ini (12).

9 A. Schuler, C. Weber, U. Fahl: Policy Instruments in Germany, EU Joule Project, Effective Policy Instruments for Energy Efficiency in Residential Space Heating — an International Empirical Analysis; IER, ESA-AP-98-3, University of Stuttgart, Germany.

For the buildings with ratio f0 above 1,05, it is necessary to limit envelope “spreading” of “free” family houses to a specific value of this characteristic. In German standards EnEv 2000 this is done by putting this limiting value equal to 100 [kWh/m2K]. It is important to point out that the comparison is done for Sarajevo with number of degree-days around 3000 [Kday]. An average number of degree-days for Germany are 3030 [Kday]9. The latest news for Slovenia10 is that the preparation of standards for minimum thermal control of building structures is underway11. According to these standards the minimum specific heating load is defined by equation (8), as it follows:

q < 17,36 + 13,89 [kwh/m3a], (8)

If one recalculates these data for an average building story height of 3 m, or relate it on flat area unit i.e. m2, one gets the following equation:

q < 52,08 + 41,67 [kwh/m2a] (8a)

If one uses equation (8a) to calculate specific annual energy consumption, for values f0=1 and f0=0,2, one obtains q=93,75 and 60,41 [kWh/m2a], respectively. Drawing the line through these two points on Figure 13, one can see that this line is very close to corresponding lines of the latest German and EU standards. For the sake of completeness initial equations of the Slovenian standard for calculation of minimum specific heat losses of residential and commercial buildings, are given:

q ≤ 3 + 10fo + 0,25∆t, [W/m3] (9)

In the case of industrial buildings these losses are calculated from the following equation (10):

q ≤ 5 + 12fo + 0,25∆t, [W/m3] (10)

For energy efficient buildings the aboven mentioned heating energy is calculated by using the following equation (11):

q ≤ 2 + 7fo + 0,075∆t, [W/m3] (11)

Energy consumption additions for sanitary water treatment (see Figure 13)

With the apartments with central sanitary water treatment connected to heating system and distribution network systems for a number of flats, energy consumption additions for sanitary water treatment are anticipated. These energy additions allow maximum increase of annual energy needs as defined by equation (12):

10 P. Novak: Obrazloìtev k novemu slovenskemu predpisu o minimalni toplotni za~iti stavb, Li~ne komunikacije, 19.03. 2001. 11 Tehni~ki predpis o minimalni toplotni za~iti stavb, u pripremi za objavljivanje u UL RS, tokom 2001.

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[7,5+3,4• (A/Ve)]/0,32 [kWh/m2a] (12)

Dodaci, saglasno ovoj jedna~ini, su predvi|ni veoma visokim; kod kompaktnih zgrada oni iznose do 60 %, a kod zgrada sa visokom vrijednou odnosa A/Ve, 35% godinjih potreba energije grijanja. Pozadina ovako visokog dodatka za pripremu sanitarne vode leì u ~injenici teko obuhvatljivog – obra~unljivog ponaanja korisnika prema potronji sanitarne vode. Kod stambenih zgrada sa npr. decentraliziranom pripremom sanitarne vode ovaj se dodatak ne garantuje. Kod ovakvih zgrada se za tu svrhu predvi|a paualni dodatak od 12.5 [kWh/m2a]. Za druge zgrade kao to su upravne zgrade za ovaj dodatak treba staviti vrijednost 0 [kWh/m2a]. Dodatak za pripremu sanitarne vode saglasno citiranim propisima Republike Slovenije iznose 4 [kWh/m3a], ili za objekat prosje~ne visine etaè od 3 metra, to iznosi 12 [kWh/m2a]. U svrhu pribliènja tehnologija gradnje niskoenergetskih stambenih objekata Zavod za planiranje razvoja grada Sarajeva je izrazio spremnost davanja besplatne lokacije na podru~ju Betanije za gradnju odre|enog broja demonstracionih objekta ove vrste12. Vjerovatno se uz odgovarajue angaòvanje mogu nai i investitori za gradnju takvih objekata.

4. TRENDOVI ENERGETSKE POTRO[NJE U SVIJETU I STANJE KOD NAS – KAKO POKRENUTI TOÂK PRIVREDNOG RASTA?

Bez velikih ambicija da se kroz ovakav skroman “projekat”, njegov obim i osnovnu namjenu, moè ili treba dati odgovor na gornje izuzetno sloèno pitanje u tekstu koji slijedi koncizno e elaborariti neke teze, koje daju grube odgovore na postavljeno pitanje. Jasno je me|utim, da se do stru~no i nau~no utemeljenih odgovora na problem privrednog rasta u BiH, moè doi izradom odgovarajuih Studija-Projekta, koje e, uvjereni smo, dati dosta sli~nih odgovora, koji se elaboriraju u sljedeih nekoliko pasusa teksta. Porast gladi za energijom cjelokupnog svjetskog ~ovje~anstva donosi sa sobom sve vee i vee optereenje atmosfere Zemlje - ljudskog okruènja - kao i sve brè iscrpljivanje postojeih zaliha fosilnih goriva. S tim u vezi neophodno je potrebna promjena naeg stava. Emisija CO2 mora se u slijedeih 50 godina smanjiti na 1/7 dananje vrijednosti, ako se èle izbjei bitne promjene klime ili ~ak klimatske katastrofe.

12 E. Kuli, A. Leki, E. Seferovi: Direktni kontakti sa Zavodom, Sarajevo, 2000

[7,5+3,4• (A/Ve)]/0,32 [kWh/m2a] (12)

Energy consumption additions, in accordance with this equation, are very high. Thus, at compact buildings they amount to 60 %, and with buildings with high values of A/Ve ratio they are around 35% of annual heating energy needs. Background of such high energy additions for sanitary water treatment lie in the fact that it is difficult to encompass-account the behavior of sanitary water consumers. With residential buildings with e.g. decentralized sanitary water treatment this energy addition is not warranted. With these buildings flat rate energy addition of 12.5 [kWh/m2a] is anticipated for that purpose. For other buildings, such as administration and similar buildings the value 0-zero [kWh/m2a] should be used. This energy addition for sanitary water treatment in accordance with the afore mentioned Slovenian standards are 4 [kWh/m3a], or if recalculated for the buildings with average story heights of 3 m, it is to 12 [kWh/m2a]. In order to introduce low energy buildings construction technology to potential users, the Institute for planning and development of Kanton Sarajevo has expressed its readiness to allocate some free housing lots on Betanija area to build some demonstration objects of this kind.12

4. ENERGY CONSUMPTION TRENDS AROUND THE WORLD AND B&H – HOW TO START THE WHEEL OF ECONOMY GROWTH

Without great ambitions to give an answer on the above extremely complex question, in this modest presentation, the text to follow in elaborate, some hypothese, which give rough answers on the question asked. However, it is clear that in order to come to the professionally and scientifically grounded answers of the problem of economic growth of B&H, one can work out relevant Study – Projects, which will, we believe, give a number of similar answers, that will be elaborated in the following paragraphs. Energy “hunger” growth of the overall world population is bringing in itself ever growing burden of earth’s atmosphere – men’s surrounding – as well as faster exhaustion of existing fossil fuel reserves. We have to change our attitude to that problem. CO2 emissions have to be decreased in the next 50 years to 1/7 of today’s value if we want to avoid essential climate changes or eventual climate catastrophes.

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Regenerativne energije, sa svojim nepostojeim ili sa vrlo niskim optereenjem okolice moraju biti podràvane, mada su njihove mogunosti (izuzev hidro-energije) u pokrivanja ukupnih energetskih bilansa jo uvijek skromne. Radi toga je nu`no ii na aktiviranje radova u gra|evinarstvu. Naime, pribli`no 50 % potronje primarne energije otpada na zagrijavanje stambenih i komercijalnih objekata! Svaki zahvat u toj oblasti –stanogradnji, neminovno povla~i za sobom angaòvanje niza prateih privrednih grana. Pokretanje ovih aktivnost e posebno biti uspjeno, ako se stanovnitvo pokrene odgvarajuim stimulansima da postojei stambeni fond rekonstruie-revitalizira, kako bi se uveli efikasniji sistemi grijanja, toplotne zatite itd. Vraanje kredita bi bio zamajac za brzo pokretanje svih niè nabrojanih grana industrije. Dakle, na kraju se moè zaklju~iti da perspektiva pokretanja BiH bi privrede leì u oìvljavanju aktivnosti u oblasti stanogradnje (novogradnja + rekonstrukcija postojeeg stambenog fonda) te “malih” postrojenja energetike (tzv. CHP –Combined Heat and Power, danas se ve izvode takva postrojenja sa snagama od 10 kW pa do vie desetina MW, pa i preko 100 MW). To donosi sa sobom iroko podru~je aktivnosti malim i srednjim inènjerskim poduzeima, projektnim biroima, izvo|a~kim i proizvodnim kuama, irokog spektra industrije, kao to su gra|evinarstvo (materijali, - izolacija, opeka, crijep, itd. - gra|evinska stolarija, namjetaj, molersko-farbarski radovi, pratee transportne i trgovinske aktivnosti, metaloprera|iva~ka industrija (cijevi, armatura, fazonski komadi, limarski radovi, grijaa tijela, kotlogradanja, pumpe, kompresori, ventilatori itd.), aktiviranje zanatske industrije (monteri centralnih grijanja, vodovoda/kanalizacije, klimatizacije, elektrike) i niza drugih prateih aktivnosti (cement, pijesak, ljunak itd.). Iz izloènog se vidi da vjerovatno nema nijedne druge grane privredne aktivnosti, koja bi prakti~no istovremeno i u kontinuitetu pokrenula toliki broj prateih indsutrijskih-privrednih grana ljudske djelatnosti.

5. ZAKLJU^CI Na osnovi prethodnog teksta moè se zaklju~iti sljedee: (i) Postoji urgentna potrebe za reviziju postojeih i izradu novih i prateih standarda u oblasti zgradarstva, radi toga to energetski sektor zgradarstva troi vie od 50 % ukupne potronje energije BiH (ii) Uvo|enje nove i unaprije|ene i efikasnije opreme i tehnologija u oblast proizvodnje, transformacije, distribucije i potronje energije, kao to je CHP, kojim bi se efikasnost postojee centralizirane proizvodnje energije u elektranama mogla udvostru~iti.

Renewable energies with their non-existing or very low surrounding loads have to be supported. However, their possibilities to cover the overall total energy needs are very modest (except hydro power). Due to these reason it is necessary to activate work in construction engineering. Namely, close to 50 % of primary energy consumption goes to heating and other needs of residential and commercial buildings! Any kind of action in the area of building construction industry, inevitably involves engagement of a number of related branches of economy. Initiation of these activities will be specially successful if our population is moved through relevant stimulations to reconstruct the existing residential building stock, in order to introduce more efficient heating systems, thermal control of building envelope including windows, etc. Loan return would be the necessary “flying-wheel” of a quick start for all of below specified economy and industry branches. Hence, at the end one can conclude that prospects to move forward B&H economy lies in revival of the activities in the area of building construction (new building stock + reconstruction-improvement of existing building stock), then “small” power systems (so called CHP-Combined Heat and Power systems, having in mind that such systems are built today with power 10 kW to 10 MW, and recently to powers over 100 MW). This brings in itself a wide variety of activities of small and middle engineering companies, design bureaus, production engineering houses, of wide variety of industries, such as: construction industry (materials, - insulation, brick, roofing cover, etc., carpentry products (windows, doors), furniture, painting works, attached transportation and trade activities, metal production and processing industry (tubing, fittings, valves, sheet metal works, boilers production, pumps, compressors, fans, air conditioning equipment, etc.), activation of handicrafts industry (central heating mounting, plumbing, electricity etc.) and of number of attached activities (cement, sand, gravel, stone processing etc.). From in the above, one can see that most probably there is no other economy branch which would practically in parallel activate such a number of industrial and human activity branches.

5. CONCLUSIONS Based on the above text it is possible to conclude: (i) There is an urgent need of revision of the existing and design of new and attached standards in the area of building construction, because building energy sector consumes more than 50 % of total energy consumption of B&H (ii) Introduction of new, advanced and more efficient equipment and technologies in the field of energy production, transformation, distribution and consumption such as CHP, which double primary energy transformation compared to conventional power plants.

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PRILOG 2 — ATTACHMENT 2 Tabela 1: Projektni parametri za neke gradove prethodne Jugoslavije: Table 1. Heating and wind design conditions is some ciies of the ex Yugoslavia

Coldest month MWS/PWD at DB Extreme annual daily Heating Dry bulb

Extreme wind Speed , m/s 0,4% 1% 99,6% 0,4% Mean DB StdD DB STANICA

WMO#Lati-Tude

Long-itude

Elev-ation

StdP kPa

Dates

99,6% 99% 1% 2,5% 5% WS MDB WS MDB MWS PWD MWS PWD Max Min Max Min

1a 1b 1c 1d 1e 1f 1g 2a 2b 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 4d 5a 5b 5c 5d 6a 6b 6c 6d

BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA Banja Luka

132420 44,78N 17,22E 156 99,46 8293 -12,9 -8,9 5,9 4,3 3,4 6,4 11,1 4,5 9,8 1,1 320 2,0 360 36,6-

14,5 2,2 4,2

CROATIA Pula 132090 44,90N 13,92E 63 100,57 8293 -4,1 -2,8 11,5 9,4 7,7 11,8 1,8 9,6 3,5 3,3 20 2,8 270 33,5 -6,2 1,1 2,0Split 133330 43,53N 16,30E 21 101,07 8293 -1,9 -0,1 10,6 8,4 7,0 10,4 4,9 8,5 6,6 3,9 340 3,7 230 34,6 -7,1 3,9 9,3Zagreb 131310 45,73 16,07 107 100,05 8293 -13,2 -10 8,5 7,2 5,9 7,7 4,0 6,3 3,9 1,0 240 2,9 230 33,5 -16,5 3,2 4,6

MACEDONIA Skopje 135860 41,97N 21,65E 239 98,49 8293 -12,4 -9,3 9,0 7,7 6,2 8,3 2,2 6,7 1,1 0,4 50 2,0 270 38 -15,8 2,5 5,2

SLOVENIA Ljubljana 130140 46,22N 14,48E 385 96,78 8293 -13,0 -10,4 6,2 5,1 4,2 5,5 1,0 4,4 1,4 0,5 290 3,1 130 33,7 -16,2 2,5 3,2

SR YUGOSLAVIA Belgrade 132720 44,82N 20,28E 99 100,14 8293 -11,5 -8,9 11, 9,1 7,8 10,2 -0,4 8,9 0,1 2,5 10 2,7 120 36,2 -14,6 2,2 4,6Pali 130670 46,10N 19,77E 105 100,07 8293 -12,5 -9,6 7,6 6,6 5,5 7,7 3,2 6,7 2,5 1,9 50 2,4 180 35,0 -15,8 1,9 4,2Podgorica 134620 42,37N 19,25E 33 100,93 8293 -4,1 -2,8 10,9 9,2 7,8 10,5 6,1 9,3 3,6 3,1 360 3,3 180 37,1 -6,8 1,2 2,4

WMO#=World Meteorological Organization number; PWD = Prevailing Wind Direction, 0True; DB = Dry Bulb Temperature, oC; MDB = Mean Coincident Dry Bulb Temperature; MWB = Mean Coincident Wet Bulb Temperature, 0C; MWS = Mean coincident wind speed, m/s; HR = Humidity Ratio; g/kg; StdP = Standard Pressure at Station elevation, kPA; StdD = Standard Deviation, 0C; DP = Dew Point Temperature, 0C; WS = Wind Speed, m/s Tabela 2: Projektni parametri za neke gradove prethodne Jugoslavije: Table 2. Cooling and dehumidification design conditions in some cities of ex Yugoslavia

Cooling DB/MWB Evaporation Wb/MBD Dehumidification Dp/MDB and HR 0,4% 1% 2% 0,4% 1% 2% 0,4% 1% 2%Stanica

DB MWB DB MWB DB MWB DB MWB DB MWB DB MWB DP HR MDB DP HR MDB DP HR MDBRange

1 2a 2b 2c 2d 2e 2f 3a 3b 3c 3d 3e 3f 4a 4b 4c 4d 4e 4f 4g 4h 4i 5

BOSNIA — HERZEGOVINA Banjaluka 33,1 20,4 31,0 20,3 29,3 19,6 22,3 29,2 21,4 28,4 20,4 27,4 20,1 15,1 26,1 19,0 14,1 24,3 18,2 13,4 23,0 12,7

CROATIA Pula 31,8 21,4 30,2 20,6 29,1 20,2 23,3 27,9 22,5 27,8 21,5 27,1 21,9 16,7 26,0 20,8 15,6 25,1 19,9 14,7 24,1 10,6Split 32,8 21,2 31,7 20,4 30,2 20,0 22,5 29,9 21,7 29,3 21,1 28,7 20,1 14,8 25,9 19,1 13,9 25,3 18,2 13,1 24,7 10,3Zagreb 31,1 21,3 29,5 21,0 28,1 20,1 22,5 29,4 21,6 28,1 20,8 26,9 20,2 15,1 25,6 19,2 14,2 24,9 18,5 13,5 23,6 12,3

MACEDONIA Skopje 35,2 20,2 33,3 19,8 31,8 19,4 21,7 32,3 21,0 31,1 20,1 30,0 18,1 13,4 25,5 17,2 12,6 24,4 16,8 12,3 24,0 15,2

SLOVENIA Ljubljana 30,1 20,0 28,3 19,2 26,9 18,5 20,9 28,4 20,0 26,8 19,2 25,8 18,2 13,7 23,3 17,6 13,2 22,5 16,9 12,6 22,3 12,4

SR YUGOSLAVIA Belgrade 33,4 21,8 31,8 21,1 29,9 20,5 22,7 30,3 21,8 29,6 21,1 28,6 20,1 15,0 26,8 19,2 14,1 25,4 18,4 13,4 24,4 12,3Pali 32,2 20,9 30,5 20,5 29,0 19,6 21,9 30,3 21,1 29,0 20,4 27,7 19,2 14,1 25,2 18,4 13,4 24,3 17,6 12,8 23,8 11,3Podgorica 35,1 21,8 33,8 21,6 32,2 20,9 23,0 32,5 22,4 31,6 21,7 30,5 20,2 14,9 25,9 19,4 14,2 26,4 18,8 13,7 25,8 11,7

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PRILOG 3 – ATTACHMENT 3 SPOLJNJE PROJEKTNE TEMPERATURE ZA SFRJ – OUTSIDE AIR HEATING DESIGN TEMPERATURES FOR SFRJ

PRILOG 4 - ATTACHMENT 4 KLIMATSKE ZONE ZA SFRJ – CLIMATIC ZONES FOR SFRJ

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Mainstvo 2(6), 125 – 134, (2002) J.Macdonald,….: TQM – UZROCI NEUSPJEHA....

TQM – UZROCI NEUSPJEHA I KAKO IH PREVAZI]I

John Macdonald, 129 Holly Lane East, Banstead Village, Surrey, England Doc. dr. Slavko Dolinek, Univerzitet u Ljubljani, Fakulteta za stojnitvo v Ljubljana, Aker~eva 6 Ljubljana, Slovenia

REZIME

Krajem sedamdesetih, na hiljade kompanija sa zapada po~ele su da prihvataju izazov s Dalekog Istoka, te su lansirale neku v stu inicijtiva o kvaloitetu. Kao rezulta toga, mnoge od njih su postale svjetski konkurenti i iz njihovog se iskustva moè mnogo toga nau~iti. Naàlost, tako|er je ta~no da mnoge organizacije, ako ne i veina njih, nisu bile jednako uspjene, pa moèmo u~iti iz njihovih iskustava.

r t

r rt r

f r

Klju~ne rije~i: kvalitet, menad`ment, TQM, neuspjeh TQM-a

TQM - THE REASONS FOR FAILURE AND HOW TO OVERCOME THEM

John Macdonald, 129 Holly Lane East, Banstead Village, Surrey, England Slavko Dolinek, asisstant professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Ljubljana, Aker~eva 6 Ljubljana, Slovenia

SUMMARY Since the late 1970s thousands of Western companies have woken up to the challenge from the Far East and launched some form of quality initiative. As a result, many have since become wo ld class competito s and much can be learnt from their experiences. Unfortunately, it is also true tha many o ganisations, if not the majority, have not met with the same measure o success; we can also lea n from their experiences.

Key words: Quality, Management, TQM, TQM Failure.

1. UVOD U toku naeg istraìvanja iznenadila nas je ~injenica da je o~ekivana stopa neuspjeha inicijativa TQM bila vie od dvostruko vea za SAD nego za VB (vidi [1]). Ne vjerujemo da je to samo zbog sposobnosti menad`menta u VB u odnosu na jihove kolege u SAD-u. Istraìvanje je tako|er otkrilo jo neke ~injenice, a njihova mogua povezanost bila je jako interesantna. U to vrijeme je manje od 2000 kompanija u SAD-u imala certifikate ISO-2000, dok je ta cifra u VB iznosila vie od 25 000. Kad se uzme u obzir veli~ina ekonomija ovih dviju zemalja, takve brojke su jo vie zapanjujue. Potreban je kratki historijski uvod da bi se objasnila ovolika razlika. Standard ISO 2000 poti~e iz britanskog standarda BS 5750, koji opet vodi porijeklo od standarda oko kojih su se usaglasili Ministarstvo odbrane SAD-a i Ministarstvo odbrane VB radi isporuke vojne opreme NATO-u i jedni drugima.

1. INTRODUCTION During our research we were surprised to find that the estimated failure rate for TQM initiative was more than twice as high for the United States as for the UK (see also [1]). We are not chauvinistic enough to believe that this was wholly due to the competence of UK management vis-ŕ-vis their US counterparts. But the research also led to some other facts, and the possible correlation was intriguing. At the time, fewer than two thousand US companies had ISO 9000 certification, while the corresponding figure for the UK exceeded twenty-five thousand. When one considers the relative size of the two economies, the figures are even more extraordinary - A little history is needed to explain this discrepancy. ISO 9000 is derived from the British standard BS5750, which in turn was derived from quality standards on which the U.S. Department of Defence and the -British Ministry of Defence agreed for delivery of military equipment to NATO and to each other.

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U vrijeme akcije M.Thateher da oìvi VB, Ministarstvo trgovine i industrije je odlu~ilo da akreditacija za BS 5750 bude glavni elementi njihovoj "dràvnoj kompaniji o kvalitetu". Reìranost kompanije i pomo manjim kompanijama bili su vei nego sam uvod standarda; to je nagovjetavao i reklamni slogan, "Kvalitet je isuvie vaàn da biste ga prepustili vaem menadèru kvaliteta". Uspjeh te kampanje, zajedno sa obuzdavanjem arhai~ne moi sindikata, vjerovatno objanjava i ogromna ulaganja u VB iz Japana, Koreje i SAD-a. Nije slu~ajno to to negdanja istroena, umorna i staromodna VB sada vodi Njema~ku, Francusku i ostatak Europe kad je u pitanju veina parametara ekonomskog uspjjeha. Iz ovoga se moè nau~iti da se period discipliniranog razmiljanja na mnogim nivoima organizacije na kraju ipak isplati. primjena razumijevanja i potra`nje akreditacije ISO 9000 je izgleda obrazovni utjecaj u razvoju jedne evolucione kompanije koja razmilja (barem kad je u pitanju kvalitet ISO 9000 mo`da jeste noviji kvalitet koji je svet u SAD-u, ili brzina njegovog sticanja e na duè staze vie doprinjeti promjeni mnotva ameri~kih kompanija kad je u pitanju kvalitet nego svi stru~njaci zajedno. Ono to je mo`da jo va`nije je da ova zapaànja vode naprijed zemlje kao to su Indija, Meksiko, te dràve isto~ne i centralne Europe u njihovoj potrazi za konkurencijom u kvalitetu (tako|er predstavljeno u [2]). Uspjeh je stvar usporedbe. Nekim neuspjenim firmama bi bilo teko priznati neuspjeh. Istinu govorei, za njih je mjera uspjeha negdje izme|u uspjeha i neuspjeha. To je i razumljivo jer je sada bolja svaka kompanija koja je zapo~ela akciju kvaliteta. u poslovnom pogledu, kvalitet je u centru pa`nje i pokazuje pozitivne povratne rezultate, dakle uspjean je. Uspjeh bi se ipak trebao mjeriti u odnosu na svjedske konkurente i prvobitna o~ekivanja. Ako se tako gleda, mnogo firmi ima razloga za razo~arenost (kao to je to obrazloèno u [3]). Istraìvanja autora i njihovo iskustvo u pomaganim organizaicjama koje provode inicijative kvaliteta irom svijeta dovelo ih je do toga da razlikuju deset osnovnih razloga za razlo~aranost koji e biti sumirani (vidi tako|er [4]). Under Thatcher's drive to revitalise Britain, the UK Department of Trade and Industry decided to make

accreditation to BS5750 a major element in their "national quality campaign." The breadth of the campaign and the assistance to smaller companies were wider than the introduction of standards alone; this was indicated by the advertising launch slogan, "Quality is too important to leave to your quality manager." The success of this campaign, together with the curbing of archaic trade union power, probably accounts for a major proportion of the massive investment in Britain from Japan, Korea, and the United States. It is not an accident that the erstwhile spent, tired, and old-fashioned UK at the lime of this writing now leads Germany, France, and the rest of Europe in most of the parameters of economic success. The lesson to be learned is that a period of disciplined thinking, at many levels in the organisation eventually pays dividends. The exercise of understanding and seeking accreditation to ISO 9000 would appear to be an educational influence in development of a thinking evolutionary company (well, at least in the area of quality). ISO 9000 may be a latter-day quality saint in the United States, but its gathering pace may do more in the long run to change the mass of U.S. companies in the field of quality than all the gurus combined. But perhaps more important these observations point the way toward for countries such as India, Mexico and the East and Central European nations in their search for quality competitiveness (as also presented at [2]). Success is a comparative term. Some of the unsuccessful companies would have difficulty in admitting failure. In truth the measure of success for them is somewhere between success and failure. This view is understandable for, almost without exception, every company that has launched a quality drive has improved. In business terms quality has been in focus and has shown a positive return; therefore it has been successful. But the real measure of success should be against world class competitors and the original expectations. Viewed in that light most companies have reasons for disappointment (as discussed at [3]). The author’s research and their experience in assisting organisations implementing quality initiatives around the world have led them to recognise ten principle reasons for disappointment which will be summarised (see also [4] for details).

2. NEDOSTATAK PREDANOSTI MENAD@MENTA

Naj~ei razlog koji prethodi uporednom neuspjehu inicijativa kvaliteta je nedostatak prednosti menad`menta tome da provedu proces do kraja. Komentari razlo~aranih glase sli~no vom: "Dobro smo po~eli, sve osoblje je bilo za to, ali nekako

se sve izgubilo – menad`ment nije bio predan tome do kraja".

2. LACK OF MANAGEMENT

COMMITMENT The most frequent reason advanced for the comparative failure of quality initiatives is a lack of management commitment to see the process through. The disillusioned comments can be

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paraphrased as: 'We got off to a good start, the staff were all for it but somehow it all petered out

- management didn't stay committed.'

Kvalitet se vidi kao "ukus godine", a sad organizacija ima drugi ukus. Drugim rje~ima unapre|enje kvaliteta se tretira kao kratkoro~ni program, a ne kao proces koji se nikad ne zavrava. U stvarnosti je sve previe pojednostavljen izgovor i ne ide do srì neuspjela. nije nedostajala predansot nego razumijevanje. na kraju krajeva, ko moè uope biti protiv kvalitete? Stvarni razlog je taj to menad`ment zapravo nije shraao ~emu to treba biti predan. U bilo kojoj fazi programa, menad`ment bi se smatrao predanim kvalitetu i rado bi odrào uvjerljivi govor u kojem bi demonstrirao svoju predanost. pre~esto se deava da se menadèri upuste u programe kvalitete bez pravnog razumijevanja odredita, a kamoli promijena koje ih o~ekuju na tom putu. Quality had been seen as the 'flavour of the year' and now the organisation had a new flavour. In

other words, quality improvement had been treated as a short-term programme rather than as a never-ending process. In reality this is a too simplistic excuse and does not go the root cause of failure. It was not commitment but comprehension that was lacking. After all, who can really be against quality. The real issue is that management generally had little understanding as to what they were supposed to be committed to. At any stage of the programme the management would have considered themselves committed to quality and been delighted to have made another rabble-rousing speech to demonstrate their commitment. Too often managers launch into quality programmes with no real comprehension of the destination, let alone the vicissitudes to be met on the way.

3. NEDOSTATAK VIZIJE I PLANIRANJA

Preobraanje u kvalitet se veè s religijskim iskustvom. neki direktori vide svjetlo i iznenada se rade iznova u menadère kvaliteta. Vo|eni àrom nove vjere, aoni jure na put u Damaskus i o~ekuju da e ih svi slijepo slijediti. Naàlost, ti evand|elisti imaju slabu predstavu o tome gdje je i ta je Damaskus, o tome kako da tamo stignu, a ponajmanje znaju ta e im na tom putovanju trebati. Skoro bez izuzetka se deava na mo ovog pojma i pobjede timskog rada pretvore negdanjeg skeptika u mono sredstvo promjene. W. Edward Deming, ameri~ki stur~njak za kvalitet, je uvijek zahtijevao doslijednost cilja a ne predanost menad`menta (na primjer [5]. Obilje znanja koje se skriva u ovoj tvrdnji je da menad`ment prije svega mora imati cilj kojem e ostati dosljedan. Ako se ne odredi cilj i ne napravi plan kako e se ostvariti, to je istinski razlog razo~arenja mnogih inicijativa kvaliteta. Izvrni direktor ili vo|a organizacije mora prije svega imati jasnu predstavu o Damaskusu a onda je jasno prenijeti svim buduim hodo~asnicima. Mnogi izvrni direktori prili~no jasno definiraju poslovne ciljeve organizacije ali pridaju malo pa`nje principima i vrijednostima ili metodama kojima èle ostvariti tu poslovnu viziju. Isuvie ~esto se to dodjeljuje direktoru osoblja ili, u slu~aju kvaliteta "timu za kvalitet". Dr. Stephen Tanner je kratko opisao rezultt toga rije~ima"igranka stru~njaka".

3. LACK OF VISION AND PLANNING The conversion to quality has been likened to a religious experience. Some executives see the light and suddenly become born-again quality managers. Fired with the zeal of the new faith they go rushing off on the road to Damascus and expect everyone else to follow blindly. Unfortunately these evangelists have little real idea of where or what Damascus is, of how to get there and even less idea of what they are going to need on the journey. Almost without exception, the power of the concept and of teamwork triumphs and the erstwhile sceptic becomes a powerful agent for change. W. Edward Deming, the American quality guru, always demanded constancy of purpose rather than commitment from management (for example [5]). The profound knowledge which lies at the heart of this statement is that management must first have a purpose to which to remain constant. The failure to provide this purpose and to provide a plan to achieve it is the real cause of disappointment in many quality initiatives. The executive or leader of the organisation has to have a very clear idea of Damascus and then communicate it very clearly to ail the would-be pilgrims. Many executives define fairly clearly the business objectives of the organisation but give only moderate attention to the principles and values or methods by which they want the business vision achieved. Too often that is delegated to the Human Resources or Personnel Director or in the case of quality to a 'quality team'. The resultant process has been succinctly described by Dr Stephen Tanner as 'guru-hopping'.

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4. ZADOVOLJAVANJE POPRAVCIMA NABRZINU

Danas veina izvrnih direktora zna da je kvalitet usluge vaàn njihovim muterijama. naravno da èle u~initi neto da poboljaju kvalitet unutar svoje organizacije, ali malo njih razumije da bi nedostatak kvaliteta koji otkriju u svojoj kompaniji mogao biti rezultat njihovog vlastitog ponaanja ili postupaka. Tako|er ih proìma zapadna filozofija da ako obrate pa`nju na problem, on se moè brzo popraviti. kao posljedica toga hvalisave èlje da se povea zadovoljstvo kupca, kao i imid` organizacije se grubo prevode u jedno drugo nastojanje, a to je "svaliti to na radnike". Jezik koji se u takvoj situaciji koristi su obi~no fraze poput "motivirati radnu snagu" ili "pruìti naim ljudima orjentacije ka kupcima". Tri naj~ea primjera mentaliteta "popravke nabrzinu" u pokuajima da se pobolja kvalitet su u zapadnim uslu`nim organiazcijama uvo|enje krugova kvaliteta, programa brige o kupcu i osposobljavanje ljudi. Svaki od onih pristupa je vjerodostojan i zaista moè biti snaàn doprinos cijelom tom procesu, ali samo ako je radna sredina, prijem~iva na svoj uspjeh ili drugim rije~ima, ako su izvrioci prvo stvorili novu sredinu u kojoj su se tradicionalni na~ini ponaanja menad`menta dokazano promijenili. Bez kulturoloke promjene svaki navedeni program se gasi. Tako|er obmanjuju menad`ment i uvjeravaju ih da su se pozabavili pitanjem kvaliteta i da sada mogu skrenuti misli va`nijim "pravim poslovnim pitanjima". âk i najnaprednije firme budu uhvaene u zamku popravke nabrzinu. Trenutna primjena udruène pomoi moè prikriti ugruak u tijelu organizacije. Vrijedno je ispitati zablude koje leè iza ovih pristupa ako se primjene izolirano. Krugovi kvaliteta – kad je utjecaj izazova japanskog kvaliteta prvi put postao o~igledan, zapadni konsultanti i biznismeni su odjurili u Japan. To su bila skupa putovanja, pa je bilo malo vremena za pravo istraìvanje o svim pitanjima. Ipak prona|en je jedan odgovor koji je zadovoljio njihove umove koji funkcioniu po principu popravke nabrzinu: krug kvaliteta. Za njih je krug kvaliteta predstavljao grupu radnika kojir ade zajedno sa svojim nadzornicima da bi zavrili dijagrame poput riblje koti i rijeilis ve svoje probleme u vezi s kvalitetom. Ova se ideja svidjela menad`mentu na Zapadu. Nekoliko godina poslije, zbunjeni izvrioci nisu mogli objasniti relativni neuspjeh pokreta kruga kvaliteta na Zapadu. na kraju su uzdahnuli i to prepisali razlici u stavu izme|u japanskog i radnika sa zapada. U jednu ruku su bili u pravu, ali im nikad nije palo na

pamet da ta razlika u stavu radnika postoji zbog razlike u ponaanju menad`menta.

4. SATISFACTION WITH THE QUICK FIX Today most executives realise that quality of service is important to their customers. Naturally they want to do something to improve quality within their own organisation. However, few comprehend that the lack of quality that they detect in their own company could be the result of their own behaviour or actions. They are also imbued with the Western philosophy that if they turn their attention to the problem it can be quickly fixed. Consequently, the laudable desire to improve customer satisfaction and the image of the organisation is often crudely translated into another urge 'to beat up on the workers. The language actually used is more likely to be 'motivating the workforce' or 'providing our people with a customer orientation'. The three most common examples of the 'quick fix' mentality in attempting to improve quality in Western service organisations are the introduction of quality circles, customer care programmes and empowering the people. Each of these approaches is valid and indeed they can be powerful contributors to an overall process, but only if the operating environment is conducive to their success - in other words, if the executives have first created a new environment in which traditional management behaviour patterns have demonstrably changed. Without the cultural change each of the above become one-off programmes. They also delude management into believing that they have dealt with the quality issue and that they can now turn their minds to more important 'real business issues'. Even the most progressive companies can fall into the quick fix trap. Immediate application of the Band-Aid can hide the haemorrhaging in the body of the organisation. It is worth examining the fallacies that lie behind these approaches if applied in isolation. Quality Circles - when the impact of the Japanese quality challenge first became apparent Western consultants and businessmen rushed to Japan. These were expensive trips so there was little time for real research into al! the issues but they did find one answer that satisfied their quick fix minds: the quality circle. For them the quality circle meant groups of workers collaborating with their supervisors to complete fishbone diagrams and solve all their quality problems. This idea appealed to Western management. Some years later puzzled executives found it hard to explain the relative failure of the quality circle movement in the West. In the end they sighed and

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put it down to the difference in attitude between the Japanese and the Western worker, in one sense they were right but it never occurred to them that the

difference in attitude in the workers was caused by the difference in behaviour of the respective management.

Japanski menadèr je poznavao statisti~ku teoriju. Znali su da sami radnici mogu ukloniti oko dvadeset posto uzroka greke. Morali su aktivno u~estvovati s radnicima u rjeavanju onih preostalih 80 %. Zato su krugovi kvaliteta osu|eni na propast ako menad`ment ne razumije u potpunosti svoju vlastitu ulogu u tom procesu. Program brige o kupcima je najdeminantniji pristup popravke nabrzinu u poboljanju uslu`nih organizacija. Pravljenje udobnih ~ekaonica, odu~avanje osoblja ljubaznom opho|enju s kupcima i koritenju telefona su va`ni sastojci u pruànju kvalitetne usluge, ali ako se koriste odvojeno, samo e prekriti pukotine u pruànju istinski kvalitetnih usluga. Briga o kupcu moè biti brz izlaz za uslu`nu industirju. Ona poti~e iz o~igledne ~injenice da su to prvenstveno poslovi u koje su uklju~eni ljudi. Njihov menad`ment smatra svojr ad suprotan radu sistem analiziranih proizvodnih linija u kojima dominiraju maine, te misli da tu ne postoji nikakva povezanost. ne shvaaju da i oni tako|er pruàju usluge putem niza sistematiziranih procesa koji iziskuju sli~nu kontrolu i pomo. Mo`da se i primjenjuju na druga~iji na~in, ali su konceptualno sli~ni. Uslu`ne organizacije moraju soigurati da su svi procesi koji dolaze iz kancelarija u pozadini ispravni, te moraju obu~iti osoblje u isturenim kancelarijama kako da vode briju o kupcu. zapravo, ako su svi procesi za scene pod kontrolom, ljudi koji imaju dirketni kontakt s kupcima e se naravno smjekati. Bit e sretni zbog svog rada jer se ne moraju nositi s ljutim kupcima. Osposobljavanje ljudi je sloènije pitanje. zavisi ta organizacija podrazumijeva pod osposobljavanjem, ali kao i ostalim konceptima kvalitete, prijeti mu opasnost od iskoritavanja. Danas je to postalo moderno kod konsultanata u SAD-u, a zauzima teren i u VB. U veini slu~ajeva je to kratki nastavak brige o kupcu, koji daje direktnom kontaktu s kupcem vie slobode u pruànju dodatnih usluga s ciljem njegovog zadovoljavanja. U proizvodnoj industriji je proizvodna linija nekad bila sveta i samo je pojedinac na jako visokoj funkciji, vjerovatno sam direktor pogona, imao ovlatenja da je zaustavi. Danas proizvodnu liniju moè zaustaviti i operater ako uo~i neki kvar. ovo je osposobljavanje ljudi. To zna~i definiranje standarda u kojem je greka neprihvatljiva.

The Japanese manager understood statistical theory. They knew that the workers on their own could only eliminate some twenty per cent of the sources of error. They had to participate actively with the workers in tackling the remaining eighty per cent. Therefore, quality circles are doomed to comparative failure if management do not wholly understand their personal role in the process. Customer care programmes are the most prevalent of the quick fix approaches to quality improvement in service organisations. Providing pleasant waiting rooms, teaching staff to treat the customer with courtesy and how to handle the telephone are important ingredients in giving a quality service. However, used in isolation it will generally only gloss over the cracks in providing a real quality service. Customer care can be an easy way out for service industries. It stems from the obvious fact that they are primarily people businesses. Their management contrast their operations with the machine-dominated systematised production lines of manufacturing and consider that there is no correlation. They fail to recognise that they also deliver service through a series of systematised processes which require many similar controls and aids. They may well be applied differently but they are similar in concept. Service organisations must ensure that all the back office processes are right and train the front office to care for the customer. Actually, if all the behind the-scenes processes are in control, the people with direct customer contact will be smiling naturally. They will be happy in their work because they have no irate customers to cairn down. Empowering the people is a more complex issue. It depends on what the organisation means by empowering. However, like other quality concepts it is in danger of being prostituted. It is very much in vogue with consultants in the USA and is gaining ground in the UK. In many cases it is a short fix extension of customer care, giving the direct customer contact more latitude in providing extras to delight the customer. In the manufacturing industries the production line was once sacrosanct and only a very senior individual, probably only the plant manager himself, was authorised to stop the line. Now in some plants the operator can close down the line if he spots a defect. That is empowering the people. That is defining a standard where error is unacceptable.

5. MALO VLASNI[TVO PROCESA Jedna druga~ija varijanta pristupa popravke nabrzinu se tako|er moè vidjeti u organizaciji koja je odlu~na da

implementira svaki element TQM-a. Takve organizacije su reorganizirale potrebu da se mijenjaju i naravno ne èle traiti vrijeme na provo|enju ofosa kvalitete.

5. LITTLE OWNERSHIP OF THE PROCESS

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A different variant of the quick fix approach can also be seen in the organisation that is determined to implement every element of TQM. They have recogni-sed the need to change and naturally do not want to waste too much time in implementing a quality ethos. Osim toga, jo uvijek su male da shvate da e im trebati pomo izvana i stoga dolaze konsultantima TQM-a. U ovoj fazi lako mogu postati plijen metodologije "punog paketa" i obrazovnog sistema "punog paketa". Teko je kritikovati izvrioca koji odlu~i da slijedi ovaj unaprijed propisani pravac. Mnoga od ovih rjeenja u paketu su direktno, ili putem zaklju~ivanja, u vezi s podu~avanjima pojedinih stru~njaka za kvalitet. Ipak, uprkos neupitnoj vjerodostojnosti stru~njaka, ovakva rjeenja u paketu e ignorisati jedinstvenu kulturu organizacije i stvoriti prepreke komunikaciji u cijeloj radnoj snazi. Bilo koja organizacija koja objanjava kako primjenjuje procese "Crosby" ili "Macdonald i Piggolt" je osuena na razo~arenje. Njima treba njihov vlastiti proces. zato autori savjetuju klijente da odaberu slogan za svoju inicijtivu koji odraàva njihovu vlastitu radnu kulturu a ne npr. "TQM".

They are also wee enough to comprehend that they are going to need outside help and therefore they approach TQM consultants. At this stage they can easily fall prey to the complete 'packaged' methodology and a complete 'packaged' educational system. It is difficult to criticise the executive who decides to follow this prescribed route. Many of these packaged - solutions are directly, or by inference, linked to the teachings of one or other of the quality gurus. Yet, despite the undoubted credibility of the guru, these packaged solutions will ignore the unique culture of the organisation and create barriers to communication throughout the workforce. Any organisation that explains that it is implementing the 'Crosby' or 'Macdonald and Piggott' process are doomed to disappointment. They need their OWN process. For this reason the authors advise their clients to select a title for their initiative which reflects their own operational culture rather than for example 'TQM'.

6. PROMJENA KULTURE NASPAM PRISTUPA PROJEKTU

Sva filozofija menad`menta kvaliteta se vjeta~ki dijeli u dvije razli~ite i konkurentne strategije provoenja. Ta dva pristupa se kategoriu kao "pravac sveobuhvatne promjene kulture" i "pristup projekat po projekat". Pravac promjene kulture ponekad kritikuju njegovi protivnici i nazivaju ga "materinstvom". Naravno, ako se pogreno primijeni nee ba rezultirati poboljanjem kvalitete ili proizvodnje. Koncept se uglavnom zasniva na jakom educiranju i treningu za sve u organizaciji. ovaj proces je napravljen tako da vodi sve do prepoznavanja potrebe da se napravi promjena, te da se oja~a analiti~ka sposobnost kod ljudi da bi se poboljao proces rada. Nema nita loe u ovom pristupu – on je zapravo sutinski element u poboljanju kvaliteta. Opasnost leì u organizacijskom nastojanju da svi ~ekaju da se obrazovni proces zavri, pa da se onda pozabave krupnim problemima na koje usput nai|u, ali do tad e ve zaboraviti veinu onoga to su nau~ili. Ovo je posebna opasnost za srednji menad`ment. U najgorem slu~aju se moè uporediti sa insistiranjem da svi ostanu na prevenciji poàra dok na drugoj strani gori isto~no krilo zgrade. Postupno druga~iji pristup "projekat po projekat" je pragmati~niji i tvrdi se da je prakti~niji. Moderni "reinènjering poslovnog procesa" (BPR) predstavlja neke od onih tendencija. U sutini, niz klju~nih pitanja, procesa ili prilike za unapre|enje se

identificiraju a onda se uspostave radne grupe ili timovi za projekat da bi poradili na tim pitanjima.

6. CULTURE CHANGE VERSUS PROJECT APPROACH

The overall philosophy of quality management has been artificially divided into two distinct and competing implementation strategies. The two approaches are categorised as the 'overall' culture change route' and the 'project by project approach'. The culture change route is sometimes castigated by its opponents as 'motherhood'. Certainly if misapplied it will produce little real improvement in quality or productivity. The concept is based largely on cascading education and training for everyone in the organisation. This process is designed to lead everyone to recognise the need to change and provide them with the competence to analyse and improve work processes. There is nothing wrong in this approach - indeed it is an essential element in quality improvement. The danger lies in the organisational tendency for everyone to wait until the educational process is complete before tackling the major problems discovered on the way. By then they will have forgotten much that was learnt. This Is a particular danger for middle management. At its worst it can be likened to insisting that everyone stays on the fire prevention course while the east wing burns down. The opposing 'project by project' approach is more pragmatic and is argued to be more practical. The fashionable 'business process re- engineering' (BPR)

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exhibits some of these tendencies. In essence a series of key issues, processes or opportunities for

improvement are identified and then task forces or project teams are established to work on the issues.

Naravno, svaki je tim prethodno proao edukaciju o tehnikama postizanja dodataka koji su mu dodijeljeni. promjena kulture se donekle i deava zbog same prirode aktivnosti, ali opasnost leì u tome da edukacija, seminari i iskustvo nisu uobi~ajeni, te funkcija kao to su administrativne i finansijske nisu u potpunosti uklju~ene. Takoer postoji nastojanje da se napravi velika organizacija za podrku kvalitetu sa desilitatorima i trenerima koji bi bili zaposleni na puno radno vrijeme. U najirem smislu novi na~in rada ne ulazi u cjelokupnu sr` organizacije. Pravi odgovor leì u obimu prvobitne procjene i faze planiranja procesa. procjena e osvijetliti i promjenu kulture koja je neophodna i trenutne klju~ne faktore uspjeha. Plan bi onda trebao da se pozabavi strategijom provo|enja koja osigurava da oba pristupa budu integralni, a ne konkurentni. Tako e se izbjei opasnost koju svaki pristup sadrì, ako se ova dva pristupa uzmu kao jedan. Mo`da onda takav integrisani pristup ima vie srodnosti sa raditeljstvom, a ne samo sa materinstvom!

Of course, each team is educated and trained in techniques to accomplish their allotted task. To some extent a culture change does take place by the very nature of the activity. The danger is that the education, training and experience is not common and many functions such as administrative and financial are not wholly involved. There is also a tendency to create a large supporting quality organisation of full-time trainers and facilitators. In the broadest sense the new way of working does not enter the overall fabric of the organisation. The real answer lies in the scope of the original assessment and planning stage of the process. The assessment will highlight both the culture change required and the immediate key success factors. The plan should then address an implementation strategy that ensures that both approaches are integral rather than competing. It will avoid the dangers inherent in each when taken as the sole route. Perhaps the integrated approach becomes more akin to parenthood rather than mere motherhood!

7. OPSJEDNUTNOST ALATIMA I TEHNIKAMA

Posljednjih godina je razvijen zna~ajan arsenal alatki koje podràva, sve uklju~ene u proces poboljanja kvaliteta. one se kreu od alata za relativno jednsotavna mjerenja i analize procesa, kroz niz tehnika za rjeavanje problema, do veoma safisticirane upotrebe statisti~kog koncepta. Veina ovih alatki i tehnika e stvarno doprinijeti promjeni svijesti, te su zato sastavni dio strategije poboljanja. ostale tehnike se koriste u specifi~nim situacijama (vidi pregled [6]). Bilo kako bilo, kvalitet se nee dostii samo uz pomo alatki. Neke organizacije postanu toliko opsjednute samim alatkama da zaborave da su one tu da posluè odre|enoj svrsi. Pokuaji da se mjeri svaki element procesa od po~etka e preplaviti organizaciju ~injenicama koje ne moè koristiti ili na osnovu kojih ne moè nita poduzeti. Kad se kao alterntiva tapetama koriste mjerni diajgrami moè se sa sigurnou smatrati da se nee promijeniti mnogo. neki ljudi provedu toliko vremena u ispunjavanju dijagrama i prikupljanju statisti~kih podataka da im ostane malo vremena da zavre svoj stvarni posao. Mnoge pristalice kontrole statisti~kog procesa (Statistical Process Control – SPC) izgleda vjeruju da se sve to treba da se dostigne stepen odlu~nog samo upotreba ove nesumnjivo mone alatke. naravno SPC sadrì niz alatki za mjerenje koje treba pa`ljivo izabrati da bi odgovarale okolnostima. Sve su osmiljene da pomognu

kontroli procesa rada, to je sutina stalnog poboljanja, ali kontrola nije jedini faktor kad se posmatra ili kad se upravlja ljudskim elementima u radu.

7. AN OBSESSION WITH TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

A substantial armoury of tools has been developed over the years to support all involved in the quality improvement process. They range from relatively simple measurement and process analysis tools, through a series of problem-solving techniques, to very sophisticated use of statistical concepts. Many of these tools and techniques will actually assist the mindset change and are therefore an integral part of the improvement strategy. Others have their use in specific situations (for review see [6]). However, quality will not be achieved by tools alone. Some organisations become so obsessed with the tools themselves that they forget that tools are there only for a purpose. Trying to measure every element of a process from the outset will drown the organisation with facts that it cannot use or take action on. When measurement charts are being used as an alternative to wallpaper it is a reasonable bet that nothing much will change. Some people spend so much time filling in charts and collecting statistics that there is little time left to complete their real work. Many proponents of Statistical Process Control (SPC) seem to believe that the use of this undoubtedly powerful tool is all that is needed to achieve excellence. Of course SPC contains a range of

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measurement tools which need careful selection to meet given circumstances. They are all designed to assist in the control of work processes, which is the

central core of continuous improvement. Nevertheless, control is not the only factor in looking at or managing the human element of work.

Sli~no tome, dràvni sistemi kvaliteta, kao to su ISO 9000 su korisne discipline, ali sami nikada ne mogu osigurati kvalitet usluga. previe organizacija prolaze kroz zadatak certificiranja do takvih marketnikih sistema same i drugim rije~ima da bi ostale u poslu kao nabavlja~i drugim organizacijama treba im taj certifikat. One e se i poboljati, ali ako ne vide ire razgranjavanje kvaliteta nee postii ono to su mo`da o~ekivale. Ovi sistemi mogu postati jedan drugi oblik odustajanja menad`menta: "Eh, sad kad smo dobili certifikat, zavrili smo s kvalitetom".

Similarly, national quality systems such as ISO 9000 are useful disciplines but by themselves will not ensure quality of service. Too many organisations go through the task of certification to such systems for marketing reasons alone: in other words, as suppliers to other organisations they need such certification to remain in business. They will improve but unless they see the wider ramifications of quality they will not achieve what they might have expected. These systems can become another form of management cop-out: 'Good, now we have been certified we have dealt with quality.'

8. KVALITET JE PREVI[E ORGANIÂVAO

Rije~ kvalitet moè biti smetnja tome da se uope po~ne. premalo izvrilaca vide kvalitet kao strateki imperativ. êe ga vide kao zadatak koji treba oddijeliti odjelu za kvalitet i u svakom slu~aju kao troak koji treba kontrolisati. ne vide da kvalitet proìma sve to se deava u organizaciji. kad kvalitet i postane ta~ka na njihovom dnevnom redu i èle neto poduzeti, naj~ee idu u pravcu popravke nabrzinu. Konkurencija je navela mnoge organizacije na podizanje kvaliteta na strateki nivo. Ali i ovdje opet rije~ "kvalitet" namee ograni~enja. Ogromna energija se ulaè u proces poboljanja kvaliteta i svi u organizaciji su oduevljeni ali ne postoji istinska i trajna promjena. ovaj nivo razumijevanja ~esto dovodi do toga da se poboljanje kvaliteta ~esto instituicionalie u birokraciju koja sama sebe pokree. potreba za poboljanjem se prvo prepoznaje kroz potrebu konkurentnih teùita da se pobolja kvalitet usluga. Ta se potreba nee u potpunoti zadovoljiti ako se kvalitet ograni~i nedostatkom razumijevanja onoga to se time misli. Kvalitet treba gledati kao rezultat a ne kao proces.

8. QUALITY WAS TOO CONSTRAINING The word quality can be an impediment to even getting started. Too few executives see quality as a strategic imperative. They are more likely to see it as a task to be delegated to a quality department and in any case as an expense item to be controlled. They rarely see it as permeating everything that happens in the organisation. When quality does find a place on their agenda and they want to take action they are likely to adopt the quick fix route. Competition has led many organisations to elevate quality to the strategic level. But here again the word 'quality' imposes constraints. Tremendous energy is thrown into the quality improvement process and everyone in the organisation is enthused but there is no real and lasting change. This level of comprehension will often lead to quality improvement becoming institutionalised into a self-perpetuating bureaucracy. The need to improve is first recognised through the competitive market need to provide quality services. That need will not be wholly met if quality is constrained by lack of comprehension of what is now meant by that word. Quality should be viewed as the outcome rather than the process.

9. MENAD@MENT KVALITETA POSTAJE INSTITUCIONALIZIRAN

Koritenje TQM-a kao procesa u postizanju nivoa odli~nog zaista iziskuje organizaciju koja bi u po~etku pomogla kroz planiranje i podrku procesu promjene, ali takva organizaicja se ne smije smatrati odgovornom za kvalitet. To je odgovornost uobi~ajene strukture menad`menta i ljudi kojir ade zajedno. Da bi se naglasio taj zna~ajni koncept, po~etne organizacije TQM-a bi trebalo da isplaniraju i vrijeme kada one zavravaju sa svojimr adom od samog po~etka.

Naàlost, u mnogim organizacijama koje su predane poboljanju kvaliteta mnotvo timova za poboljanje kvaliteta, fasilitatora i koordinatora kvalitet smatraju trajnim vlasnitvom.

9. QUALITY MANAGEMENT BECAME INSTITUTIONALISED

Using TQM as a process to achieve excellence does require some initial facilitative organisation to plan and support the process of change. However, that organisation should never be seen as responsible for quality, that is the responsibility of the normal structure of management and people

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working together. To emphasise that important concept the initial TQM organisation should plan the timing of its own extinction right from the outset. Unfortunately, in many organisations fully committed to quality improvement a proliferation of quality improvement teams, facilitators and co-ordinators establish a permanent ownership of quality. Tako se stvori jo jedna tvr|ava i uobi~ajena struktura organizacije ubrzo prebacuje svoje probleme s kvalitetom "ljudima za kvalitet". Ovaj trajni grijeh inicijativa kvaliteta obi~no poti~e iz generalizovane metodologije stavljene u paket. Troe se velike sume novca na ovu generi~ku edukaciju ili metodologiju, a onda se troe jo vee sume tokom dugog vremenskog perioda na polu-trajnu biokraciju TQM-a. ova tendencija je siroko zastupljena u velikim organizacijama. Njihova kultura podràva pravljenje carstva (barem do sljedee vje`be podrezivanja) i ~esto kupuju ono u

ta su ih drugi uvjerili da su "isprobane i dokazane metodologije". Another fortress has been created and the normal structure of the organisation is soon throwing its quality problems over the wall to the 'quality people'. This abiding sin of quality initiatives usually stems from a generalised and packaged methodology. Large sums of money are spent on this generic education or methodology and then even larger sums are expended over long periods of time on a semi-permanent TQM bureaucracy. This tendency is very prevalent in large organisations. Their culture inherently encourages empire-building (or at least until the next pruning exercise) and they have a natural tendency to purchase what they are led to believe are 'tried and proven methodologies'.

10. UKLJUÊNOST ZAPOSLENIH NIJE ODR@ANA

Ovaj razlog neuspjeha je zaista rezultat drugih neo~ekivanih faktora a ne sutinski uzrok, ali ~esto se navodi kao uzrok neuspjeha, koji zasluùje posebnu pa`nju. Tipi~ne tvrdnje kompanije koje prolaze kroz ovo iskustvo su sljedee: • "Nita se zapravo nije promijenilo" • "Prodavnice ustvari nisu uradile nita" • "Nekako se to i nije desilo" • "Mada je na op~etku pozdravljeno s

entuzijazmom, radnici nikad nisu postali dio toga" • "U sutini, radnici nisu bili zainteresovani". Malo toga e se promijeniti (vidi [7]) ako elementi edukacije i seminara nisu osmiljeni isklju~ivo tako da uklju~e radnike u poboljanje vlastitog rada. Svaki element plana bi trebalo da se usmjeri na stvarno i specifi~no poboljanje koje radnici mogu prepoznati i povezati sa svojim vlastitim radom. ovo e se rijetko postii motivacijskim izazovima! U stvarnom ìvotu, uklju~enost radnika zavisi od promjene ponaanja menad`menta. Kad oni shvate da je njihova prvobitna uloga da pomognu svojim ljudima, bliè smo rjeenju.

10. EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT WAS NOT MAINTAINED

This reason for failure is really the result of other causal factors rather than a root cause in its own right. However, it is often quoted as a cause of failure that it deserves separate consideration. Typical statements of companies experiencing this issue are as follows: • 'Nothing really changed' • 'The shop floor didn't actually do anything' • 'Somehow it didn't really happen' • 'Though initially greeted with enthusiasm, the

workers never "bought in"' • 'Deep down the workers were not interested' Unless the education and training elements in the initiative are specifically designed to involve workers in the improvement of their own work process little will change (see also [7]). Every element in the plan should focus on real and specific improvement which the workers can recognise relate to their own work. This will! rarely be achieved by motivational challenges. In reality the involvement of employees depends on a change in management behaviour. When they understand that their principal role is to help their people we are nearer the solution.

11. NEDOSTATAK PRAVNIH POSLOVNIH MJERLJIVOSTI

Osnovni princip kontinuiranog poboljanja se moè sumirati frazom "ono to se ne moè mjeriti ne moe biti ni predmet upravljanja", kojoj se moè dodati "ako se neto ne mjeri, vjerovatno se njime ni ne upravlja". Pa ipak previe procesa upravljanja kvalitetom se ne mjeri na pravi na~in. Neke firme pogreno vjeruju da mjere procese tehnikama kao npr. troak za kvalitet (Cost of Quality – COQ)

(kao to je opisano u [8] ali rijetko ko primjenjuje prave poslovne mjerljivosti kao kriterije uspjeha).

11. LACK OF REAL BUSINESS MEASURABLES

A central tenet of continuous improvement can be summed up in the phrase 'what you cannot measure, you cannot manage', to which could be added 'what you do not measure, you are

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probably not managing. Yet all too many total quality management processes are not measured in a meaningful way. Some companies mistakenly believe they are measuring the process by techniques such as the Cost of Quality (as described by [8] but few apply real business measurables as the criteria for success. Ne zanima nas to je veina uspjenih pionira menad`menta kvaliteta, koji su prvobitno koristili COQ kao sveobuhvatnu mjeru, odlu~ila da¸ga prestane koristiti prije mnogo godina. pravi razlog to veina firmi ulaè u menad`ment kvalitetom je konkurentna potreba da poboljavaju kvalitet svojih usluga i proizvoda. U toj fazi COQ je mono sredstvo da se povea njihovo razumijevanje da nee dostii ciljeve samo poveanjem nadgledanja ili pukim motivisanjem radne snage. istinski nedostaci koji se moraju poboljati su jo uvijek prisutni i zato moraju biti osnova mjerenja poboljanja. na primjer, ako faza po~etne procjene u osiguravajuoj firmi pokaè da vrijeme prerastanja prijedloga u izdavanje zavrene politike je dvadeset dana, a konkurentna potreba je da se taj period smanji na pet dana, onda je to mjera. Moè se postaviti prekretnica za smanjenje sa dvadeset na pet dana u fazama u toku odre|enog vremenskog okvira. Savladavanje tih prekretnica bi bila stvarna mjerljivost poslovnosti. Svaka organizacija moè postaviti odre|en broj takvih kriterija koji se mogu koristiti kao prava mjera uspjeha. Postojat e argumenti unutar organizacije o tome da li su ova poboljanja rezultat procesa menad`menta kvalitetom. ista stvar bi se zapravo mogla rei za COQ, ali da li je zaista va`no jesu li sve mjerljivosti na koje smo se fokusirali i ostvarene? Ipak, kao dodatak poslovnim mjerljivostima (koje treba definirati u izvornom planu), postoje dodatne mjere koje se mogu poduzeti da bi se pomoglo ovima onima koji upravljaju procesom TQM. TQM treba gledati kao jedan poslovni proces. Drugim rije~ima, imat e ulaganja i rezultate koji trebaju biti u vezi s uslovima. Oni se mogu koristiti kao mjere od strane onih koji su direktno uklju~eni u upravljanje

procesom promjene. Ove mjere e podràti proces promjene izvriocima koji mjere poslovne parametre. It is of interest that most of the successful pioneers in quality management who originally used COQ as the overall measure decided to stop using it many years ago. The original reason most companies invest in quality management is the competitive need to improve the quality of their products and services. At that stage COQ is a powerful tool to help their understanding that they will not achieve their aims by just increasing inspection or merely motivating their workforce. But the original deficiencies that must be improved are still present and should therefore be the basis for measuring improvement. For example, if the initial assessment stage in an insurance company shows that the turnaround time from proposal to issue of a completed policy is twenty days and the competitive need is to reduce this to five days then that is the measure. Milestones can be set for a staged reduction from twenty to five days over a given time frame. Achieving those milestones would be a real business measurable. Every organisation can establish a number of such criteria which can be used as the real measure of success. There will be arguments within the organisation about whether all these improvements are wholly the result of the quality management process. Actually, the same could be said of COQ, but what does it really matter if the focused measurables are all being achieved? However, in addition to the business measurables (which should be defined in the original plan) there are additional measures which can be established to assist those managing the TQM process. TQM should be viewed as a business process in its own right. In other words, it will have inputs and outputs which should be related to requirements. These can be used as measures by those directly involved in managing the process of change. These measures will support progress or otherwise for the executives measuring the business parameters.

12. ZAKLJUÂK Sva ova razo~arenja se mogu izbjei. Klju~ trajnog uspjeha teì upravo na samom po~etku puta kontinuiranog poboljanja. U~inkovitost izvorne procjene i razumijevanje plana da se upravlja promjenom su osnove uspjenog puta.

12. CONCLUSION All of these disappointments can be avoided. The key to lasting success lies right at the start of the journey to continuous improvement. The effectiveness of the original assessment and the comprehensiveness of the plan to manage the change are the real basis for a successful journey.

13. LITERATURA - REFERENCES

[1] Macdonald J.: The Quality revolution in retrospect, The TQM Magazine, Vol. 10, 1998, No. 5, pp. 321-333.

[2] Dolinek S., Rozman M.: TQM as a Management Model for SME, 2nd

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International Conference ICIT, Rogaka 1999, Slovenia.

[3] Dolinek S., Macdonald J.: TQM evolution - a retrospect and lesson for future (in Slovene), 8. Letna konferenca SZK, Bernardin, November 1999, Slovenia.

[4] Macdonald J.: Calling a Halt to Mindless Change - a Plea for Common Sense Management, Amacon, USA, 1998.

[5] Deming W. E.: The New Economics for Industry, Government, Education, MIT Centre for Advanced Engineering Study, Cambridge, MA, 1993.

[6] Montgomery D.C: Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, John Wiley & Sons, Toronto 1997.

[7] Macdonald J.: Understanding Knowledge Management in a Weak, The Institute of Management, Hodder & Stoughton, London 1999.

[8] Crossby P.B.: Quality is Still Free - Making Quality Certain in Uncertain Times, McGraw Hill, New York, 1995.

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