Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering

S. RamanagopalMadhavi Latha GaliKartik Venkataraman Editors

Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil EngineeringSelect Proceedings of SPICE 2019

Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering

Volume 79

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S. Ramanagopal • Madhavi Latha Gali •

Kartik VenkataramanEditors

Sustainable Practicesand Innovations in CivilEngineeringSelect Proceedings of SPICE 2019

123

EditorsS. RamanagopalSSN College of EngineeringChennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Kartik VenkataramanTarleton State UniversityStephenville, TX, USA

Madhavi Latha GaliIndian Institute of Science BangaloreBangalore, Karnataka, India

ISSN 2366-2557 ISSN 2366-2565 (electronic)Lecture Notes in Civil EngineeringISBN 978-981-15-5100-0 ISBN 978-981-15-5101-7 (eBook)https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5101-7

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Preface

Sustainable development is an urgent demand of the society. Over the years, theCivil Engineering profession involved in the development of the society has beenreported to consume the natural and energy resources indiscriminately, therebyrequiring an urgent introspection aiming towards achieving sustainable develop-ment. Though, the concept being age old, it has gained prominence in recent times,especially in the field of Civil Engineering. Today sustainable solutions in CivilEngineering do not stop with alternative materials but go beyond in terms of energyefficiency in buildings, efficient and eco-friendly transportation systems, efficientwater resource management, cleaner environmental processes, sustainable geosys-tems to name a few. In light of such progress in achieving sustainable development,a platform is needed for all stakeholders concerned to present, discuss, cooperate,redefine and innovate sustainable solutions for the continuance of the human civ-ilizations to higher levels of sophistication and technological advancement. Withthis intention of providing a sound platform for sustainability research, this con-ference, the First International Conference on Sustainable Practices and Innovationsin Civil Engineering (SPICE) 2019, was conceived and organized by theDepartment of Civil Engineering, SSN College of Engineering, Chennai, TamilNadu, India, on 26 and 27 March 2019.

SPICE 2019 focussed on achieving sustainability in Civil Engineering throughmaterials, technology, processes and practices adopted in the domain. The con-ference witnessed participation from both India and abroad with authors presentingtheir research in the technical sessions of the conference over the 2 days. This booktitled Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering documents the32 research articles selected for publication covering different sub-streams ofCivil Engineering, including Structural Engineering, Construction Materials,Environmental Engineering, Water Resources and Geotechnical Engineering.

Sustainability and sustainable development have started to receive attention indeveloping economies as well as in recent times. However, the related efforts toachieve the same have not attained expected levels. Thus, it became imperative tocompile the various sustainability issues and solution prospects in differentsub-streams of Civil Engineering. This book will be useful to students, researchers

v

and academicians, who are involved in sustainability research in the stream of CivilEngineering.

We would like to thank Ms. Swati Mehershi, Dr. Akash Chakraborty and thewhole Springer team for their full support and cooperation at various stages of thepreparation and production of this book.

Chennai, India S. RamanagopalBangalore, India Madhavi Latha GaliStephenville, USA Kartik Venkataraman

vi Preface

Contents

Studies on the Impact of Ternary Blend for Early Predictionof Compressive Strength Using Accelerated Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1P. Murthi, K. Poongodi, and R. Gobinath

Review Study on Glass Fibre Reinforced Gypsum (GFRG) Panels . . . . 13S. Ragav

Modelling of Organic Acid Transport in UnsaturatedSubsurface System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Berlin Mohanadhas and G. Suresh Kumar

State-of-the-Art Review—Methods of Chromium Removalfrom Water and Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37D. Rama Devi, G. Srinivasan, S. Kothandaraman, and S. Ashok Kumar

Study of Behaviour of Web-Stiffened Built-up Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53C. Divya Megala and M. Anbarasu

Geotechnical Properties of b-Glucan-Treated Clayey Sand . . . . . . . . . . 63M. Vishweshwaran, Evangelin Ramani Sujatha, Nadendla Harshith,and Cheni Umesh

Composite Leaching of Thermal Power Plant Bottom Ash to EnsureIts Performance on Cement Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Sivakumar Naganathan, Salmia Beddu, Muhammad Zulfiqar Ajmulkhan,Jegatheish Kanadasan, Zakaria Che Muda, Siti Nabihah Sa’don,and B. Mahalingam

Enhancing the Performance of Bottom Ash Using AcidLeaching Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81Sivakumar Naganathan, Salmia Beddu, Muhammad Zulfiqar Ajmulkhan,Jegatheish Kanadasan, Zakaria Che Muda, Siti Nabihah Sa’don,and B. Mahalingam

vii

An Experimental Investigation of Flexural Behaviour of FerrocementBox Beams Using Micro Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87K. Ramakrishnan, D. Muthu, and S. Viveka

An Analytical Framework of Climate Change Impacts on WaterResources: Vulnerability and Integrated Adaptation Strategies . . . . . . . 97K. Shimola and M. Krishnaveni

Compaction and Permeability Characteristicsof Biopolymer-Treated Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107S. Anandha Kumar and Evangelin Ramani Sujatha

Inflow Forecasting of Bhavanisagar Reservoir Using Artificial NeuralNetwork (ANN): A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119S. Suriya, K. Saran, L. Chris Anto, C. Anbalagan, and K. R. Vinodh

Mitigation of Energy Consumption Impact by Planningand Formulation of Environmental Management Systemfor Indian Infrastructure Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133C. Akin, V. Vandhana Devi, and R. Samuel Devadoss

Nitrate Sequestration and Sorption Capacity in Soil Under VaryingOrganic Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141P. Balaganesh, E. Annapoorani, S. Sridevi, M. Vasudevan,S. M. Suneeth Kumar, and N. Natarajan

Behaviour of Lignosulphonate Amended Expansive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . 151G. Landlin, M. K. Soundarya, and S. Bhuvaneshwari

Push-Out Tests for Determining the Strength and Stiffnessof the Channel Connectors—Experimental Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163P. Sangeetha, R. Vijayalakshmi, Aaditya Jagadeesh, S. Ahalya,K. Deveshwar, and D. Swarna Varshini

Experimental Study of the Headed Stud Connectorsin Composite Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173P. Sangeetha, S. Ramanagopal, U. Amrutha, A. Balasubramaniam,V. Madhumitha, and G. Arun

Compaction Characteristics of Modified Clay Soils with VariousProportions of Crumb Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183S. V. Sivapriya

Design and Development of Low-Cost Medium Size Shake Tablefor Vibration Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191R. B. Malathy, Govardhan Bhat, and U. K. Dewangan

Experimental Investigation on Suitability of Sea Waterfor Concrete Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205K. Srinivasan and E. Arunachalam

viii Contents

Assessment of Emerging Contaminants in a Drinking WaterReservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215Riya Ann Mathew and S. Kanmani

Estimating the Loss of Water Spread Area in Tanks Using RemoteSensing and GIS Techniques in Ambuliyar Sub-basin, Tamilnadu . . . . 227N. Nasir and R. Selvakumar

Influence of Zinc on Engineering Properties of Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239N. Gopinath and M. Muttharam

Sustainability Approaches in Ground Improvement Measures . . . . . . . . 249Gowtham Padmanabhan, Ganesh Kumar Shanmugam,and Sathyapriya Subramaniam

Shear Behaviour of Concrete Wall Panels Reinforcedwith FRP Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257Y. K. Sabapathy, V. Nithish, S. Vishnu Varadan, and K. Udhaya Prabhu

Behaviour of Concrete Filled FRP Tubular Columns Under AxialCompression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275S. Ramanagopal

A Study on Flexural Strength of Concrete Beams Reinforcedwith Manually Pultruded GFRP Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283Y. K. Sabapathy, C. N. A. Nithish, Sajid Ali, and K. P. Priyadarshini

A Novel Technique on Improving the Strength of ConcreteUsing Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295S. Lokesh, Ahaned Noorani, S. Sanjay, G. Dhanalakshmi,and S. Swaminathan

Glass Fibre Reinforced Gypsum (GFRG) as an EmergingTechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309J. Gokul Krishna, R. Roshan, S. N. Vinothni, and S. V. Sivapriya

Immediate Load-Penetration Behaviour of Sand Pileswith Sustainable Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325A. Mugesh, J. Niranjan, S. Gunalan, and S. V. Sivapriya

Expediency of Sand Compaction Piles and It’s Earlier Studies . . . . . . . 333R. Manjula and S. V. Sivapriya

Numerical and Experimental Evaluation on the Behaviourof Cold-Formed Steel Box Struts and Prediction of ExperimentalResults Using Artificial Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349P. Sangeetha, M. Shanmugapriya, Aaditya Jagadeesh, and K. Deveshwar

Contents ix

About the Editors

Dr. S. Ramanagopal is a Professor of Civil Engineering at S.S.N. College ofEngineering (Autonomous), Chennai. He obtained his Bachelor’s degree in CivilEngineering from College of Engineering, Chennai, Master’s degree in StructuralEngineering from Annamalai University, Chidambaram and his Ph.D. from AnnaUniversity, Chennai. He has nearly thirty years of wide and varied experience ofteaching and research in various capacities. His research interests includeComposite Structural system and use of supplementary cementing materials inconcrete. He has published more than twenty papers in refereed journals andconferences besides two presentations in the International conference held at U.K.and Australia. He has conducted workshops and seminars in the field of structuralengineering and Sustainable building construction.

Dr. Madhavi Latha Gali is a Professor of Civil Engineering at Indian Institute ofScience. She holds a PhD in Civil Engineering from IIT Madras, MTech degreefrom NIT Warangal and a bachelor's degree in Civil Engineering from JNTUniversity, Kakinada. She worked as a postdoctoral researcher at IISc from2002-2003. Madhavi's research interests center around fundamental aspects of soiland ground reinforcement. Several topics explored in the area of soil reinforcementinclude strength and stiffness of geocell reinforced soils; model tests on geosyn-thetic reinforced foundation beds, retaining walls and slopes; seismic response ofrigid, wrap-faced, modular block faced and geocell retaining walls through shakingtable studies. She also maintains an active interest in many topics in rock engi-neering, including numerical modelling of jointed rock masses, stability analysis ofrock slopes, and rock slope reinforcement.

Dr. Kartik Venkataraman is an Associate Professor of EnvironmentalEngineering at Tarleton State University (part of the Texas A&M University sys-tem), United States. His research interests include groundwater contaminationinvestigation, evaluation of hydrologic trends and the broad application ofgeospatial techniques in water resource management. He has received state andfederal funding from agencies such as the United States Environmental Protection

xi

Agency and regularly publishes in high-impact journals such as the Journal ofHydrology. In 2016, he received the Outstanding Junior Faculty award at TarletonState University. Dr. Venkataraman is also a registered Professional Engineer in theState of Texas and actively mentors the student chapter of the Texas Society ofProfessional Engineers [TSPE] at his university as well as serves on the TSPEEducation Committee.

xii About the Editors

Studies on the Impact of Ternary Blendfor Early Prediction of CompressiveStrength Using Accelerated Curing

P. Murthi, K. Poongodi, and R. Gobinath

Abstract This experimental study is intended to investigate the applicability ofexisting relationships as prescribed in IS: 9013-1978 between the accelerated curingcompressive strength and actual compressive strength of ternary-blended concrete.Class F type Fly ash (FA) was used to develop binary-blended concrete by replacing20% of cement in the mixture and Rice Husk Ash (RHA) was also used to prepareanother binary-blended concrete by replacing 18% of cement. Further Silica Fume(SF)was used for preparing ternary-blended concrete at 4, 8 and 12%by replacing theweight of cementitious content. Analysis of the test results shows that the relationshipbetween accelerated curing compressive strength and the actual compressive strengthis interrelated and the constant in the correlated equations specified in the code werefound to be inaccurate in all the blended combinations. Thus, the alternative relationswere proposed for the ternary-blended systemwith the supports of results and figures.

Keywords Binary and Ternary-blended concrete · Compressive strength ·Accelerated curing

1 Introduction

The compressive strength is one of its most important engineering properties ofstructural concrete and reflects its mechanical quality. The compressive strengthprovides insinuation of its many other properties. In order to meet the challenges inthe improvement of infrastructural development, the demand in the production ofcement is an inevitable one. However, the cement production emits an equal amount

P. Murthi (B) · K. Poongodi · R. GobinathCivil Engineering Department, SR Engineering College, Warangal, Indiae-mail: drpmurthi@gmail.com

K. Poongodie-mail: poongodimurthi@gmail.com

R. Gobinathe-mail: gobinathdpi@gmail.com

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021S. Ramanagopal et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering,Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 79,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5101-7_1

1

2 P. Murthi et al.

of CO2 into the atmosphere [1]. Thus, increasing production of Ordinary PortlandCement (OPC) worldwide is aggravating the problems associated with its productionand consumption. The usage of lime in the construction industry is an age-old practicethat proves the durability of structures.

The fly ash, one of the factories made by-product, was utilized as pozzolanicmaterial in cement worldwide. The replacement of cement by fly ash improves froma minimum level to a maximum of 60% for mass concrete construction. The substi-tution of FA in cement proves the durability of cement concrete but the strengthdevelopment of blended concrete during the initial curing period is relatively lesserthan the conventional concrete. The substitution of SF in the binary-blended concreteas a third cementitious material surprised to overcome the early age problem [2]. Thestudies on the ternary-blended concrete have been acknowledged with the improve-ment in early age strength of concrete for the past few years [3, 4]. Some of the devel-oped countries are currently being produced the ternary-blended cement including acombination of Fly Ash, Slag and Silica Fume [5].

It is very much essential to allow curing the concrete specimens up to 28 days foridentifying its actual strength. Since it is a long time to ascertain the strength of theconcrete it will affect the actual execution of project and finally prolongs the projectconstruction duration. To overcome the difficulty, it is necessary to find the strengthwithin a day with the help of accelerated curing technique. The BIS code IS: 9013-1978 describes the procedure for the acceleration curing by boiling water methodfor normal concrete [6]. The maturity of concrete for attaining the full strength is aproduct of temperature and its corresponding time of curing [7, 8].

Maturity of concrete =∑

(time × temperature).

Based on the maturity concept, the code provides an equation for correlating theaccelerated curing and normal curing such as f ck = 8.09 + 1.64 Ra where f ck isthe actual compressive strength of concrete at 28 days and Ra is the acceleratedcuring strength of concrete. Similarly, the research findings have been predicted forthe 28 days compressive strength of concrete with various mix proportioning andblended combinations during the early periods [8–15].

2 Research Significance

The correlated equation mentioned in the BIS code was applicable to the normalconcrete prepared by ordinary Portland cement. Once the fineness of the cementitiousmaterial changes, the microstructural properties of concrete may change and leadto varying the compressive strength of the concrete. Based on these concepts inmind, the objective of the research work was nurtured to verify the applicability ofexisting relationship as per IS: 9013-1978 between the accelerated curing and actual

Studies on the Impact of Ternary Blend for Early Prediction … 3

compressive strength of ternary-blended concrete and predict a new correlation tofind out the actual compressive strength.

3 Experimental Study

Two series of binary-blended concrete mixtures were considered for developingthe ternary-blended concrete in this study. Based on the preliminary investigationconducted by the authors, the replacement level (that is, replacement by mass of thePortland cement) in binary-blended concrete with FA and RHA was considered as20% and 18%, respectively, and the ternary-blended concretes were developed byadding silica fumewith 4, 8 and 12% replacement levels. The following combinationswere considered in this study.

1. Binary-blended concrete,

• Cement + FA,• Cement + RHA.

2. Ternary-blended concrete,

• Cement + FA + SF,• Cement + RHA + SF.

Meantime, the other parameters like total cementitious material content, waterbinder ratio, fine and coarse aggregate content were maintained as constant. In thisstudy, thewidely consumed normal strengthM20grade concretewas considered. Themix design for the above grade of concrete was followed by the BIS code procedureas per IS: 10262-1982. Water binder ratio of the mix was maintained as 0.55. Table 1shows the summary of concrete mix proportion for control concrete used in thisinvestigation. The various mix combinations of binary and ternary-blended concreteare shown in Table 2. The mix designations are entitled according to the blendedcombinations. The mix BFC 20 mentioned binary-blended concrete with 20% FAand mix BRC 18 denotes binary-blended concrete with 18% RHA. The mix TFSand TRS are indicating the ternary-blended concrete with FA & SF and RHA & SFcombinations, respectively, and the numerical values are mentioning SF contributionin the ternarymixes.However, PCC is themix for control concrete called plain cementconcrete.

Table 1 Mix proportion forone cubic metre of controlconcrete (PCC)

Cement (kg) Fine aggregate(kg)

Coarse aggregate(kg)

Water (L)

326 675 1109 179

4 P. Murthi et al.

Table 2 Mixture proportioning of blended concrete

S.No Mix designation Cement content(%)

Mineral admixture content (%)

Fly Ash Rice Husk Ash Silica Fume

% kg/m3 % kg/m3 % kg/m3 % kg/m3

1. PCC 100 326.00 – – – – – –

2. BFC-20 80 260.80 20 65.20 – – – –

3. BRC-18 82 267.30 – – 18 58.70 – –

4. TFS-4 76 247.76 20 65.20 – – 4 13.04

5. TFS-8 72 234.72 20 65.20 – – 8 26.08

6. TFS-12 68 221.68 20 65.20 – – 12 39.12

7. TRS-4 78 254.26 – – 18 58.70 4 13.04

8. TRS-8 74 241.22 – – 18 58.70 8 26.08

9. TRS-12 70 228.18 – – 18 58.70 12 39.12

3.1 Materials

Thecementitiousmaterials likeFA,RHAandSFwere considered alongwith ordinaryPortland cement confirmed to IS: 8114-1978 to carry out this investigation. Thespecific gravity of the cement and FA was 3.15 and 2.92, respectively. The specificgravity of RHAwas determined as 2.67 and the specific gravity of SFwas determinedas 2.28.Thefineness of cementwas determined as 2950 cm2/g. Thefineness of FAandRHA was 2550 cm2/g and 2170 cm2/g, respectively. The fineness of the Silica Fumewas 20750 cm2/g. The combinations of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 all the cementitiousmaterials were mentioned in Table 3. Grade zone-II sand was used as fine aggregateand its fineness modulus was determined as 2.67. The specific gravity of the sandwas2.71. Blue granite metal of 20 mm size (maximum) was used as a coarse aggregate.The fineness modulus and the specific gravity of the coarse aggregate were 2.78and 7.19, respectively. Both the aggregate complied with the requirements of IS:383-1970.

Table 3 Chemical composition of cementitious materials

S.no Chemical composition (%) Cement FA RHA SF

1 SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 26.18 85.90 91.89 87.10

2 CaO 61.60 0.62 0.78 0.9

3 LoI 1.70 2.50 3.49 1.09

Studies on the Impact of Ternary Blend for Early Prediction … 5

Fig. 1 Failure of concretecube under compression

3.2 Testing the Concrete Specimens

3.2.1 Compressive Strength of Concrete Specimens

The concrete cubes were cast using 150 mm size steel moulds and compacted withthe help of table vibrator. The concrete was prepared using a laboratory concretemixer machine and more precautions were taken to ensure uniform mixing of ingre-dients. Demoulding was carried out after 24 h after preparing the specimens. Thecompressive strength of concrete was determinedwith the help of 200 kN electricallyoperated compression testing machine as shown in Fig. 1.

3.2.2 Boiling Water Method of Curing

The specimens were allowed to cure for 23 h ± 15 min in room temperature beforeimmersed into the accelerated curing tank as shown in Fig. 2. Then the specimenswere allowed to cure in boiling water for a period of 3 h 30 ± 15 min. Further,the demoulded specimens were cured in normal water for 2 h before conductingthe compressive strength test. This procedure is completed within 28 h ± 20 min todetermine the compressive strength of concrete.

6 P. Murthi et al.

Fig. 2 Concrete cubes inaccelerated curing tank

4 Result and Discussion

4.1 Compressive Strength of Ternary-Blended Concrete

The compressive strength development pattern for FA- and SF-based ternary-blendedconcrete is shown in Fig. 3. The compressive strength development of the ternary-blended designated concrete is shown in Fig. 4. From Fig. 3, it can be seen thatboth 7 and 28 days compressive strength of FA-based binary-blended concrete werelesser than the ternary-blended concrete. The addition of 4% SF in FA-based binary-blended concrete shows the same results compared to the plain cement concrete.

Fig. 3 Compressive strengthof FA- and SF-basedternary-blended concrete

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0 30 60 90 120 150 180

Com

pres

sive

stre

ngth

(MPa

)

Curing period (Days)

PCC BFC 20TFS 4 TFS 8TFS 12

Studies on the Impact of Ternary Blend for Early Prediction … 7

Fig. 4 Compressive strengthof RHA- and SF-basedternary-blended concrete

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0 30 60 90 120 150 180C

ompr

essi

ve st

reng

th (M

Pa)

Curing period (Days)

PCC BRC 18TRS 4 TRS 8TRS 12

During the latter age, the ternary-blended concrete with 4%SF shows higher strengththan that of control concrete and also the 90 days compressive strength of 8% SF-based ternary concrete shows the same strength of control concrete. This is due to themicro-filler effect of the extremely fine particle of SF and hence dense homogeneousconcrete has been developed. A similar kind of trend was observed in the RHA-basedternary-blended concrete system from Fig. 4, but the rate of strength developmentwas lesser than the FA-based ternary-blended system. Replacing 12% SF in bothblended combinations resulted in a reduction of compressive strength and it is due tothat the reduction of calcium hydroxide content due to the secondary reaction. Theexcess mineral admixtures present in concrete were lying in the mix just as an inertmaterial contributing nothing to the strength of concrete.

4.2 Effect of Accelerated Curing on the Addition of SilicaFume

The compressive strength variation of concrete under accelerated curing for theternary-blended concrete by varying the replacement level of SF is shown in Fig. 5.The FA- and SF-based ternary system shows better performance when comparedto the RHA- and SF-based ternary system. The accelerated compressive concretewith FA- and RHA-based binary system shows the value of 8.32 and 7.63 MPa,respectively. The addition of 4% SF in the concrete improves the accelerated curingcompressive strength by 49.76% in FA and 49.54% in RHA-based ternary-blendedsystem. The strength increasing rate was reduced when the addition of SF at the rateof 8 and 12% in both the ternary system.Meantime of the accelerated curing strength

8 P. Murthi et al.

Fig. 5 Compressive strengthvariation of concrete afteraccelerated curing

at 8 and 12% SF replacement level shows the higher values than the binary systemin both the ternary-blended concrete.

4.3 Development of Correlated Equation

The relationship between the accelerated curing andnormal curingof ternary-blendedconcrete at 7, 28 and 90 days was mentioned in Figs. 6, 7 and 8. The trend linebetween accelerated curing and normal curing compressive strength of ternary-blended concrete shows the linear relationship. The new regression equations and

Fig. 6 Relationship betweenthe accelerated curing andnormal curing ofternary-blended concrete at7 days

Studies on the Impact of Ternary Blend for Early Prediction … 9

Fig. 7 Relationship betweenthe accelerated curing andnormal curing ofternary-blended concrete at28 days

Fig. 8 Relationship betweenthe accelerated curing andnormal curing ofternary-blended concrete at90 days

its coefficient are also mentioned in Table 4. Meantime of the BIS code IS: 9013-1978 mentions the relationship of accelerated curing and normal curing compressivestrength at 28 days as f c = 8.09 + 1.64 f a for normal concrete [6]. Chowdhury andChowdhury [14] has been developed a similar strength prediction models of fly ashconcrete by accelerated curing method as R28 = 1.383 × Rac + 8.604.

The deviations of compressive strength at 28 days with the code recommendationand the new predicted equationwasmentioned in Table 5. The deviations very clearlyindicate that the exiting code recommended equation was found to be invalid for

10 P. Murthi et al.

Table 4 New regression equations for ternary-blended concrete at various curing periods

S.No Curing period (days) Regression equationa Regression coefficient

1. 7 f c = 2.00 + 1.44 f a 0.83

2. 28 f c = 10.70 + 1.55 f a 0.93

3. 90 f c = 14.80 + 1.52 f a 0.80

af c = Compressive strength of ternary-blended concrete in MPaf a = Accelerated compressive strength of ternary-blended concrete in MPa

Table 5 Comparison between the code recommendation and the new predicted equation at 28 dayscuring

S.no Silica Fumereplacementlevel (%)

Compressive strength (MPa)

Actual Predictedas per IScode

Deviationa (%) Predicted asper newcorrelation

Deviationa (%)

1. 0 23.67 21.73 −8.20 23.59 −0.34

2. 4 30.97 28.52 −7.91 36.01 −1.16

3. 8 27.17 25.39 −6.55 27.05 −0.44

4. 12 24.90 23.01 −7.59 24.81 −0.36

aThe negative sign indicates lesser value than the actual compressive strength

blended concrete, since the strength development pattern for the blended concretewas not similar to that of normal Portland cement concrete.

5 Conclusions

The following conclusions have been drawn from this investigation:

• The reduced rate of strength development of both the binary-blended concretewas revealed compared to the control concrete during the early age.

• The addition of 4% SF in FA-based blended concrete shows better results thanthe control concrete in all the curing days.

• The addition of 8% SF in FA-based blended concrete shows the same result whencompared to the control concrete at 90 days curing.

• The ternary-blended concrete with 4% F and 18% RHA has improved the earlyage compressive strength and shows the equal strength at the age of 90 dayscuring.

• The addition of 8% SF in RHA-based blended concrete also improves the earlyage strength than that of binary-blended concrete.

• The SF-based ternary-blended concrete improves the early age strength develop-ment of concrete.

Studies on the Impact of Ternary Blend for Early Prediction … 11

• The addition of 4% SF in FA- and RHA-based binary concrete improves theaccelerated curing compressive strength by 49.76% in and 49.54%, respectively.

• The existing BIS code relationship between the accelerated curing and normalcuring compressive strength (f c = 8.09 + 1.64 fa) was not valid for blendedconcrete.

• The new regression equation for the relationship between the accelerated curingand normal curing compressive strength of ternary-blended concrete system wasfound for 7, 28 and 90 days curing and mentioned in Table 4.

References

1. MurtyDSRet al (2006)Conservation of concretemakingmaterials. J Struct Eng 33(3):237–2412. Bouzoubaa N et al (2004) Development of ternary blends for high performance concrete. ACI

Mater J 101(1):19–293. Mullick AK (2007) Performance of concrete with binary and ternary cement blends. Indian

Concrete J 154. Berry EE (1980) Strength development of some blended cement mortars. Cem Concrete Res

10(1):1–115. Nehdi M (2004) Ternary and quaternary cements for sustainable development. Concrete Int

23(4):34–426. BIS code IS: 9013-1978, Method of making curing and determining compressive strength of

accelerated cured concrete specimens7. Shetty MS (2005) Concrete technology. S.Chand & Company Ltd.,8. TokyayM (1999) Strength prediction of fly ash concretes by accelerated testing. CemConcrete

Res 29:1737–17419. Jayadevan V, Valsalakumary VR, Sufeera OB (2014) Reliability of accelerated curing tech-

niques for speedy design of concrete mixes—An appraisal of IS 9013:1978 code. IndianConcrete J

10. Neelakantan TR, Ramasundaram S, Shanmugavel R, Vinoth R (2013) Prediction of 28-dayscompressive strength of concrete from early strength and accelerated curing parameters. Int JEng Technol 5(2):1197–1201

11. Shelke NL, Gadve S (2013) Prediction of compressive strength of concrete using acceleratedcuring. Int J Pure Appl Res Eng Technol 1(8):90–99

12. El-kholy SA, Metwally KA (2017) Different accelerated curing methods of concrete. Int J SciEng Res 8(5):695–697

13. ResheidatMR, GhanmatMS (1997) Accelerated strength and testing of concrete using blendedcement. Adv Cem Based Mater 5:49–556

14. Chowdhury JN, Chowdhur J (2016) Development of strength prediction models of 28 days flyash concrete strength by accelerated curing method. Int J Sci Eng Res 7(4)

15. Kheder GF, Al Gabban AM, Abid SM (2003)Mathematical model for the prediction of cementcompressive strength at the ages of 7 and 28 days within 24 h. Mater Struct 36:693–701

Review Study on Glass Fibre ReinforcedGypsum (GFRG) Panels

S. Ragav

Abstract The tremendous increase in Urbanization leads to the various innovationtechniques in Building Technology to improve their efficiency. As a part of this, GlassFibre Reinforced Gypsum (GFRG) Panels are the new technique that is widely usedin Australia, India, China, etc. These are panel-based building systems, which canbe used as a replacement of nominal walls and slabs. This can be used as Load-Bearing structures as well as shear wall by adding reinforced cement concrete inpanel cavities. In the mass housing system, GFRG Panels play a vital role in easytransportation, erection and construction of large units in the desired time periodwith less manpower. It is also eco-friendly, cost-effective, high resistance to heatand fire compared with traditional construction. The methodology involved mainlyto analyse, discuss and recommends the GFRG panels as per the site conditions. Toconclude this, conventional building construction indirectly impacts the increase ofpollution in the world, as an alternative for this, we can use GFRG panels made up ofindustrial waste and also with the minimum usage of virgin materials during execu-tion. Hence, it is one of the green building technologies to sustain our environment.In this review paper, general structural requirements, design and erection process ofGlass Fibre Reinforced Gypsum Panels are discussed.

Keywords Glass fibre reinforced gypsum (GFRG) panels · Shear wall ·Masshousing system · Load-bearing structures · Green building

1 Introduction

Glass Fibre Reinforced Gypsum (GFRG) Panel is one of the new building techniquesfor mass-scale housing as well as cost-effective and eco-friendly to the environment.It was first developed in Australia in the early 90 s and now followed in China, India,Japan, Saudi Arabia, etc. These panels have a nominal size of 12m length, 3 m height

S. Ragav (B)PG Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Sona College of Technology, Salem, Tamil Nadu,Indiae-mail: s.ragav1995@gmail.com

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021S. Ramanagopal et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering,Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 79,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5101-7_2

13

14 S. Ragav

and 124 mm thickness inside with cellular cavities of 230 mm width (Figs. 1 and 2).It can be cut to the required size in a special cutting machine based on the siterequirements [1–6]. The major raw materials used for manufacturing are calcinedgypsum (a by-product from chemical industries) and glass fibres (slender filament).For the normal partition wall, it is directly used while for carrying loads reinforcingsteel bars with cement concrete is added in the cavities of the panel. It is also used asa roof and floor slabs [6–9]. By placing more longitudinal reinforcing steel bars incavities, it also used as a shearwall to resist lateral loads such aswind load and seismicload. For foundations, strip footing is adopted since it is a load-bearing structure andreinforced concrete plinth beams on the top are constructed in the footing, above thatpanels can be placed. The main objective of this review work is to understand the

Fig. 1 Plan and elevation of GFRG panel

Fig. 2 Cross section of GFRG panel

Review Study on Glass Fibre Reinforced Gypsum (GFRG) Panels 15

uses and benefits of using GFRG panel technology over the conventional buildingfor effective and efficient construction.

GFRG panel was approved as a building material suitable for construction byBMTPC (BuildingMaterials&Technology PromotionCouncil,Ministry ofHousing& Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India) and the joint effort by BMTPC& IIT Madras has resulted in the development of a ‘GFRG Design Manual’ forthe structural design of buildings [1]. Construction manual prepared by FACT-RCFBuilding products Ltd (FRBL) gives a brief knowledge of GFRG panel constructionat the site [2]. DevdasMenon (Professor at IITM) and his Ph.D. Scholar has publishedmany research papers on GFRG panels [3, 4]. Also, many researchers have done aresearch study on this technology and some of them are given in references.

2 Manufacturing Process

Gypsum is the by-product obtained from chemical industries mainly in fertilizerindustries. There are around totally 7million tons of gypsumobtained from industrieswith a new production of 2 thousand tons every day. The raw gypsum is convertedinto calcined gypsum by calcination process, which includes heating the gypsum upto 1500 °C to evaporate the crystalline water and then it made into a fine powder.The calcined gypsum is added with some additives such as water, retarders, water-resisting resins and formed as a slurry flowable paste. In the casting unit, first thegypsum slurry is poured in a casting table followed by glass fibres spread over itand then damped with the roller. The aluminium planks are placed over this with aspacing of 20 mm for the hollow sections. Then the gypsum slurry is poured overit followed by glass fibres and continued by damping to form a rib between thealuminium planks [1–5]. The top layer is smoothed to get an even surface with atotal thickness of 124 mm. After a setting time of 30 min, the aluminium planks aretaken out slowly. Next, the casting table is rotated vertically to remove the panels(Fig. 3) and it is taken for drying. In the drying chamber, hot air is blown for 90 minto completely dry. After this process, GFRG Panels are ready to use and it is cut intodesired dimensions with the special cutting machines based on the site requirements.In India, FACT-RCF Building products Ltd (FRBL) Mumbai and Kochi branchesare manufacturing GFRG Panels in a large scale.

3 Mechanical Properties

A detailed research done by IIT Madras for several years led to the preparationof the design manual and it was published by BMTPC in the year 2013 [1]. Thisdesign manual is mandatory and required to be followed for GFRG Panel basedconstructions in India. It comprises of many test results and guidelines for GFRG

16 S. Ragav

Fig. 3 GFRG panel manufacturing in casting unit

panels. Based on this, the mechanical properties of GFRG Panels are shown in theTable 1.

4 Design and Construction

The Panel design shall be as per the design manual prepared by IIT Madras &BMTPCandother nominal design as perCodal Provisions (IS 456:2000, IS 1893(partI):2002, etc.). Constructions manual prepared by FACT-RCF Building products Ltd(FRBL) gives the complete detailing drawings for GFRG Building construction.GFRG Panels can be designed as load-bearing structures and it can be built up to 10storey buildings in moderate seismic areas. Since it is a load-bearing structure, thereis no need for columns and beams. Figure 4 shows the typical construction of GFRGpanel house.

4.1 Load-Bearing Walls

By introducing steel bars and concrete (preferably self-compacting concrete, as ithas more workability) in hollow cavities it can be used as a load-bearing panel. Theconnection between the wall panels and foundation is achieved by providing starterbars embedded in the plinth beam over the footing at the hollow cavity locations.Then the vertical bars and starter bars can be connected. For cost reduction, one in a

Review Study on Glass Fibre Reinforced Gypsum (GFRG) Panels 17

Table 1 Mechanical properties of GFRG panels

Mechanical property Nominal value Remarks

1 Unit Weight 0.433 kN/m2*

2 Modulus of elasticity, EG 7500 N/mm2

3 Uni-axial compressivestrength, Puc

160 kN/m

4 Uni-axial tensile strength, Tuc 34–37 kN/m Strength obtained fromlongitudinalcompression/tension tests withribs extending in thelongitudinal direction

5 Ultimate shear strength, Vuc 21.6 kN/m

6 Out-of-plane moment capacity,Rib parallel to span, Muc

2.1 kNm/m

7 Out-of-plane moment capacity,Rib perpendicular to span,Muc-perp

0.88 kNm/m

8 Mohr hardness 1.6

9 Out-of-plane flexural rigidity,EI, Rib parallel to span

3.5 × 1011 Nmm2/m

10 Out-of-plane flexural rigidity,EI, Rib perpendicular to span

1.7 × 1011 Nmm2/m

(continued)

Table 1 (continued)

Mechanical property Nominal value Remarks

11 Coefficient of thermalexpansion

12 × 10−6 mm/mm/°C

12 Water absorption 1.0%: 1 h3.85%: 24 h

Average water absorption byweight % after certain hours ofimmersion

13 Fire resistance: structuraladequacy/Integrity/Insulation

140/140/140 min CSIRO, Australia

14 Sound transmission class(STC)

40 dB ISO 140-3-1996

*Panel has a constant thickness of 124 mm and hence it is mentioned as kN/m2

three hollow cavity is filled with concrete and the other two hollow cavities are filledwith fly ash mixed with 5% cement [4–6].

18 S. Ragav

Fig. 4 Construction of GFRG panel house

4.2 Partition Walls

Generally, the GFRG panels can be used a partition wall without providing any steelbars and concrete in hollow cavities continuously rather providing cement concretein every one in four hollow cavities with minimum 3 starter bars of every 1 m forconnecting each storey and in all four corners tie rods should be given throughoutthe entire height for stability. It can also be used as compound walls/security walls,industrial building walls, etc [1, 2].

4.3 Roof Slab and Floor

For GFRG Panels as a roof slab, every third or alternate cavity is removed and in thatplace three steel bars connected with stirrups (Micro-beams) are placed (Fig. 5). Nextto that, welded steel mesh of Fe250 Grade with a spacing of 100 mm× 100 mm areplaced over it. Then the suitable cover block of 25 mm thickness placed at 750 mmon both directions are placed to hold the mesh and to level the concrete. The concreteis poured over it and screed (Fig. 6). Now the slab will act as a tee-beam and a one-way slab system is considered for deflection and strength. The minimum grade ofconcrete to be used is M20 and the maximum size of aggregate is 12 mm [1, 2].

Review Study on Glass Fibre Reinforced Gypsum (GFRG) Panels 19

Fig. 5 GFRG panel slab

Fig. 6 Cross section of GFRG panel slab

4.3.1 Connection Between Roof/Floor Slab and Wall

The connection between the roof/floor slab and the vertical wall should be strongenough to transmit the loads. An embedded horizontal RC tie beamhas to be providedon top of all the walls with a size of 200 mm depth and 94 mm width by cutting andremoving the top portion of the web of GFRG Panels [1, 2, 5]. Then the roof/floorslab and the vertical wall panel are connected with 1 m long ‘C’ anchorage at 0.75 mspacing with a 40 mm bearing of the slab into the wall (Fig. 7).

4.4 Staircase

GFRG Panels can be used as a waist slab in the staircase as all the hollow cavities canbe removed and steel bars can be placed in that and concrete can be poured with thecover thickness of 25 mm. Over that rise and tread can be built-up with brickwork.