Scientific Writing

Scientific WritingScientific Writing

譚賢明助理教授譚賢明助理教授生科系生科系 // 生醫所生醫所

A naturalist’s life would be a A naturalist’s life would be a happy one if he had only to happy one if he had only to observe and never to writeobserve and never to write

Charles DarwinCharles Darwin

The art of writing is the art of The art of writing is the art of applying the seat of the applying the seat of the

pants to the seat of the chairpants to the seat of the chair

Mary Heaton VorseMary Heaton Vorse

I. When to stop doing experiments I. When to stop doing experiments and writeand write

When do you have what it takes to make a When do you have what it takes to make a paper?paper? draft -> bench -> draft -> bench….draft -> bench -> draft -> bench…. Drafting is a useful exercise as soon as you Drafting is a useful exercise as soon as you

know the direction of your paperknow the direction of your paper Lay out what the figures or tables would look Lay out what the figures or tables would look

like -> write a sentence about each like -> write a sentence about each Do the sentences look as if they tell a story?Do the sentences look as if they tell a story?

I. When to stop doing experiments I. When to stop doing experiments and writeand write

Decide what to leave out can be as Decide what to leave out can be as important as deciding what to include.important as deciding what to include.

Getting started is the hardest thing.Getting started is the hardest thing. There is something about a blank page that There is something about a blank page that

causes the mind to go just as blank. causes the mind to go just as blank. Write early and often!Write early and often!

II. Writing the manuscriptII. Writing the manuscript

Title pageTitle page Look at actual journal Look at actual journal Specific information and format is needed (key words Specific information and format is needed (key words

or not?) or not?)

AbstractAbstract Summary: only new results; as little background as Summary: only new results; as little background as

possible. possible. Reference? More than one section? Reference? More than one section? No abbreviations.No abbreviations.


IntroductionIntroduction Brief but comprehensive. (paper vs. thesis)Brief but comprehensive. (paper vs. thesis) General outline -> What’s known from previous work General outline -> What’s known from previous work

(sub-field) -> key new results (sub-field) -> key new results

Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods Sometimes at the end of manuscript. Sometimes at the end of manuscript.


ResultsResults Figures and tables. Figures and tables. New results; presented in past tense (“showed” not New results; presented in past tense (“showed” not

“show”).“show”). What was found but not what it means. What was found but not what it means.

DiscussionDiscussion What does it mean? How does it fit into the “bigger What does it mean? How does it fit into the “bigger

picture”?picture”? Don’t repeat Intro. and Results.Don’t repeat Intro. and Results. Sometimes combined with Results. Sometimes combined with Results.


AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements Grants and people.Grants and people.

ReferencesReferences Not too many, not too few. See recent papers for Not too many, not too few. See recent papers for

examples.examples. Endnote!Endnote!

Figure legendsFigure legends Do not repeat what is said in Results and Do not repeat what is said in Results and

Materials/Methods. Materials/Methods. “… “… is performed as described in Materials and is performed as described in Materials and

Methods.”Methods.”


The bottom lineThe bottom line

The resultsThe results

The methods sectionThe methods section

The discussionThe discussion

The introductionThe introduction

FiguresFigures

AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements

To write simply is as To write simply is as difficult as to be gooddifficult as to be good

W. Somerset MaughamW. Somerset Maugham

Men of few words are the Men of few words are the best menbest men

William ShakespeareWilliam Shakespeare


The bottom lineThe bottom line You are writing a paper because you have You are writing a paper because you have

something important to tell the scientific something important to tell the scientific community. What is it?community. What is it?

Decide on the one thing you want to get Decide on the one thing you want to get across in this paper, it’s your across in this paper, it’s your bottom linebottom line and and it should come out clearly in the manuscript. it should come out clearly in the manuscript.


The bottom lineThe bottom line The introduction should be written with a The introduction should be written with a

background for the bottom line and why it background for the bottom line and why it matters. matters.

Repeat the bottom line over and over again – Repeat the bottom line over and over again – at the end of the abstract, in the introduction, at the end of the abstract, in the introduction, in the results, and in the discussion. in the results, and in the discussion.


The resultsThe results Lay out the figures -> sequence of your storyLay out the figures -> sequence of your story Delete any thing that’s irrelevant to the bottom Delete any thing that’s irrelevant to the bottom

line.line. In your notebook, always write down why you In your notebook, always write down why you

did the experiment and what the conclusions did the experiment and what the conclusions are.are.

A good first draft: simply put together info from A good first draft: simply put together info from notebook. notebook.


The methods sectionThe methods section List the methods for your experiments.List the methods for your experiments. Don’t just cut and paste, check all the details.Don’t just cut and paste, check all the details. Define abbreviations.Define abbreviations.


The discussionThe discussion What to include: a matter of taste.What to include: a matter of taste. More than just repeat the results.More than just repeat the results. Put your findings in perspective, propose a Put your findings in perspective, propose a

model, outline a direction of investigation, model, outline a direction of investigation, make the reader think.make the reader think.

Don’t go too far. Stay with the relevant, avoid Don’t go too far. Stay with the relevant, avoid discussion of interesting side issues.discussion of interesting side issues.


The introductionThe introduction Cover aspects of field that raised the Cover aspects of field that raised the

questions you addressquestions you address Ideally, you know all the background points. Ideally, you know all the background points.

However, the background usually evolve for However, the background usually evolve for you as you do your work.you as you do your work.

Give a coherent reason for thinking your Give a coherent reason for thinking your question is interesting.question is interesting.

At the end, give a summary and why it’s At the end, give a summary and why it’s important.important.

Next to torture, art Next to torture, art persuades bestpersuades best

Ward BeecherWard Beecher


FiguresFigures Each figure should have a clear Each figure should have a clear

point/purpose. Write it down (=title of the fig.)point/purpose. Write it down (=title of the fig.) Make sure the figure is clearly labeled and Make sure the figure is clearly labeled and

symbols are defined in the legend. symbols are defined in the legend. Avoid complicated figures. Try different ways.Avoid complicated figures. Try different ways. Make sure the resolution (especially for color Make sure the resolution (especially for color

photos) is correct. photos) is correct.


AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements Don’t miss someone who deserves to be Don’t miss someone who deserves to be

acknowledged. acknowledged.

III. General tips for clear writingIII. General tips for clear writing

The flow of logicThe flow of logic How do you make the logic clear to the How do you make the logic clear to the

reader?reader?

I see only one rule: to be I see only one rule: to be clear. I am not clear, then my clear. I am not clear, then my

entire world crumbles into entire world crumbles into nothingnothing

StendhalStendhal


SignpostsSignposts Start the paragraph with a questions.Start the paragraph with a questions. SubheadingsSubheadings


Bottom line in each paragraphBottom line in each paragraph What’s your point? What should the readers What’s your point? What should the readers

have learnt after they finish?have learnt after they finish? Make outlines, then expand into paragraphsMake outlines, then expand into paragraphs


Link, or transition, between paragraphsLink, or transition, between paragraphs The paragraphs should follow a logical order.The paragraphs should follow a logical order. Again, outline helps.Again, outline helps.


SentencesSentences Should be connected by a flow of ideas.Should be connected by a flow of ideas. Short, and to the point. Avoid putting too Short, and to the point. Avoid putting too

many ideas into one sentence (or paragraph)many ideas into one sentence (or paragraph)


Phrases should be connected with each otPhrases should be connected with each other.her. ““There are several differences between microtThere are several differences between microt

ubules and actin filaments; first, they are largeubules and actin filaments; first, they are larger..”r..”


Help the readers understand why and how Help the readers understand why and how different lines of evidence support each different lines of evidence support each other and the conclusionother and the conclusion ““1 is true, 2 is true, 3 is true. The conclusion 1 is true, 2 is true, 3 is true. The conclusion

is…”is…” ““1 is true, suggesting this conclusion. 1 is true, suggesting this conclusion.

Similarly, 2 is true, and furthermore 3. Thus it Similarly, 2 is true, and furthermore 3. Thus it seems clear that…”seems clear that…”


Don’t be afraid to say what you think is Don’t be afraid to say what you think is going on. But don’t claim that it’s proven if going on. But don’t claim that it’s proven if it’s not.it’s not. ““An obvious explanation is… but many other An obvious explanation is… but many other

explanations are possible”explanations are possible” ““a plausible explanation is that…”a plausible explanation is that…”


Use of tense in scientific writingUse of tense in scientific writing Abstract/Summary: unpublished results -> Abstract/Summary: unpublished results ->

pastpast Introduction: previously established Introduction: previously established

knowledge -> presentknowledge -> present Methods and Results: describe what the Methods and Results: describe what the

authors did and found -> pastauthors did and found -> past Discussion: most difficult; both past and Discussion: most difficult; both past and

present tensespresent tenses

IV. Ways to improve your writingIV. Ways to improve your writing

Practice, practice, and more practicePractice, practice, and more practice


While in the process of writingWhile in the process of writing Try writing the way you’d talk first.Try writing the way you’d talk first. First draft: just worry about organization and First draft: just worry about organization and

making sense, don’t worry about using the making sense, don’t worry about using the same words over again.same words over again.

Outside advice: get a colleague not in your Outside advice: get a colleague not in your field to read the draft.field to read the draft.


In generalIn general Take notes when you read papers (in or Take notes when you read papers (in or

outside of your field). Try to copy it. Good outside of your field). Try to copy it. Good readers make good writers.readers make good writers.

Oral presentations: style also works well in Oral presentations: style also works well in written form. Presenting your work may help written form. Presenting your work may help organize the draft. organize the draft.

V. Where to send paperV. Where to send paper

Make the decision early. Make the decision early.

Read “Guide to Authors” or “Info. for Read “Guide to Authors” or “Info. for authors”.authors”.

Narrow down to two or three choices when Narrow down to two or three choices when the paper is almost complete; journals the paper is almost complete; journals which publish papers on similar subjects.which publish papers on similar subjects.


Depends on: topic and field, quality of Depends on: topic and field, quality of research, time constraint, format of research, time constraint, format of manuscript. manuscript.

““High-profile” or “trendy” journals: politics? High-profile” or “trendy” journals: politics? luck? (quite likely to be rejected)luck? (quite likely to be rejected) NatureNature-quality papers aren’t published in-quality papers aren’t published in

NatureNature..


What are Cell/Nature/Science looking for?What are Cell/Nature/Science looking for? Cross-discipline advance (“general interest”): Cross-discipline advance (“general interest”):

ex. discovery of cyclins and CDKs.ex. discovery of cyclins and CDKs. A result that connects two previously unrelateA result that connects two previously unrelate

d areas of research: ex. EBV affects human md areas of research: ex. EBV affects human memory.emory.

A really big advance in a trendy (hot) field, evA really big advance in a trendy (hot) field, even if it isn’t relevant to anyone outside of field.en if it isn’t relevant to anyone outside of field.


What are Cell/Nature/Science looking for?What are Cell/Nature/Science looking for? VERY important methods: ex. PCR.VERY important methods: ex. PCR. Criteria constantly change: ex. KO mice. Criteria constantly change: ex. KO mice.

Editors: professional vs. academic.Editors: professional vs. academic. Professional: Professional: Cell/Nature/ScienceCell/Nature/Science, , EMBOJ…EMBOJ… Academic: Academic: PNAS, MCB, JBC…PNAS, MCB, JBC… Advantages vs. disadvantages.Advantages vs. disadvantages.


Before submission, also include a “cover Before submission, also include a “cover letter”letter” Explain the major conclusions of the paper, Explain the major conclusions of the paper,

and why they are importantand why they are important

Reviewers advice, but never decideReviewers advice, but never decide


My own story:My own story: G&D, Mol. Cell, NCB, Current Biology, G&D, Mol. Cell, NCB, Current Biology,

EMBOJ.EMBOJ.

Additional Info.Additional Info.

““Successful scientific writing: a step-by-steSuccessful scientific writing: a step-by-step guide for biomedical scientists (Cambridp guide for biomedical scientists (Cambridge).ge).

““How to write and publish a scientific papeHow to write and publish a scientific paper” (Greenwood Press).r” (Greenwood Press).

Documents

Scientific Writing