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Bioteknologi
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Bioteknologi :
Teknologi yang menggunakan sistem hayati(proses-proses biologi) untuk mendapatkanbarang dan jasa yang berguna bagi kesejahteraanmanusia
Pengertian dan Sejarah
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Sejarah
Minuman alkohol anggur
(pengawetan daging)
• Khamir roti
• Keju
• Yogurt
• Susu masam• kecap
1857 – Pasteur menemukan
bahwa fermentasi merupakan
proses yang dilakukan oleh
organisme hidup
1920 – fermentasi aseton,
etanol, butanol, gliserin
PD II – Penicillium natatum
AntibiotikVitamin, steroid, enzim
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Amerika Serikat mengijinkan digunakannya sel tubuh manusia untuk kegiatan penelitian mengenai terapi gen.1990
Metode polymerase chain reaction (PCR) pertama kali dipublikasikan1988
Badan paten Amerika Serikat mengumkan bahwa tikus yang direkayasa secara genetis peka terhadap kanker1988
Ti plasmid yang telah direkayasa digunakan untuk transformasi pada tanaman1983
Pertama kalinya vaksin hewan diproduksi menggunakan teknologi DNA rekombinan di Eropa1982
Pertama kalinya kit diagnostik yang dibuat dari antibodi monoklonal digunakan secara luas di Amerika Serikat1981
Pertama kalinya alat otomatis untuk sintesis DNA dijual secara komersial1981
Badan pengadilan Amerika Serikat menetapkan peraturan dalam kasus Diamond VS Chakrabarty yang melakukan
manipulasi mikroorganisme yang dipatenkan.
1980
Perusahaan Genentech memproduksi insulin manusia pada sel bakteri Escherichia coli1978
Pengembangan teknik untuk mengetahui sekuen DNA1976
Pertama kali dikeluarkan pedoman untuk penelitian dalam bidang DNA rekombinan1976
Kohler dan Milstein mendeskripsikan produksi antibodi monoklonal1975
Boyer dan Cohen mengembangkan teknologi DNA rekombinan1973
Khorana dan rekan-rekannya dapat mensintesis keseluruhan gen yang mengkode tRNA1972
Isolasi pertama kali enzim endonuklease restriksi1970
Keseluruhan kode genetik dapat diketahui1961-1966
Watson dan Crick menemukan struktur DNA1953
Avery, MacLeod dan McCarty membuktikan bahwa DNA merupakan materi genetik.1944
Antibiotik penisilin diproduksi besar-besaran dalam skala industri1943
Karl Ereky pertama kali menyatakan istilah bioteknologi1917
PeristiwaTahun
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Lactid Acid Bacteri
Yeast
Fermented
Alcohol
Ether
Amino acidProtein
Sugar
Fermentasi
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Bioteknologi tradisional :
Seleksi bahan, mikrobia yaang digunakan dan modifikasilingkungan untuk memperoleh produk optimal.
Misal : pembuatan tempe, tape, roti, pengomposan sampah
Bioteknologi modern :
Memanfaatkan ketrampilan manusia dalam melakukanmanipulasi makhluk hidup agar dapat digunakan untukmenghasilkan suatu barang yang diinginkan. Misal rekayasagenetik
Pengertian & Sejarah
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Hasil-hasil rekayasa genetika tanaman yangdigambarkan dalam National Enquier , c. 1981.
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Prospek & Tantangan
Pertimbangan Pemanfaatan Hasil Bioteknologi
1) Tinjauan ekologik
a) GMO mengalahkan spesies alami, menggantikan spesias
alami, mengurangi keanekargaman hayati.
b) GMO berubah prilaku dibandingkan dengan aslinya.
c) Gen yang disisipkan dapat pindah ke kerabat dekatspesies GMO, termasuk karakteristik gen yang dimaksud.
Penambahan gen karakter baru, kemampuan baru,
kemampuan hayati baru.
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• Kesetabilan ‘gen asing’ atau dapat berubah dandiekspresikan berbeda oleh organisme yang tertular gen
asing – mutasi
• Penarikan ‘gen asing’ jika masuk dalam organisme nontarget
• Terganggunya ‘rantai makanan' • Terganggunya organisme non target
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2) Tinjauan kesehatana) Gangguan kesehatan karena produk gen asing
(dalam waktu panjang)b) Bahaya atau tidaknya gen-gen penyerta
1) Tinjauan sosial dan budayaa) Etika, moral
b) Agama
2) Perdagangan global
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erima kasih
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The History of
Biotechnology
http://www.i-s-b.org/wissen/timeline/englisch/
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1859
Charles Darwin publishes hisbook (On the Origin ofSpecies by Means ofNatural Selection).
According to this book
evolution is life´s motor.The interplay of mutation
and selection endows livingbeings with optimized traitsin order to survive. Theseprinciples are also valid forthe so-called 'chemicalevolution' of biomoleculesand are being used inlaboratories for in vitro optimizing of wanted
qualities in molecules
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1869
Friedrich Miescher discoversan acidic substance in thenucleus of cells which henames 'nuclein'. By
elemental analysis he finds14 % nitrogen, 3 %phosphorus, and 2 % sulfur(from proteins). Since thesubstance cannot be
cleaved by the proteolyticenzyme pepsin Miescherconcludes that thissubstance is not a protein.
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1879
Walther Flemming observesthe separation ofchromosomes duringmitosis but fails to fully
understand its meaning. Hecounts 24 pairs ofchromosomes, a numberwhich will be corrected to23 later in 1956 by the
Indonesian scientist Joe-Han Tijo.
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1900
William Bateson introduces'genetics' as a scientificdiscipline
Hugo de Vries, Erich Tschermak
von Seysenegg and Carl Correns independently rediscover theMendelian principles
Hugo de Vries
defines themeaning of'mutations'
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1902
Walter Sutton observes ingrasshoppers' cells thatchromosomes carry theMendelian 'factors of
heredity', i.e. the geneticinformation.
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1910
Thomas Hunt Morgan'sstudies in the biology ofDrosophila melanogaster confirm that certain traits
are inherited sex-specifically. He also provesthat some phenotypesresult from several geneslocated on different
chromosomes.
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1927
Herman Muller finds thatenergetic radiation causesdefects in thechromosomes, i.e.
mutations.
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1928
Fred Griffith demonstratesthat material from killedbacteria of the pathogenicstrain Streptococcus
pneumoniae S ('smooth') istaken up from living ones ofthe non-pathogenic strainStreptococcus pneumoniaeR ('rough') which are
subsequently 'transformed'into the pathogenic S-strain.
Pneumococcus pneumoniae
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1944
Oswald Theodore Avery, Colin McLeod, and MaclynMcCarty find by careful analysis of Griffith' experimentsthat desoxynucleic acid (DNA) is the carrier of the'transforming principle'.
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1945
Erwin Schrödinger proposesin his famous book 'What islife?' that genes must be'aperiodic crystals'
consisting of a successionof a small number ofisomeric elements whoseprecise sequenceconstitutes the heredity
code. Although these ideasdo nothing to identify theresponsible molecularstructures, they attractmany newcomers to the
field.
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1950
Erwin Chargaff observes the1:1 ratio of the nucleicbases adenine/thymine andguanine/cytosine. This will
be a decisive hint forWatson & Crick to thestructure of the DNAmolecule.
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1952
Alfred Day Hershey's and MarthaChase's studies in bacteriophagesprove that only the nucleic acids carrythe genetic information; proteins aredefinitively excluded from playing this
role.
Joshua Lederberg finds plasmids in
bacteria, small rings ofextrachromosomal DNA which can bereplicated autonomously.
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1953
James D. Watson and Francis H. C. Crick elucidate the
structure of the DNA molecule. It consists of two strandswhich are bound by hydrogen bonds bewtween oppositebasepairs of adenine-thymine and cytosine-guanine. Theirmodel is based on the results of many colleages, namelyRosalind Franklin who discovered the helical structure andthe outward position of the phosphate-sugar backbone.
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1955
Frederick Sanger finds amethod to sequenceproteins. With this hedetermines the sequence of
the amino acids of insulin.
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1956..
Arthur Kornberg reports the first in vitro synthesis of a DNA molecule.
George Emile Palade locates proteinbiosynthesis to theribosomes, the'factories of the cell'.
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1956
Joe Han Tijo and Albert Levan correctthe number of the chromosome pairsin human cells to 23. Since the daysof Walther Flemming 24 was believedto be the true number.
Chromosomen einer
menschlichen Zelle
protein chains are built at the ribosomes
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1959
T. Akiba, T. Koyama, Y.Isshiki, S. Kimua, T.Fukushima, T. Watanabe and T. Fukusawa describe
the transfer of multipleresistance to antibiotics bybacterial plasmids.Plasmids turn out to beefficient vectors for
trafficking geneticinformation betweenbacteria of different strains.
bacterial plasmid (arrow)
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1960
Francois Jacob and Jaques Monod recognize the functionof the messenger RNA (mRNA). They develop the operonmodel of gene regulation in procaryotes.
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1961
Sydney Brenner and Francis Crick claim that every amino acidcorresponds to a triplett ofnucleotides, called 'codons'.
Marshall Nirenberg andHeinrich Mathaei canprove that the codon UUUin mRNA codes for the
amino acid phenyl alanineSydney Brenner
Marshall Nirenberg
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1962
John Gurdon claims to havereproduced frogs from theepithelium cells of Xenopuslaevis. J. B. S. Haldane coins 'cloning' when
describing these debatedexperiments.
Xenopus laevis
South African
clawed frogs
John Gurdon
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1968
Werner Arber discoversenzymes, so-callednucleases, which digestDNA double strands fromthe ends.
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1969
Jonathan Beckwith isthe first to isolate acomplete gene, in thiscase a gene from thebacterial sugarmetabolism.
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1970Hamilton Smith discovers an enzyme (HindII)
which specifically cleaves DNA doublestrands
Har Gobind Khorana synthesizesa complete gene (that of analanine t-RNA) in vitro.
David Baltimore and Howard Temin discover the
viral enzyme reverse transcriptase. It translatesRNA sequences to DNA sequences and thustumbles the age old 'Central Dogma of Genetics'which defined the direction of the flow of thegenetic information to start from DNA via RNA to
the proteins.
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1971
Paul Berg, Peter Loban, andDale Kaiser find enzymeswhich attach short singlestrands to the blunt ends ofdouble stranded DNA. Thesingle strands consist ofonly one sort of nucleotides.Complementary singlestrands (sticky ends) allowthe coupling of ds DNAfragments; the remaininggaps can be closed by theuse of ligases.
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1973
Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer paste
enzymatically restricted DNA fragments intoplasmids which have been cleaved byrestriction enzymes. The resultingrecombinant plasmids can serve as vectorsfor the transfer of foreign DNA into bacteria.
These experiments are generally regarded asthe beginning of the era of geneticengineering and modern biotechnology.
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1975The first conference on safety issues of the new technology
is held at Asilomar in California.
Georges Köhler and Cesar Milstein develop the 'HybridomaTechnology' for the production of monoclonal antibodies. Anantibody producing plasma cell (derived from a Blymphocyte) is fused with a tumor cell resulting in animmortal hybridoma cell which (as well as its daughters)
continues to produce one kind of antibodies.
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1976
Herbert Boyer and RobertSwanson found Genentechthe first biotech company.
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1977
Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger independentlydevelop two different methods for DNA sequencing.
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1978
Walter Gilbert discovers thatgenes of eucaryoticorganisms are composed ofcoding and non-codingparts. The non-codingsequences, named introns,are cut from the mRNAbefore translation leavingthe coding exons as thesource of information forprotein synthesis.
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1980
Jozef Schell and Marc van Montagu transferforeign DNA into plant cells by employing T-plasmids of Agrobacterium tumefaciens asvectors.
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1982
The U.S. Food and Drug Agency (FDA) approvesrecombinant insulin formarketing.
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1984Alec Jeffreys develops 'genetic fingerprinting' allowing the
comparison of minute variations, the so-called restrictionlength fragment polymorphisms (RLFPs), in the genomesof two organsims.
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1985
Karry Mullis develops thepolymerase chain reaction(PCR). This powerful toolallows to copy andaccumulate extremely lowamounts of DNA fromvarious sources until a levelsufficient for analysis isreached.
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1986Neal First develops protocols for
clonig cattle from bovineembryos by separating cells atearly embryonic stages. Theseexperiments resemble JohnGurdons earlier attempts at the
cloning of frogs. The first cloningof an adult animal will bereported in 1997 by Ian Wilmut who succeeds in cloning asheep, Dolly.
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1988
The first patent for atransgenicmammal is grantedto Harvard's PhilipLeder and Timothy
Stewart. It refers toa mouse which issusceptible totumors and servesas model organism
for studies incancer.
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1990
French Anderson successfully tries thefirst somatic gene therapy of a human.Patient
Ashanti DeSilva is cured
from an deficiency in theenzyme ADA, whichcauses severeimmunodeficiency.
German'GeneticEngineering
Act' passesparliament
Official kick-offof the HumanGenome Project(HGP)
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1993
The German GeneticEngineering Act of 1990 isrevised, i.e. manyrestrictions of the 1990version are eased.
The Biotechnology
Industry OrganizationBIO is created bymerging two smallertrade associations
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1995
The Institute for GenomicResearch (TIGR) publishes thefirst complete sequence of thegenome of a free-livingorganism, the bacterium
Haemophilus influenzae
Germany launches the BioRegio contest. 17 regions compete inpresenting the best blueprint for
the development of commercialbiotechnology to aninternational jury. The threewinning regions will share theprice of DM 150m.
1996
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1996The complete sequencing of the baker's yeast'genome is accomplished by close collaborationof laboratories in Europe, Japan, and the U.S.The Saccharomyces cervisiae genome ist thefirst eucaryotic genome completely sequenced.
Patrick Browne ofStanford Universitypresents the first'gene chip'
containing 6116different genespecific sequencesof the baker's yeastgenome.
In the U.S.transgenic plantsgrow on more than1.9 million hectares
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1997
Ian Wilmut (right) visits Dolly (center) the first mammalcloned from an adult cell.
1998
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1998
Two research teams report embryonicstem cells differentiate to specializedtissue cells. The picture shows an earlydevelopmental stage, the blastocyst.
The first genome of a
multicellular organism
(Caenorhabditis elegans) is
sequenced.
Craig Mello und Andrew Fire find that small double-stranded
RNA molecules can selectively block gene expression in
Caenorhabditis elegans, a phenomenon later referred to as
RNA interference (RNAi)
1999
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1999Pluripotent stem cells from tissues
can be reprogrammed to other celltypes.
The sequence ofchromosome 22
is published.
The U.S. biotechcompany Celerastarts its ownhuman genomesequencingproject
2000
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2000There are 1300 biotech companies on eachside of the Atlantic. About 400 are listed atstock exchanges.
The genome ofDrosophilamelanogaster is
sequenced. The fruitfly was introduced byThomas H. Morganinto geneticsresearch.
The Human Genome Organization andCelera present the first working draft of thehuman genome. The picture shows Celera'sCEO J. Craig Venter (left) and Francis
Collins, the speaker of the HGP.
2001
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2001… Less genes than expectedThe international Human Genome Project(HGP) and biotech company CeleraGenomics publish their versions of thesequence of the human genome. TheCelera team estimates the number of
genes to range from 26,000 to 39,000, HGPscientist' estimate is between 30,000 and40,000.
Rice genome
Syngenta (Basel, Switzerland), incollaboration with Myriad Genetics(Salt Lake City, UT), announced thecompleted sequencing of thegenome of Oryza sativa japonica
2001
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2001
RNA interferenceThomas Tuschl isthe first todemonstrate that
RNA interference(RNAi) is alsoworking with
mammalian cells.
2002
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2002Genomes of the malaria agent and its carrier sequencedResearchers of the Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR),the Sanger Institute (UK), and Stanford University publish thegenomic sequence of Plasmodium falciparum andPlasmodium yoelii . The protozoa P. falciparum causesmalaria.The genome of its carrier Anopheles gambiae is alsosequenced and published.
2003
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2003… Genome of SARS virussequencedWithin three weeks after itsdiscovery scientists of theMichael Smith GenomeSciences Centre in BritishColumbia (Vancouver, Canada)succeeded in sequencing thegenome of the virus causingsevere acute respiratorysyndrome (SARS). The RNA
virus remotely resemblescorona virus species andcontains roughly 30,000 genes.
2003
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2003Germ cells from stem cellsKarin Hübner and Hans Schölerof the University ofPennnsylvania succeeded ingenerating oocytes from murinestem cells which were able togrow into further embryonicstages. The experimentdemonstrates the potential ofpluripotent stem cells to acquiretotipotency via a germ line cell
stage
2004
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2004…
99.999% accuracyThree years after the publication ofthe first draft a far more preciseversion of the sequence of the
human genome is published.
The number of
identified genes
decreases again
compared with previous
estimations.
19,599 have been
confirmed to encodeproteins, 2188 aresuspected to encode forproteins. 1183 geneshave been generated
through duplication ofgenes, 33 genesappear to have beendegenerated intodisfunctional
pseudogenes.
2004
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2004…
Fatherless mouseTomohiro Kono of the TokyoUniversity of Agriculture presentedthe first mouse which was obtainedfrom oocytes only. His team
combined the genomes of oocytes
from adult andnewborn mice and
eventually one of460 experimentsresulted in a livinganimal, being 14month old at the
time of publication.Critical for successwas thesuppression of agene whichnormally controlsthe imprinting ofchromosomal DNAfrom mother andfather.
2004
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2004
Mice from cancer cells
Rudolph Jaenisch of MIT and Lynda Chin of the DanaFarber Cancer Institute generated cloned mice from cancercells by stuffing the nuclei of melanoma cells into de-nucleated mouse oocytes. The resulting blastocysts yieldedstem cells which were suitable for transplantation intonormal blastocysts which eventually developed into livinganimals. Some genetic markers of the melanoma cells werefound again in the animal, but the epigentic patterns hadgone lost - showing that epigenetic modifcations are bothreversible and late stage in the transformation of normalcells into melanoma cells.
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erima kasih