Task-Based Language Teaching Task-Based Language Teaching 任务型语言教学任务型语言教学

南通大学外国语学院 吴 兴 东

引言引言 教育部制订的义务教育《英语课程标准》

定点实验已进行了几年，向《课标》靠拢的教材、课堂教学、测试、管理诸方面的改革活动已遍及全国。但目前赞誉与质疑之声并起。对于《课标》明确倡导的任务型教学途径的质疑几乎占了上风。任务型教学途径是统管全局的外语教学路线，不是局部的教学技巧，它的取舍关系到《课标》立足和课改的成败。

任务型教学途径的前身是任务教纲（ task-based syllabus ）。任务教纲和功能教钢、内容教纲一样是交际法的教学内容安排方式之一。教纲对教学目标、教学过程和教学考核具有很大的制约作用。在任务型教学中教纲和其它教学因素的关系更为密切。对任务教纲的否定就是对任务型教学途径的否定。

值得注意的是，采用任务教纲的外语教学活动中也有语言练习活动；采用语法教纲的外语教学活动中也包括交际任务。它们的根本区别在于任务教纲以交际任务为中心安排教学内容，环式输入语言知识，语言因素和话语形式为交际任务服务；语法教纲以语言知识为中心安排教学内容，线性输入语言知识，交际活动为巩固语言知识而进行。

不重视任务型教学途径的原因主要有两个。第一，大多数教师将任务型教学途径理解为课堂教学步骤。一部分人把它作为传统教学法课堂教学步骤的最后一步，即语言知识的应用性活动。另一部分人把它作为激进交际法课堂教学步骤的第一步，即尽量使用已学知识完成交际性任务。前者认为只要在课堂上让学生完成了某个应用性任务就是采用了任务型教学途径，他们乐观地认为自己一直在贯彻任务型教学途径，不值得重新研究。后者认为先输出后输入违背了语言学习规律，因此不能贯彻任务型教学途径 .

第二个原因是不少英语教师认为贯彻任务型教学途径需要真实的语境。中国人学习外语缺少真实的交际情景。任务型教学途径只适合于二语习得，不适合中国的外语学习。

任务教纲还是语法教纲更适合外语教学的疑问必须由身处外语学习环境中的中国外语教学工作者自己去回答。这个问题必须要有正确的答案。因为本次基础教育改革的重点是改革课程。教纲在广义的课程中占重要地位，而狭义的课程指的就是某一门学科的教纲，即对一门课的内容和教学顺序的安排。

Task-Based Language Teaching Task-Based Language Teaching

《标准》中提出的“任务型”教学途径

参照“活动教学法”，理解“任务型”教学途径

“ 任务型”语言教学的基本思想和方法

倡导“任务型”的教学途径倡导“任务型”的教学途径，， 培养学生综合语言运用能力培养学生综合语言运用能力

• 本《标准》以学生“做某事”的描述方式设定各级目标要求。教师应该避免单纯传授语言知识的教学方法，尽量采用“任务型”的教学途径。

• 教师应依据课程的总体目标并结合教学内容，创造性地设计贴近学生实际的教学活动，吸引和组织他们积极参与。学生通过思考、调查、讨论、交流和合作等方式，学习和使用英语，教师应注意以下几点：

1 、活动的目的要明确并具有可操作性；• 2 、要以学生的生活经验和兴趣为出发点，内容和方式要尽量真实；• 3 、活动要有助于学生英语知识的学习、语言技能的发展和语言实际运用

能力的提高；• 4 、活动应积极促进英语学科和其他学科间的相互渗透和联系，使学生的

思维和想象力、审美情趣和艺术感受、协作和创新精神等综合素质得到发展；

• 5 、活动要能够促使学生获取、处理和使用信息并用英语与他人交流，发展他们用英语解决实际问题的能力；

• 6 、活动不仅限于课堂教学，也要延伸到课堂之外学生的学习和生活之中。

树立符合新课程要求的教学观树立符合新课程要求的教学观念念 ,, 优化教育教学方式优化教育教学方式

课堂教学应改变以教师为中心、单纯 传授书本知识的教学模式。教师应帮助学生发展探究知识的能力、获取知识的能力和自主学习的能力。

教师在教学中要注意发展学生的批判能力和创新精神。课堂教学活动的设计应有利于发挥学生的创造力和想象力。在教学中应增加开放性的任务型活动和探究性的学习内容，使学生有机会表达自己的看法与观点。教师要鼓励学生学会合作，发展与人沟通的能力。教师在设计教学任务时，可以根据不同学生的情况设计不同的任务，使所有的学生都能进步。

英语教学中的任务指有利于学生用英语做事的各种语言实践活动。任务的设计一般应遵循下列原则（ 1 ）任务应有明确的目的；（ 2 ）任务应具有真实意义，即接近现实生活中的各种活动；（ 3 ）任务应涉及信息的接受、处理和传递等过程；（ 4 ）学生应在完成任务的过程中使用英语；（ 5 ）学生通过做事情完成任务；（ 6 ）完成任务后一般应有一个具体的成果。

Types of syllabusTypes of syllabus

A structural (or formal)syllabus

A notional/functional syllabus

A situational syllabus

A skill-based syllabus

A task-based syllabus

A content-based syllabus

The Activities-based Approach to Teaching The Activities-based Approach to Teaching English As a Foreign LanguageEnglish As a Foreign Language

1. Definition

2. Background

3.Theoretical Assumptions

4.Goals and Objectives

5.Areas of Study

6.Method

7.Assessment and Reporting

8.Resources

Definition of An activityDefinition of An activity

An activity involves the purposeful and active use of language where learners are required to call upon their language resource to meet the needs of a given communicative situation.

Tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.

(Willis 1996)

Definition of the Activities-based ApproachDefinition of the Activities-based Approach

活动教学法是以活动体现教学目标、教学内容、教学手段和教学考核的语言教学方法。活动涉及有目的的积极的语言使用，学员在活动中需要利用语言材料满足特定交际情景需求。换句话说，学员在活动中以听、说、读、写等方式使用目的语达到某一目的。他们对所要表达的意思和所需用的语言没有预先的准备，必须正确处理语言加工过程和语言技能，确保所用语言在社会文化方面保持得体。活动教学法是以学生为主的语言教学方法，是交际法语言教学的分支和新发展。

BackgroundBackground

Social needs Reconciliation between Product-oriented Com

municative Approach and the Process-oriented Communicative Approach

Reconciliation between three Educational Value Systems: Classical humanism, Reconstructionism, Progressivism

Influence of Publications Practical Experience of Asian Countries

Reconciliation between Product-oriented Communicative Approach Reconciliation between Product-oriented Communicative Approach and the Process-oriented Communicative Approachand the Process-oriented Communicative Approach

产品定向交际法 过程定向交际法1 、重视语言交际行为， 强调程序处理能力。2 、注重社会性语言使用； 着眼于个性发展。3 预先确定教学目标； 随时决定教学目标。4 、强调学习结果 强调学习过程。5 、以语言功能项目为纲编排教材 教材服从于活动，6 、排演预定社会活动， 建立一套程序原则7 、教师是总裁， 学生是主体，8 、标准参照考核方法， 学生的学习过程。

Theoretical AssumptionsTheoretical Assumptions

Theory of LanguageTheory of EducationTheory of Language LearningEight Principles

Theory of LanguageTheory of Language

1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.

2.The primary function of language is fo4r interaction and communication.

3. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative users.

4. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse. (Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 71)

Theory of LanguageTheory of Language

语言是表达意思的系统； 语言的基本功能是交际； 语言结构反映它的功能性和交际性用

途； 语言不仅仅由基础语法结构单位组成，还有在语篇中体现出来的基本的功能和交际意义单位组成。

Theory of EducationTheory of Education

The Reconstructionist concern for broad social needs and interests. Predetermined common objectives .

The progressivist concern for the personal needs and interests of the individual. learner-controlled objectives .

Predetermined common objectives in the earlier stages and learner-controlled objectives in the later stage of a course

Theory of EducationTheory of Education 活动教学法阶段侧重某种语言知识和技能，以练习辅佐交际

活动，继承了古典人文主义有意识学习语言形式的传统。 语言教学前期根据重建主义的大社会需求注重共同学习目标，后期更多地照顾学员个人的志向、兴趣和学习风格，给他们提供择教学目标、教学内容、教学活动和教学考核方法的机会 , 体现了渐进主义的宗旨。

以交际活动为纽带实现重建主义目标定向和漸进主义过程定向的统一。

综合三种教学价值体系所长，活动教学法遵循以下八条教学原则：

Theory of Language LearningTheory of Language Learning建构主义理论建构主义理论

学习者 : 不是被动的旁观者 , 而是主动的参与者 . 教学者 : 不是水桶 , 而是一个支架 . 知识 : 不是客观的东西 , 而是人在实践活动中创造的暂定性的解释和假设 .

学习 : 不是简单复制和吸入信息 , 而是主动解释信息和建构知识 .

教学 : 不是传递 , 而是创造理想的环境促使学生自主建构知识 .

Theory of Language Theory of Language LearningLearning

Communication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning.

Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.

Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.

Theory of Language Theory of Language LearningLearning

活动教学法的提倡者认为涉及真实交际的活动能促进学习；

使用语言完成有意义的任务的活动能促进学习；

使用对学习者具有实际意义的语言能促进学习。

Eight PrinciplesEight Principles Learners learn a language best when 1. They are treated as individuals with their own needs and intere

sts. 2. They are provided with opportunities to participate in communi

cative use of the target language in a wide range of activities. 3. They are exposed to communicative data which is comprehensib

le and relevant to their own needs and interests. 4. They focus deliberately on various language forms, skills, and st

rategies in order to support the process of language acquisition. 5. They are exposed to sociocultural data and direct experience of

the culture(s) embedded within the target language. 6. They become aware of the role and nature of language and of c

ulture. 7. They are provided with appropriate feedback about their progr

ess. 8. They are provided with opportunities to manage their own lear

ning.

Eight PrinciplesEight Principles1 、学生为中心原则当学生被认为具有个人需求和兴趣时，语言学习效率最高。2 、积极参与原则当学生被提供参与大量活动进行语言交际时，语言学习效率最高。3 、沉浸原则当学生大量接触与他们自己的需求和兴趣密切相关并可理解的交际材料时，语言学习

的效率最高。4 、重点突出原则当学生为促进语言习得过程而有重点地突出某些语言形式，技能和策略时，语言学习效率最高。

5 、社会文化原则当学生大量接触目的语传递的社会文化信息时，语言学习效率最高。6 、语言文化意识原则当学生充分意识语言的性质和作用以及语言的文化内涵时，语言学习效率最高。7 、及时反馈原则当学生的进步得到应得的反馈时，语言学习效率最高。8 、责任原则 当学生有机会自己管理自己的学习时，语言学习效率最高。

Goals and ObjectivesGoals and Objectives

Interrelated Broad Goals

Specific Goals of Communication

General Objectives(activity cluster)

Specific Objectives

 

Interrelated Broad GoalsInterrelated Broad GoalsLearning

how-to-learn

Socio-

cultu

ral

Language

and cultural

awareness

Genera

l

know

ledge

Communication

Specific Goals of CommunicationSpecific Goals of Communication Establish and maintain relationships an discuss topics of interest e.

g. through the exchange of information, ideas, opinions, attitudes, feelings, experiences, and plans

Participate in social interaction related to solving a problem, making arrangements, making decisions with others, and transacting to obtain goods, services, and public information

Obtain information by searching for specific details in a spoken or written text, and then process and use the information obtained.

Obtain information by listening to or reading a spoken or written text as a whole, and then process and use the information obtained.

 Give information in spoken or written form e. g. give a talk, write an essay or a set of instructions

Listen to, read or view, and respond personally to a stimulus e. g. a story, play, film, song, poem, picture.

Be involved in spoken or written personal expression e.g. create a story, dramatic episode, poem, play.

Specific Goals of CommunicationSpecific Goals of Communication

1 、使学生能使用目的语建立和维持人际关系， 讨论有 趣的话题。2 、使学生能使用目的语参加社会交际。3 、使学生能使用目的语的口语或书面语获得 a 、具体 信息； b 、总体信息。4 、使学生能以目的语的口语或书面语形式提供信息。5 、使学生能使用目的语听、读、看各种文艺作品， 并作出个人反应。6 、使学生能使用目的语进行口头和书面的文艺创作。

Language UseLanguage Use

Activity-type 1Establish and maintainrelationships and discusstopics of interest e.gthrough the exchange ofinformation ,ideas,opinions,attitudes,feelings,experiences,and plans.

Activity-type 2Participate in socialinteraction related to solvinga problem,makingarrangements,makingdecisions with others,andtransacting to obtain goods,services,and publicinformation.

Activity-type 6Be involved in spoken orwritten personal expression e.g.create a story,dramaticepisode,poem,play

Activity-type 5Listen to,read or view,andrespond personally to astimulus e.g.a story,play,film,song,poem,picture.

Activity-type 4Give information in spokenor written form e.g.give a talk,write an essay or a setof instructions.

Obtain information by searching for specific details

Obtain information by listening to or reading a spoken or written text

3a

3b Activities(categorised into activity-types based on the communication goals).

Activity TypesActivity Types

Activities

1 26

5 4

3a3b

Activity-types Goals

Objectives Activities

Supportingexercises

Activities are categorised into activity-types

according to the communication goal they realise.

Socio-

cultu

ral

Learning

how-to-learn

Language

and cultural

awareness Genera

l

knowledge

Communication

General ObjectivesGeneral Objectives(activity clusters)(activity clusters)

In relation to communication goal(1) learners will be able to use the target language to:

Introduce themselves and others Invite and thank others Say how they feel Describe their routine and that of friends and other

people

Express likes and preferences

Topic: SHOPPINGTopic: SHOPPING

General objects:1.Students will be able to make a shopping plan within a budget.

2.Students will be able to make a market investigation.

3. Students will be able to participate in a simulated shopping.

1

Topic : Personal InformationTopic : Personal InformationGeneral objectives: students will be able to introduce themselves to

other people. Students will be able to talk about family photos. Students will be able to understand and write

personal resume. Students will be able to look for friends with

written information

General objectives: Students will be able to learn to do an exercise.

learn to do a first-aid.

see a doctor and have a talk with doctor.

fill in a health form.

Topic: Health

Topic: Interests and HobbiesTopic: Interests and Hobbies

General objectives: Students will be able to know how to express likes

and dislikes. Students will be able to describe a most interesting

activity. Students will be able to make an interview on

their hobbies and interests. Students will be able to participate in a debate on

video game .

Specific ObjectivesSpecific Objectives

Learners will be able to :

generate questions

use the future tense

use vocabulary related to the activity

Areas of StudyAreas of Study 

 

--------------------------------------------------------------------- Areas of Study

 

 

1. Discourse 2. Activities, Settings 3. Linguistic

Forms and Roles Elements

  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------

Work

requirements

  ------------------

 

Activities and RolesActivities and Roles

角色 活动剧作家 写剧中人物 读演员 扮演导演 剧本 导演布景员 换背景 观众 看戏剧评家 评论

Activities and DiscourseActivities and Discourse

语言活动是靠话语进行的，话语是通过活动体现的。但是，活动和话语形式并不一一对应，一种语言交际活动可用多种话语形式进行。例如：发出邀请的语言活动可以通过书信、电话、电报或卡片话语形式进行。反之，一种话语形式也可用来进行多种活动，例如：一封信可以用来邀请客人，进行商业询盘，表达同情，作为文学课文等。常用的话语形式如下：

记叙文、广告、轶事、通知、论文、报刊文摘、自传、动画、目录、挂图、戏剧、合同、会话、文艺评论、辩论、日记、讨论、新闻、社论、散文、童话、表格、旅游指南、索要、食谱、采访记录、标签、演讲、传说、地图、菜单、电报、小说、命令、计划、诗歌、宣言、节目单、谚语、问卷、收据、推荐信、谜语、履历表、台词、小故事、招牌、标语、歌曲、总结、教科书、时间表。

Activities and Linguistic ElementsActivities and Linguistic Elements

在活动教学法中，教学内容是按照活动选择和组织的，而不是按照语法项目或词汇的难易程度安排的。因此，根据活动需要选择语言项目，而不是按照传统教学法的惯例，根据语言项目组织活动。语言因素根据它们在使用中的重要性和所选话语形式或活动组合的相关性进行选择和组织。对于信息加工至关重要的语言因素先行练习。一些复杂的语言形式有可能相对提前教学。但在教学中可以把这些表达方式作为公式或常规来记，而它们的结构分析可相对推迟。语言因素练习是为顺利进行交际活动服务的。因此，紧接在交际活动之前，交际活动之中，或紧接在交际活动之后的练习效率最高。

Activities and ExercisesActivities and Exercises

Real communication activities

Practice communication activities

Shaping exercises

Focusing exercises

The Grading of ActivitiesThe Grading of Activities

预测性：语境线索多，语言形式预测性强，活动简单。反之，活动复杂。 静态或动态描述：静态描述比动态描述简单。 相关经历：所用语言或活动本身与学员的经历相关性强的活动简单。 社会文化特殊性：活动的社会文化特殊性越强活动越复杂。 外援程度：语言交流对方在内容、速度等方面的体贴、谅解、照顾和帮 助越多，活动越简单。

语言加工难度：语言理解所需认知或心理语言加工过程越简单，活动也越见单。

认知水平要求：完成活动所需的思维水平越高，活动越难。 参与者多少：参与者少的活动简单。 步骤多少：所需步骤少的活动简单。 学员相关因素：学员的信心足、动机强、学习经验丰富、学习速度快、

语言技能熟练、文化知识和语言知识广博，活动就显得容易。

The Grouping of ActivitiesThe Grouping of Activities

活动可以按照主题 - 话题、语言技能、文体、研究项目、课文或其它学科话题组织起来。长期教学内容可按多种方式组织，短期教学内容以一种方式组织为好。最常用的是主题 - 话题方式。交际活动组织在话题（ topic ）和次话题（ sub-topic ）之下。话题隶属于主题（ theme ）。假设“人际关系”是主题，那么“自己”、“家庭”、“朋友”是话题，而“自己的兴趣爱好”、“住房”、“交朋友”则分别为上述三话题的次话题。

教师应根据学生的水平和兴趣选择话题。由于语言学习过程是循环式和螺旋式进行的过程，因此，学生在语言学习经历中可能重复接触同一话题。教师可以通过控制同一话题下的活动的难度和复杂性，满足学生在不同时期的语言学习需求。

Unit DevelopmentUnit DevelopmentTarget group

Organizational focus Time allocation

Specific goals

Communication Sociocultural LHTL LACA Gen. Knowledge

General objectives

Activities and exercises Resources

Assessment

Specific objectives Method

Language Skill Sociocultural General

Development development knowledge

MethodMethod

1. The teacher/learner partnership2. Eight principles3. Catering for Learner Differences4. The process approach to writing5. Worksheets6. Peer tutoring7. Team teaching8. Learning contracts9. Use of visitor from the target language communi

ty10. Self-access centres11. Learning centre approach12. Individual progress chart

Teaching ProceduresTeaching Procedures LC 模式： LC代表学习中心 (learning center) 。每单元包括一系列的个人、对子和小组活动。一个单元内的各节课形成连贯的系列，但程式相同。所需教学资源的名细以及活动和练习的说明都展现在教室的学习中心。

第一课开始时，教师介绍并和学生一起完成两到三个预先计划好的活动。然后，学员选择其中一个活动在余下的时间内完成。

在后续的每节课开头，教师组织学员重温已介绍的活动，突出重点和难点，再向全班介绍一到三个活动以及所需的语言、知识、技能和学习策略。接着学员自己完成已介绍过的一个或几个活动。

所有活动和练习的名细列表张贴在学习中心，表中说明活动和练习的类型（个人的，对子或小组的），所需的资料。活动或练习中所需的词汇和短语应另有说明。

学员可以自己决定活动的顺序，但必须在规定时间内完成一个单元的活动。学员每人有进步卡，记载自己的活动完成情况。教师备有检查表，记录全班学员的完成情况，并随时向学员提醒规定的进度。由于学员都忙于参与活动，教师有足够的时间进行巡回辅导。

Lesson One(Chain One)Lesson One(Chain One)

Making a shopping planMaking a shopping plan Pre-task Step1: The teacher sets the scene for the task. Step2:The teacher helps students to acquire the

necessary vocabulary items for the task. Step3:The teacher explains the task and demonstrate

the task procedure. While-task Step4: Students discuss and decide on food to buy

within the budget. Step5: Students prepare work sheets for reporting Post-task Step5: Students share the products by reporting with

the class.

2

PPP ApproachPPP Approach

Present language functionsPractise functional expressionsProduce functional expressions

Deep-end Approach Deep-end Approach

 

 

  communicate as far present language items drills

as possible with all necessary for effective necessary

available resource communication

Assessment and ReportingAssessment and Reporting

Purpose: assessing communicative competence Holistic approach Contents: communicative activities

work requirements

common assessment tasks

Reporting: grading and description

Communicative competenceCommunicative competence

The ability of producing correct, clear, acceptable, and authentic discourse of a target language.

The mouse the cat the dog the man the woman married beat chased ate had a white tail.

You were applying to a university and needed a letter of recommendation. You went to a professor, who was also your friend, and said：

A. “I’d appreciate it if you could write a letter of recommendation for me.” ( 正确，得 2 分 )

B. “I want to ask you to write a letter of recommendation for me.” ( 语法正确，不够得体，得 1 分 )

C．“ I wonder if you could wrete a letter recommendation me.”(较得体，但语言有误，得 1 分 ) 。

D. “Hey, give me recommendation letter.”( 语言有误，内容不得体，不得分 ) 。

英语课程评价的实施英语课程评价的实施

评价与教学的协调统一以形成性考核为主学员参与考核注重综合运用语言的能力成绩记录方式要体现以人为本

评价与教学的协调统一评价与教学的协调统一

Assessment is not something that is external to the learning process and added on at the end of a learning sequence. It should always be integrated in the planned curriculum.

Teaching activities work requirements

Common assessment tasks

以形成性考核为主以形成性考核为主形成性考核着重考核如下三个方面：1 ）学生是否正在认真学习所教内容并充

分发挥自己的潜力利用所教的语言知识、技能和策略参与交际活动。 2 ）学习过程，包括学生对教学活动的反应和对现阶段学习的态度。 3 ）学生自修作业的结果。

BasicBasic types of Authentic( formative) types of Authentic( formative) Assessment in Language learningAssessment in Language learning

Folios of work End-of- unit assessment Peer assessment Self assessment Progress cards and checklists Observation checksheets relating to particular activities,

skills, strategies.etc Informal interaction Reading logs Records of conferencing Classwork and homework

Spot test   End of unit tests Oral interview Story or text retelling Writing samples (with a variety of topics and

registers) Projects and exhibitions (presenting collaborative

effort) Experiments and demonstrations (with oral or

written reports) Constructed-response items (to open-ended

questions)

学习档案是形成性评价的首要内容学习档案是形成性评价的首要内容

学习档案可包含以下内容：入学考试情况记录 学生学习行为记录，如课上的朗读课文、朗诵诗歌、

课文分角色演出等书写作业的样本，通常由学生自己决定收入自认为最满意的作品

教师与家长对学生学习情况的观察评语平时测验，由教师评分或在教师指导下同学评分或自己评分

对其学习态度、方法与效果的自我与同学评价意见

ObservationObservation

观察。对学生表现的观察结果是教学改革的重要依据之一。为提高观察的效率需要预先设置观察项目和衡量的等第。下表（进步记录）是为较正式的观察设计的。

Informal interactionInformal interaction

非正式交流。通过与学生的非正式交流教师能知道学生的需求、所需要的帮助、感兴趣的内容以及对某种活动的态度和进行活动的情况。下表是为非正式交流设计的问卷。

 

学员参与考核学员参与考核 考核的主要目的之一是向学生提供有关信

息，以便他们在学习内容、速度和方法等方面作出正确的决定。因此，有必要鼓励学生参与考核过程，和教师共同负责考核教学情况。

学生应在多方面对自己的学习负责。就考核而言，他们应了解考核的目的和考核活动的性质。他们应和教师一起确定完成活动的标准和表现优劣的等第，一起选择考核的步骤。

学生个人进步卡学生自评表学习档案同学互测自测材料 （学员在听、读、看的基础上 回答问题，填写 信息表等）

注重综合运用语言的能力注重综合运用语言的能力

评价活动的设计原则： 1）  活动尽可能真实 2）  活动多样化 3）  活动建立在学员的需求和兴趣之上 4） 让学生了解活动的背景、角色和参与者之 间

的关系 5）  活动中所需的语言应具有适当的不可测性。 6）  让学员在活动中尽可能多地使用目的语解决

问题 7）  引发学员最佳表现

活动中表现的评价活动中表现的评价活动中表现评价指标活动中表现评价总标准活动中表现评价具体标准活动中表现的等第划分

成绩记录方式要体现以人为本成绩记录方式要体现以人为本

活动表现记录维多利亚学生英语成绩单，

ResourcesResources

Definition

Resources Provide Communicative data

Resources which promote communicative use of the target language

DefinitionDefinition The term ‘resources’ is used to describe any published or u

npublished material in any medium use for the purpose of language teaching and learning. The term refers to a variety of text-types which may or may not have been prepared specifically for the purposes of teaching and learning, and includes materials such as pictures, books, maps , audio and video cassettes, films, slides, etc., as well as hardware such as audiovisual equipment and computers,. The term also includes human resources and resources which are outside as well as inside the classroom. The teacher and the learners are themselves important resources, as are people and places in the target language community.

Resources Provide Communicative dataResources Provide Communicative data

   Teacher talk   Other classroom talk   Recordings of talk (audio and video)Specially prepared written information   Other classroom written information  Realia and written texts from outside the

classroom

Communicative use of the target language is best Communicative use of the target language is best promoted by resources which:promoted by resources which:

 Generate activities which serve a genuine communicative purpose and have personal relevance or are of real interest to the learner

 Provide a context in which learners will want and need to engage in meaningful use of the target language

 Generate activities which involve authentic conditions, e.g. allow the learner to employ communicative strategies

Resources which promote communicative use Resources which promote communicative use of the target languageof the target language

Problem solving activities Information /opinion/affective gap activities Personalised activities Games Use of picture Activities involving processing information from variou

s sources Literature-based activities Drama activities Writing activities Focus and shaping exercises Integration of activities

ExamplesExamples

Problem solving activities:“If it takes 20 minutes to go from A to B

and 30 minutes to go from B to C, and if it takes 5 minutes to travel 2 kilometers, how many kilometers are there between A and C?”

The distraught BabysitterThe distraught Babysitter

Role A : You are a teenager. You have been offered your first babysitting job.You really want the money. Your mother has to give her permission.

Role B: Your teenager has been offered a babysitting job. It will be his or her first job (providing you give your permission). Will you do so? There is an important test.coming up at school tomorrow.

Criteria for selecting resource for whole classCriteria for selecting resource for whole class

Resources for whole class learning should allow for individual differences in learners’ ability, and for all learners to be actively involved in the learning process.

Criteria for selecting resource for groupsCriteria for selecting resource for groups

Does the resource provide clear directions to enable learners to complete the task? Can the direction be referred to if forgotten?

Are the group members assigned specific tasks? Are the roles of individuals in the group clearly specified?

Is there a challenge in the task for all learners? Does the resource provide a purposeful context for

problem solving,exchanging information, and other cognitive processes involved?

Is there an information, opinion, or affective gap to promote communicative use of the target language?

Is there a result required form the group? Is a conclusion to be presented for the teacher and the rest of the class?

Is there provision for learners to evaluate the task?

Criteria for selecting resource for individual workCriteria for selecting resource for individual work

Can the resource be organized in a self-access centre, and be graded and marked in an appropriate way for easy access buy individual learners?

Does the resource assist learners to assess their own needs, to plan their own learning program, and to assess their own progress?

Does the resource have a self-correction facility(e.g. an answer key)

Are the objectives of each activity or unit of work clear to learners?

Are there clear instructions for the activities that learners are required to perform?

Criteria for selecting textbooksCriteria for selecting textbooks

Is the textbok appropriate for : -- the target group, considering the Stage at which

they will be working, their language development, interests, etc?

-- the purpose for which it is to be used? --the needs and preferences of the teacher? -- other practicalities and general considerations? Does the textbook allow for meaningful, purposef

ul, and individual use of the target language?

Does the textbook cover the five goals?What are the gaps? What imbalance will need to be redressed for the particular learning group?

Does it contain a combination of activities an exercises?

Do the activities involve combinations of reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills for language use (I.e. does it have a global approach to language learning)?

What will the learners think of the textbook? Will they find it easy to follow, helpful, boring? Does it cover what they want to learn?

Does the textbook allow for individualization? Does it present information in such a way that

learners are able to work independently with it?

Does the textbook deal with the learning needs of the particular learning group? What will be needed to supplement the textbook in this regard? Is supplementation feasible?

Does the textbook allow for flexible use?

评价教材的设计评价教材的设计Aural and/or visual clues and other

contextual props, to help learners predict meaning and make sense of the text.

The text should not be too long.

Criteria for selecting, adapting Criteria for selecting, adapting and creating resourcesand creating resources

the nature of the learner groupthe purposes for which the resource is to be

usedteacher needs and preferences Practicalities and general considerations

Learning groupLearning group

Yes NoIs the resource appropriate for the proficiency level of learners at this Stage?

Does the resource make cognitive demands on the learners without causing frustration?

Does the resource meet the immediate language learning needs of the learners?

Do learners find the resource appealing and interesting?

Does the resource cater for differences in learning styles?

Purpose of the resourcePurpose of the resource Yes NoDoes the resource help promote communicative use of the target language?

Does the resource increase learners’ knowledge and understanding of the target language community and culture?

Does the resource encourage learners to take responsibility for their own learning ?

Does the resource help promote awareness of the role and nature of language and culture and their influence on human behavior?

Does the resource contribute to the development of learners’ general knowledge?

Teacher needs and Teacher needs and preferencespreferences

Yes NoDoes the resource extend my own contributions?

Does the resource exploit rather than restrain my own expertise?

Can I work with the resource?

Is the resource compatible with my philosophy of language teaching and learning?

Do I find the resource interesting?

Practicalities and general considerationsPracticalities and general considerations

Is the resource economical in terms of preparation time?

Is the resource practical?

Is the resource versatile? Can it be adapted and be used again and again?

Is the resource easy for learners to follow?

Is the resource free from racial bias and sex-stereotyping?

Is the resource culturally appropriate?

Does the resource provide for all learners to be involved in its use?

Materials designMaterials design

In reality, the teacher and textbook writer will probably juggle topic, text and task elements in creating materials, beginning, perhaps with a topic such as ‘finding accommodation, collecting aural and written texts relating to the topic, and then creating activities which reflect the communicative needs of the learners in relation to the topic. This procedure is one which can be readily adopted/adapted by teachers with access to authentic sources of data. As an example of the procedure, consider the development of the following unit of work from a set of draft materials based on topic, text and task.

An example of the procedure of developing of a unit of work from a An example of the procedure of developing of a unit of work from a set of draft materials based on topic, text and task.set of draft materials based on topic, text and task.

Step1: Select topic—Finding accommodation  Step 2: Collect data Step 3: Determine what learners will need to do i

n relation to the texts Step4: Create pedagogical activities /procedures Step 5: Analyse texts and activities to determine

the language elements Step 6: Create activities focusing on language ele

ments Step 7: Create activities Focusing on learning ski

lls/strategies Step 8: Create application tasks

An example of the procedure of developing of a unit of work from a An example of the procedure of developing of a unit of work from a set of draft materials based on topic, text and task.set of draft materials based on topic, text and task.

Step 1: Select topic—Finding accommodation   Step 2: Collect data Recorded conversation between estate agent and

client Newspaper advertisements Pictures/illustrations of different types of housing Reading passage from real estate institute brochure  

Step 3: Determine what learners will need to do in relation to the texts

For example: Read newspaper ‘To Let’ advertisements Make enquiries about homes to let Talk about housing and furniture Get basic information from newspaper articles  

Step4: Create pedagogical activities

/procedures For example: Listening for gist Role play Information gap

Step 5: Analyse texts and activities to determine the language elements

For example: Cohesion: I’m ringing about a semi. Is it still available?

Adjectives: big, close, cheap, small, new, expensive Present continuous: I’ m looking for a flat Wh-questions: who, what, where, how much/many Existential ‘there’: There is/are  

Step 6: Create activities focusing on language elements

For example: Cloze passage Sentence sequencing exercise Match question and answer exercise

Step 7: Create activities Focusing on learning skills/strategies

For example:Think about the tasks in this unit in small

groups decide which useful/not useful.Discuss your answers with the rest of the

class.

Step 8: Create application tasks For example: Think about a place you would like to rent, What area is it in? How many bedrooms has it got? Ls

it a house.. or flat. Or a Condominium? How much per week is it? Buy a newspaper. Find the classified advertisements. Find the ‘To Let’ section. Find a place you would to

rent.  

Task-Based Language Teaching Task-Based Language Teaching 任务型语言教学任务型语言教学

1. Second Language Acquisition and TBLT

2. What Are Tasks?

3. What is TBLT

4. Goals of TBLT

5. Contents of TBLT

6. Method of TBLT

7. Assessment and evaluation

8. Resources of TBLT

1. Second Language 1. Second Language Acquisition ResearchAcquisition Research

“Practice makes perfect” does not always apply to learning grammar.

They( students) often fail to use it correctly when expressing themselves freely. This temporary mastery seems to happen when they are paying conscious attention to form, but not when they are trying to communicate and paying attention to meaning.

Jane Willis

根据语言习得的规律根据语言习得的规律1) 1) 语法知识的记忆不能保证语言使用的正确语法知识的记忆不能保证语言使用的正确

Knowledge of grammatical rules was no guarantee of being able to use those rules for communication. Learners who were able to identify instances of rule violation, and who could even state the rule, frequently violated the rules when using language for communication.

David Nunan (1999)

2)2) 语言知识加交际的机会比仅仅讲语法更语言知识加交际的机会比仅仅讲语法更能提高学生使用语言的流利程度与语法的能提高学生使用语言的流利程度与语法的

准确度准确度Grammar + opportunities to commu

nicate lead to greater improvements in fluency and grammatical accuracy than grammar only. Montgomery & Eisenstein (1985)

(1985年作了一个实验，实验组教语法，但课外有实践的机会。另一组只讲语法。结果实验组交际能力强。而语法测试的成绩也比单讲语法的班好，虽然他们学的语法少。）

33) ) 学习者的参与与语言熟练程度的提高关系极学习者的参与与语言熟练程度的提高关系极大大

Learner participation in class is related significantly to improvements in language proficiency.

Lim (1992)

4) 4) 基本上以“交际”为导向的课堂教学，基本上以“交际”为导向的课堂教学，但同时也有明确的语法讲解，要比只注重但同时也有明确的语法讲解，要比只注重语法教学或回避语法讲解的沉浸式教学都语法教学或回避语法讲解的沉浸式教学都更好更好Classrooms that were basically

“communicative”for explicit grammatical instruction, were superior to both traditional classrooms that focused heavily on grammar, and to immersion programs that eschewed explicit grammatical instruction.

5)5)当学习者积极地参与用目的语进行交际当学习者积极地参与用目的语进行交际的尝试时，语言也被掌握了。当学习者所的尝试时，语言也被掌握了。当学习者所进行的任务使他们当前的语言能力发挥至进行的任务使他们当前的语言能力发挥至极点时，习得也扩展到最佳程度极点时，习得也扩展到最佳程度Language is acquired as learners actively

engaged in attempting to communicate in the target language. Acquisition will be maximized when learners engage in tasks that “push” them to the limits of their current competence.

Four conditions of language Four conditions of language learninglearning

Exposure ( rich, comprehensible input, language in use)

Use ( of the language to do things, exchange meanings)

Motivation ( to process and use the exposure: listen & read the language; speak and write it)

Instruction ( chances to focus on form )

社会建构理论社会建构理论 社会建构主义认为，学习和发展是社会和合作活动。这种活动是无法被教会的。知识是由学习者个人自己建构的， 而不是由他人传递的。

这种建构发生在与他人交往的环境中，是社会互动的结果。它强调人的学习与发展发生在与其它人的交往和互动之中。

它强调学习者个人从自身经验背景出发，建构对客观事物的主观理解和意义，重视学习过程而反对现成知识的简单传授。

教学应置于有意义的情景中，而最理想的情景是所学的知识可以在其中得到运用

What are tasks?What are tasks? Tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicat

ive purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome. (Willis 1996) A task is a piece of work undertaken for oneself or

for others, freely or for some reward. It is meant what people do in everyday life, at work, at

play, and in between. (Long 1985:89) 任务是人们在日常生活中所从事的 有目的的活动。

What people do in everyday life:What people do in everyday life:

painting a fence,dressing a child,filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes,borrowing a library booktaking a driving testmaking an airline reservationwriting a checkfinding a street destination,

The communicative taskThe communicative task

The communicative task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending ， manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form.

交际型任务是一种涉及到学习者理解，运用所学语言进行交流的课堂活动。学生的注意力主要集中在语言的意义上，而不是语言的形式上。

Examples of the communicative taskExamples of the communicative task

Listening to a weather forecast and deciding what to wear

Look at a set of pictures and decide what should be done

Responding to a party invitation Completing a banking application Describing a photograph of one’s family

什么不是任务什么不是任务Tasks do not include activities which

involve language used for practice or display, such as ‘ Describe the picture using the words and phrases from the list below’ or ‘ Ask your partner if he likes the food listed here using the forms Do you like…? Yes, I do/ No, I don’t. where there is no outcome or purpose other than practice of pre-specified language.

The essential difference between The essential difference between task and exercisetask and exercise

任务活动与语言练习有着本质的区别。任务活动所谋求的效果不是一种机械的语言训练，而是侧重在执行任务中学生自我完成任务的能力和策略的培养，重视学习者在完成任务过程中的参与和在交流活动中所获得的经验。

The components of a taskThe components of a task

Goals Teacher role

Input TASKS Learner role

Activities Setting

Goal: Exchanging personal information

Input: Questionnaire on sleeping habits

Activity: 1) Reading questionnaire

2) Asking and answering

questions about sleeping habits

Teacher role: Monitor and facilitator

to specify what is regarded as

successful completion of the task

Learner role: Conversational partner

Setting: Classroom / pair work

What is Task-Based What is Task-Based Language Teaching Language Teaching

Focuses on the construction, sequencing, and evaluation of particular goal-related action complexes that learners carry out either by themselves (see Prabhu’s model 1987) or jointly (see Kumaravadivelu 1993)

(Candlin & Murphy 1987; Nunan 1989)

The task-based approach aims at proving opportunities for the learners to experiment with and explore both spoken and written language through learning activities which are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical and functional use of language for meaningful purposes. （香港中小学英语大纲）

Main Features of Task-Based Language Main Features of Task-Based Language

TeachingTeaching 1. 强调通过交流来学会交际 An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the ta

rget language. 2. 将真实的语言材料引入学习的环境 The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.

3. 关注语言的本身，也关注学习的过程 Provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language,

but also on the learning process itself.

4. 把学习者个人的经历作为课堂学习的重要因素 An enhancement of the learners’ own personal experiences as importa

nt contributing elements to classroom learning.

5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.

试图把课内的语言学习与社会的语言活动结合起来。

一级二级三级四级五级六级七级八级九级

6年级结束时的要求

9年级结束时的要求

普通高中毕业要求

教学目标教学目标九级课程目标体系九级课程目标体系

为什么采用为什么采用 99 级目标体系？级目标体系？语言课程的目的是发展学生的语言能力；

能力有高低之分，可以用级别来描述；9 级目标体系有利于保证基础教育阶段英

语课程的整体性和连续性9 级目标体系适合我国不平衡的英语教育

发展现状9 级目标体系对各阶段、各层次的教学具

有指导作用（包括出口级和过度级）

综合语言运用能力

情感态度

学习策略 文化意识

语言技能 语言知识

国际视野

祖国意识

合作精神

自信意志

兴趣动机

交际策

略资源

策略调

控策略

认知策

略 跨文化交

际文化理解

文化知识

话题

功能

语法

词汇

语音

写读说听

课程目标的课程目标的 55 个方面个方面

为什么要把学习策略列为英语为什么要把学习策略列为英语课程目标之一？课程目标之一？1 、学生使用学习策略能够提高英语学习

的效果2 、发展学习策略有利于学生形成自主学

习的能力 学会学习 自主学习 终身学习3 、培养学习策略有利于实现个性化学习4 、学习策略与教学策略相互影响

学习策略的分类学习策略的分类1) 根据策略与认知过程的关系分类：认知策略、元认知策略、情感策略、交际策略等

2）根据策略与语言学习的关系分类听、说、读、写的策略；语法学习策略；词汇学习策略等

3）根据策略使用者进行分类：成功学习者与不太成功学习者的策略初级学习者与高级学习者的策略

认知策略与元认知策略的比较认知策略与元认知策略的比较

认知策略：我把单词按词性进行分类。元认知策略：我认为把单词按词性进行 分类有利于加深记忆。

认知策略：我阅读时特别注意主题句。元认知策略：我认为阅读时注意主题句

有 利于抓住文章大意。

2400-2500 2400-2500 单词单词400-500 400-500 习惯用语习惯用语

2400-2500 2400-2500 单词单词400-500 400-500 习惯用语习惯用语

1500-1600 1500-1600 单词单词200-300 200-300 习惯用语习惯用语1500-1600 1500-1600 单词单词200-300 200-300 习惯用语习惯用语

一门外语过关一门外语过关一门外语过关一门外语过关

600-700 600-700 单词单词50 50 习惯用语习惯用语

一级二级三级四级五级

六级七级

八级

九级

六年级结束时的要求

九年级结束时的要求

普通高中课程要求

有条件的地区或学校可以提高相应级别的要求；条件暂不具备的地区或学校可以适当降低相应级别的要求。

自主选修课程

必修课程

Contents of TBLTContents of TBLTContents of TBLTContents of TBLT

11 22 33 44 5 6 7 8 9

1 1 语言技语言技能能

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

2 2 语言知语言知识 识

√ √ √

3 3 情感态情感态度度

√ √ √

4 4 学习策学习策略略

√ √ √

5 5 文化意文化意识识

√ √ √

Method of TBLTMethod of TBLT

是否应该明确倡导一种教学思想？ 为什么要倡导任务型语言教学途径？ 为用而学，用中学，学了就用。

有利于发展语言运用能力 有利于提高学习动机

并不排除其他教学途径和教学方法

任务型语言教学活动的任务型语言教学活动的 55 个要个要素素

1. 尽可能真实：接近或类似现实生活中的活动。

2. 有明确的目标或目的3. 必须有做事情的过程： involve doing

4. 必须使用语言并通过使用语言来获取、处理和传达信息

5. 必须有一个明确的结果 (product)

Good learning tasks should:Good learning tasks should:

1 enable learners to manipulate and practice specific features of language

2 allow learners to rehearse, in class, communicative skills they will need in the real world

3 activate psychological/psycholinguistic processes of learning

4 be suitable for mixed ability groups

5 involve learners in solving a problem, coming to a conclusion

6 be based on authentic or naturalistic source material

7 involve learners in sharing information

8 require the use of more than one macroskill

9 allow learners to think and talk about language and learning

10 promote skills in learning how to learn

11 have clear objectives stating what learners will be able to do as a result of taking part in the task

12 utilize the community as a resource

13 give learners a choice in what way they do and the order in which they do it.

14 involve learners in risk-taking

15 require learners to rehearse, rewrite and polish initial efforts

16 enable learners to share in the planning and development of the task

17 have built into them a means of evaluating the success or otherwise of the task

Assessment and evaluationAssessment and evaluation建立能激励学生学习兴趣和自主学习能力发展的评价体建立能激励学生学习兴趣和自主学习能力发展的评价体

系系

评价体系由形成性评价和终结性评价构成。强调在英语教学过程中应以形成性评价为主，注重培养和激发学生学习积极性和自信心。终结性评价应着重检测学生综合语言技能和语言应用能力。评价要有利于促进英语课程的不断发展与完善；促进教师不断提高教育教学水平；促进学生综合语言运用能力和健康人格的发展 ,促进学生全面发展。

ResourcesResources

教材的编写原则– 增加了发展性和拓展性原则

教材的选择权问题（不包括在标准中）教材的使用问题重新认识教材价值：消除对教材的迷信根据需要对教材进行合理的取舍重新认识教材与终结性考试之间的关系

广泛运用课程资源广泛运用课程资源

课程资源课程资源教材，以及学生家庭、学校和社会生活中所教材，以及学生家庭、学校和社会生活中所有有利于学生英语能力发展的各种资源 。有有利于学生英语能力发展的各种资源 。学学校校教教育育资资源源

图书馆图书馆

语言实验室语言实验室

音像 设备及资料音像 设备及资料

社社会会英英语语资资源源

广播电视英语节目广播电视英语节目

英语报刊杂英语报刊杂志志 各种形式的活动各种形式的活动

网教网教络育络育和资和资远源远源程程

谢谢大家谢谢大家 吴兴东 南通大学外国语学院 226007 E-mail: wuxingdong @ sina.com.cn Tel: 0513—3578179 (H) 0513—5015886 (O)