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Task-Based Lessons for Senior high
schools
人民教育出版社 龚亚夫
Four conditions of language learning Exposure ( rich, comprehensible input,
language in use) Use ( of the language to do things,
exchange meanings) Motivation ( to process and use the
exposure: listen & read the language; speak and write it)
Instruction ( chances to focus on form )
Theoretical background of TBLT Psycholinguistic perspective:
--a task is a device that guides learners to engage in certain types of information-processing that are believed to be important for effective language use and for language acquisition
--use mental processing that are beneficial to acquisition
The Interaction Hypothesis 互动理论 Meaning negotiation can contribute to a
cquisition 当与人交流时，会在输出时不断修饰自己的
语言，以增加理解 )
也会在交流信息时注意语言的形式，这也有助于习得
Cognitive approach Construct both exemplar-based system
and rule-based system--- lexical items and ready-made formulaic
chunks of language
--Fluency--Accuracy--Complexity
建构主义的理论 知识是由个人自己建构的，而不是由他人传授的。
这种建构发生在交往的环境中，是社会互动的结果。 1 注重学生的主体作用，提供语料和语境。不令其
直达结果 2 帮助学生理解任务的意义和目标 3 形成控制自己的行为的意识、信心和能力 4 创造适宜的心理环境
Learners learn what is meaningful to them
Learners learn in ways that are meaningful to them
Learners learn better if they feel in control of what they are learning
Learning is closely linked to how people feel about themselves
Learning takes places in a social context through interaction with other people
Criteria features of a task (Ellis, 2003:9) A task is a work plan – a plan for learner
activity. A task involves a primary focus on
meaning. A task involves real-world processes of
language use. A task can involve any of the four
language skills.
Criteria features of a task (Ellis, 2003:9)
A task engages cognitive processes such as selecting, classifying, ordering, and evaluating information in order to carry out the task.
A task has a clear defined communicative outcome.
What are tasks?
1 意义是第一位的 (meaning is primary)
2 要达到一个目的 (there is a goal which needs to be worked towards)
3 对任务的评价取决于结果 ( the activity is outcome-evaluated)
4 与实际生活相关 ( there is a real-world relationship) ( Skehan p268)
1. 任务是有非常明确目的的活动
A piece of work or an activity, usually with a specific objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data for research.
( Crookes, 1986)Tasks are activities which have meani
ng as their primary focus.
2. 任务与人们日常生活的语言活动相似
Success in the task is evaluated in terms of achievement of an outcome, and tasks are generally bear some resemblance to real-life language use.
3 任务是学习者理解，运用所学语言进行交流的课堂活动
The communicative task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending ， manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form.
David Nunan (1989)
4 。 任务应该有一个成果A task should have a non-
linguistic outcome. Success in the task is
evaluated in terms of achievement of an outcome.
广义任务派Enabling tasks They act as support for communication tasks. Their
purpose is to provide students with the necessary linguistic tools to carry out a communication task.
They can be as meaningful as possible, their main focus is on linguistic aspects (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, functions, discourse) rather than on meaning.
They are overt language learning experiences, whose aim is to enable students to communicate as smoothly and effectively as possible.
Some types of classroom work that maybe classified as enabling task
a. Presentation of necessary new language ( functions, grammar,vocabulary, phonology, discourse features checking that the new language has been understood
b. Controlled pre-communication practice or awareness-raising tasks usually focused on accuracy
广义任务的定义A task is an activity that learners
engage in further the process of learning a language.
Williams and Burden (1997)
First generation tasks
The main aim of first generation tasks is to develop students’ communicative ability in a specific type of situation or area of language. The task is often structured around a particular set of functions or a simple problem.
Second generation tasks
The tasks in the second category pose challenges of a broader nature. They aim at developing not only communicative skills but also general cognitive strategies of handling and organizing information, such as analysing what information is needed in order to complete the task, collecting information,selecting relevant data…
Third generation tasks With third generation tasks, the scope widens
further. In addition to the communicative and cognitive strategies, they also aim to develop the personality of students through the experience of learning a foreign language. They go further than the previous tasks in aiming to fulfill wider educational objectives, such as enhancing motivation and awareness, developing creativity and interpersonal skills,
Text-based tasks
Text-based tasks require learners to process the text for meaning in order to achieve the goal of the task. This will involve reading, listening, or viewing with some kind of communicative purpose, and may well involve talking about the text and perhaps writing notes.
Jane willis (1996)
Three principal phases Pre-task phase During task phase Post-task phase
Pre-task phase Three purposes:---to serve to introduce new language that
learners can use while performing the task;
---to mobilize existing linguistic resources;---to ease processing load, and to push
learners to interpret tasks in more demanding ways
Pre-task phase On general cognitive demands of the task 对任务要求的总体感知 An emphasis on linguistic factors 关注语言因素
Pre-task phase
Supporting learners in performing a task similar to the task they will perform in the during-task phase of the lesson
让学生做一些在后面完成任务时需要的准备工作
Pre-task phase Non-task preparation activities --- brain storming 大脑风暴--- mind map 思维图 Addressing linguistic demands of a task--predicting, i.e. asking learners to brainstorm a list of w
ords related to the task title or topic
Pre-task phase
Providing a model 提供一个示范 Asking students to observe a model of how to p
erform the task 让学生观察完成任务的模式 Performing a similar task 完成一些简单的任务（ simply observing others perform a task can help reduce the cogniti
ve load on the learner) Skehan
Teaching vocabulary
Readers need to work out which words belong together and form units of meaning– a ‘phrasing’ or ‘chunking’ process. They also need to recognize key words and phrases
Multiword units
The most fundamental guiding principle (for) those who are anxious to be proficient in foreign conversation… is this: Memorizing perfectly the largest number of common and useful word-groups!” Palmer (1925)
As a way of quickly developing fluency and of picking up native-like expressions, groups of words should be learned as units. Nation (2003)
Multi-word units--“chunks of language” , “lexical chunks”
Collocations 习惯搭配 Phrasal verbs 常用短语 Sentence frames 句子结构 Social formulae 社交套话 Discourse markers 语段连接词
Lexico-semantic theory–
a net work of associations, a web-like structure of interconnected links (Aitchison, 1987)
Connect the word with already known words, the links is created, the learning takes place (Sŏkmen ) 当词汇增加到一定程度时，头脑就会建立一个系统，使词汇有机地组织起来，以便提取。
Promote a deep level of processing
--- When students are asked to manipulate words, relate them to other words and to their own experiences, and then justify their choices, these words associations are reinforced. (Sŏkmen)
What is it? A stirrup is silver. A stirrup is strong. A stirrup is made of iron. A stirrup has a flat bottom. We can find a stirrup on a horse. A stirrup is used to put your foot into when you ride a horse. (Nation, 1990)
Facilitate imaging and concreteness
a network of verbal and imaginal representations for words (Clark & Paivio)
Vocabulary instruction which relates new vocabulary to past experience has the potential of enhancing memory ( Clark & Paivio in Sŏkmen )
Three ways 1. Predicting– asking learners to
brainstorm a list of words related to the task title or topic;
2. Cooperative dictionary search; allocating different learners words to look up in the dictionary
3.words and their definitions;matching
Classroom techniques and tasks
Create a range of 5-16 encounters with a word in order for student to truly acquire it
Dictionary work: Semantic elaboration Meaning-focused input activities Deliberate learning activities Meaning-focused output activities Fluency activities Sŏkmen
Semantic feature analysis
AffectiveWith wonder
Because unexpected
Because difficult to believe
So as to cause confusion
surprise + +
astonish + +
amaze + +
听力（ Listening ) 学生听的困难来自三个主要的方面。1 语言方面 : 语音、语调、单词发音在句中的变化，
如连读、同化、弱化、失去爆破 , 还有重音、语调以及口语习惯表达方法、语法结构等。
2 听的技能 : 听文段大意和细节、确定中心思想、理解人物关系、推断作者意图、懂得因果关系、做出结论等等。
3 文化背景知识 : 如历史、地理、社会常识、思维方式、社交礼仪、价值观念、禁忌幽默、文化习俗等
阅读 （ Reading） Unknown words and phrases Common words with less common meanings Complex phrases or clause structures Reading strategies Background knowledge
Critical thinking— 22 comprehension strategies
Drawing conclusions Understanding cause and effect Making connections Comparing view points Evaluating ideas Reading between the lines Making judgments
22 comprehension strategies
Making comparisons Interpreting meaning Making inferences Comparing characters Reading a map Interpreting graphs and charts Making calculations Examining reasons
22 comprehension strategies
Separating facts from opinion Identifying the main idea Organizing information Sequencing Summarizing Recalling details Synthesizing
Making judgments
Highlight the three pieces of informationin the text that you think everyone should
know.
Most important_________________Second most important___________Least important__________________
Developing alternative solutions With a group, brainstorm three different
solutions to ..’s problem.A __________________B __________________C ___________________ When you brainstorm, everyone contribute ideas.
Write down every idea. ….
Examining reasons Why do you think it’s necessary in this
experiment to collect…?____________________________ How do you think the author says to
use…?_____________________________ Why do you think…?____________________________
Making comparisons
Similarities ________________________________________________________
Differences____________________________
Forming opinions How do you think the author of this article feel
about…?___________________________ Do you think these.. are fair or unfair? In your
notebook, write a paragraph explaining your opinion about what happens to…
__________________________________________________________
Organizing information In the text, the author talks about three
kinds of problems: environmental, animal and human. For each statement below, label the kind of problem being described
_______________________________________________________________________________
Contrasting and comparing selections
When you contrast selections you think about how they are different.
When you compare selections you think about how they are the same.
summarizing To summarize is to make a brief statement
giving the main points of a text. Check off the three sentences below that
you think best summarize “…”.
Synthesizing （综合） When you synthesize information, you combine
bits of information into a complex whole. The first step in synthesizing is to identify your topic. The second step is to find information about your topic in
a text The third step is to think about all the information you
have found. Ask yourself: what does this mean? Why is it important
Writers craft
Using antonyms
I try to be polite and kind because I know that I don’t like it when people are rude and cruel to me
Writers craft Analysing sensory language ( words that describe how
something looks, sounds,feels, smells,or tastes )Underline words and phrases that help you visualize wh
at is happening Sight____________________________ Sound___________________________ Taste____________________________ Smell____________________________ Touch____________________________
During-task phase
Participatory structure 参与方式--individual or interaction 个人与互动--language learners or language users pair and group work are seen as central to task-bas
ed teaching but not all tasks are interactive
Traditional vs task-based
Traditional form-focus pedagogy
--Teacher controls topic development
-- turn taking is regulated by the teacher
Task-based pedagogy
-- students able to control topic development
-- speakers can self-select
questions that
questioner already knows the answer to
little need or opportunity to negotiate meaning
Scaffolding directed primarily at enabling students to produce correct sentences
questions that the questioner does not know the answer to
Opportunities to negotiate meaning when communication problems arise
Scaffolding directed primarily at enabling students to say what they want to say
Form-focused feedback,i.e.the teacher responds to the correctness of students’ utterances
The teacher repeats what a student has said for the benefit of the whole class
Content-focused feedback,i.e.the teacher responds to the message content of the students’ utterance
A student elects to repeat something another student or teacher has said as private speech or to establish intersubjectivity
Task types
1拼图式任务（ jigsaw tasks） 2 信息差型任务（ information gap tasks） 3 解决问题型任务（ problem solving tasks） 4选择决定型任务（ decision making tasks） 5 交换观点型任务（ opinion exchange tasks）
Task types
1编目（列单子 , Listing） 2排序与分类 (Ordering and sorting) 3对比 (Comparing) 4 解决问题 (Problem solving) 5个人经历 (Sharing personal experiences)
6 创造性任务 (Creative tasks)
The post-task phase
Three major pedagogical goals:-- 提供再做任务的机会（ to provide an opportunity for a repeat p
erformance of the task）-- 反思任务是怎样完成的（ to encourage reflection on how the tas
k was performed）
-- 关注语言的形式（ to encourage attention to form）
Repeat performance Carry out second performance publicly （全班，
当众）
－ Complexity increases 复杂度提高了－Express more clearly 表达更清楚了－Become more fluent 语言更流利了
Reflecting on the task Present a report on how they did the task and what th
ey decided or discovered – oral or written Summary the outcome of the task Reflect or evaluate of their own performance (fluency, c
omplicity or accuracy) Metacognitive strategies 元认知策略 (planning,monitorin
g and evaluating)
Focusing on forms 学习语法 direct focus on grammar-- focus on the features of the forms讲 解重点
语法-- address errors 纠正语言错误-- address gaps in the students’ knowledge 补充语言知识不足
The post-task phase 的四种主要活动
Reviewing of learner errors反思错误 Consciousness-raising tasks 语法意识 Production-practice activities操练活动 Noticing activities 注意语言的准确
Reviewing of learner errors Teacher moves from group to group to
listen and note down the errors Address these errors with the whole class - can be written on the board - students can be invited to correct it - listen again and edit their own performance - teacher comments on
Consciousness-raising tasks
There is an attempt to isolate a specific linguistic feature for focused attention 就某一语法现象单独讲解
The learners are provided with data that illustrate the targeted feature or an explicit rule describing or explaining the feature 给例子说明语法用法或对语法详细描述
Consciousness-raising tasks
The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand the targeted features 通过思考理解语法用法
Learners may be optionally required to verbalize a rule describing the grammatical structure 可以是学生口头表达
To direct students to attend explicitly to a specific form they used incorrectly or failed to use at all in the main task补充不足
Production-practice activities Repetition 重复活动 Substitution 替换练习 Gapped sentences 填空练习 Jumbled sentences 打乱的句子 Transformation drills 变换句型 Dialogues 对话
Combinations of skills
listening with speaking and writing reading with speaking and writing sometimes all four skills speaking always before writing
Integrating SkillsReading and Writing
使学生能综合运用所学语法、词汇、功能等，并通过读、写活动达到有效的“输出”。
给学生提供不同的话题与书面表达的任务，培养学生逐步学会使用文段中的语言素材，活用固定的表达方法。在这些活动中，学生需要用所学的语言讨论自己感兴趣的话题，表达自己的思想，与同伴交流各自了解的信息。
Writing 体裁 : 叙述 , 描述 , 比较 , 从简单的描述、叙述到较为复杂的比较、论述，从写便条、贺卡、通知、书信、故事到创作诗歌，既有实用性的写作也有发挥想象力的自由写作。
不同的形式的写作技能 : 信息转换，归纳、总结、比较、陈述观点等 .
还提供了有效的编辑加工指导及范例 : 如自改、互改和小组编辑等 .
Noticing activities Focusing on linguistic form Dictation Editing Writing and teacher comments
