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Tattoos: A Marked History By Audrey Porcella Advised by Professor William Preston SocS 461, 462 Senior Project Social Sciences Department College of Liberal Arts CALIFORNIA POLYTECHNIC STATE UNIVERSITY Fall, 2009

Tattoos - A Marked History by Audrey Porcella

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People make judgments because they need to make sense of their world. Tattooing did not make sense to the European explorers who discovered the practice among Pacific Islanders. Society therefore needed to construct a perception in order to justify the “absurd” practice. With its religious background and social conservatism acting as influences, European society adopted the perception that tattooing was an act of “primitiveness” – a practice only uncivilized people performed. Yet tattooing’s exoticism lured many Europeans to engage in the very practice that society scorned.

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  • Tattoos:

    AMarkedHistory

    By

    AudreyPorcella

    Advisedby

    ProfessorWilliamPreston

    SocS461,462

    SeniorProject

    SocialSciencesDepartment

    CollegeofLiberalArts

    CALIFORNIAPOLYTECHNICSTATEUNIVERSITY

    Fall,2009

  • Porcellaii

    TableofContents

    ResearchProposal iii

    AnnotatedBibliography v

    Outline xiii

    Text

    Introduction 1

    TattoosThroughHistory

    OriginsofTattooing 2

    DiffusionofTattoostotheWesternWorld 8

    TattoosinAmerica 11

    TheCircus 14

    NegativityintheFortiesandFifties 16

    TattooRenaissance 18

    TattoosToday

    TattoosintheMedia 20

    CommodificationofTattoos 24

    TattoosandBodyImage 28

    ModernPerceptionsofTattoos 29

    Conclusion 34

    WorksCited 35

    FigureCredits 38

  • Porcellaiii

    ResearchProposal

    Ididnotknowanyonewhohadatattooinhighschool.ThenwhenIcametocollegeoneofmy

    roommatesgotatattoowithinthefirstweeksofschool.Istarteddatingaguywhohadatattoo.And

    fromtheexposureofjustthosetwopeople,tattoosstartedpoppingoutatme;Ibegannoticingthat

    tattooswereembeddedintheskinofmoreandmorepeoplearoundcampus.Ihadalwaysbeen

    opposedtotattoosanopinionIhadadoptedfrommyparents.Butwiththeinfiltrationoftattoosinto

    mylifethroughthepeopleIchosetosurroundmyselfwithandthroughthepeopleIsharedmycollege

    campuswithIwasforcedtoreevaluatemyopinion.Aretattoosreallyasbadasmyparentsmade

    themouttobe?

    Ichosetattoosasmytopicforwhatbecameseveraldifferentprojectsoverthecourseofmy

    collegecareer.EachtimeIexploredthetopicnewquestionsarosethatpropelledmetoinvestigatea

    newdimensionoftattoos.Andeachtime,myinvestigationgrewbothinbreadthanddepth.Ihaveyet

    tosatisfymycuriosity.Thereforemyseniorprojectwillinvestigatethelatestdimensionofinterestto

    meandsummarizemypreviousfindingsinhopesoffindingathoroughanswertomyoriginalquestion.

    Specificallymyseniorprojectwillfocusonsocietyschangingperceptionoftattoosovertime.At

    itsintroductiontoWesternculture,tattooswerereservedtotheeliteandthoughttobesymbolsofthe

    bearersworldliness.Thisperceptionchangedwiththeadvancementoftechnologywhichmade

    tattoosavailabletoawiderrangeofsocialclassesandtattoosassociationwithmarginalized,

    subculturalgroups.Todaytrendshaveonceagainchanged.Tattoosarearguablythemostpopularthey

    haveeverbeen.Myseniorprojectwillexaminethefactorsbehindthisresurgenceofpopularityand

    seektoexplainwhy,despitetheoutwardlyapparentacceptanceoftattoosasalegitimatefashion

    statement,societyasaninstitutionstillstigmatizestattoos.

  • Porcellaiv

    Mydiscussionoftattoosisnotintendedtoportraytattooingaseitheranacceptableor

    unacceptablebehavior.NorwillIeverattempttopersuadereaderstoadoptanyopinionsImayhave

    regardingtattoos.Infact,thepurposeofmyseniorprojectistomakestudentsawareoftheeffect

    externalinfluenceshaveonpeoplesopinions.Theexaggerationsofthemedia,thefindingsofboth

    methodologicallyflawedandsoundcasestudies,andtheassociationoftattooswithbothcelebritiesand

    deviantgroupshaveallinfluencedsocietysperceptionsoftattoosaseitheracceptablebehavioror

    unacceptablebehavior(dependingontheprevailinginfluenceatthetime).Ihopemyseniorproject

    encouragesstudentstoapproachwidelyacceptedperceptionswithskepticism,toconducttheirown

    investigationswhenperceptionsappeartobebasedoninvalidorunreliableinformation,andingeneral,

    toformopinionsontheirownaccordfreeofanyexternalinfluencesotherthanthesubstantiated

    facts.

  • Porcellav

    AnnotatedBibliography

    Adams,Josh.MarkedDifference:TattooinganditsAssociationwithDevianceintheUnitedStates.

    DeviantBehavior.30.3(2009):266292.SociologicalAbstracts.GaleGroup.CalPolyState

    UniversityLib.,SanLuisObispo,CA.31Aug.2009..

    Adamsapproacheshisinvestigationontheassociationoftattooinganddeviancebyfirststating

    thatdevianceistemporallyandspatiallycontextual.Withthatstatementhegivesanoverview

    oftheassociationbetweentattooinganddeviancestartingwiththeworkofcriminologist

    Lombroso.Lombrosoclaimedthatcriminalitycouldbediscernedthroughtheobservationof

    physicaltraits,(p.269).Onesuchtrait,havinglittlesensitivitytopainexplainedwhycriminals

    hadahighertendencytobetattooed(p.270).Theassociationbetweentattooinganddeviance

    remainedevenafterLombrososclaimsweredisproved.Despitethisandotherexamplesofthe

    stigmatizationoftattooing,Adamsbelievesthattodaytattooinghasbrokenfreefromits

    previousnegativestigmaasevidentbythewidesocialspectrumoftattooedindividuals.He

    attemptstoprovethedisassociationbetweentattooinganddeviancethroughquantitative

    analysis.Unlikequalitativestudiesthatfocusonperceivedacceptability,Adamsanalysis

    examinessocialcharacteristicsoftattooedindividualstodeterminethestatusoftattooingasa

    practice.Hemakeselevenhypotheseswhichincludecharacteristicssuchasgender,

    educationalattainment,druguse,religiousaffiliationandhavingfriendsorfamilymemberswith

    tattoosthatpredictthelikelihoodofanindividualtohaveatattoo.Thoughhisfindingsprove

    someofhishypothesescorrect,overall,theresultsconcludethattattooingisstillassociated

    withmarginalityanddeviance.

  • Porcellavi

    Atkinson,Michael.TattooingandCivilizingProcesses:BodyModificationasSelfControl.Canadian

    ReviewofSociology&Anthropology.41.2(2004):125146.AcademicSearchElite.EBSCOhost.

    CalPolyStateUniversityLib.,SanLuisObispo,CA.16May2009..

    Inanattempttoprovideanalternativetotattooingslongstandingstigma,Atkinsonboth

    providesanunderstandingoftattooingsstigma,perceivedasapathologicalinstanceofself

    injury,anddetailsanewwaveofperception,makingtheclaimoftattooingasaprosocialact

    ofcommunication,(Abstract).Thusthissourceprovesusefulinarguingthedualityofsocietys

    perceptionoftattooing.Tosupporthisargumentthattattooingisrationalandprosocial,

    AtkinsondrawsfrominterviewsheconductedhimselfofCanadiantattooartistsandtattoo

    enthusiasts.Atkinsonclaimsthattattooingisaphysicalexpressionofindividuality.Inadditionto

    demonstratingthedualityofsocietysperception,Atkinsonalsohighlightsthedualityoftattoos

    significance.Tattooingsdualitymimicsthedualityofitsperception.Tattooscanbeboth

    symbolsofexclusionandofinclusion.Atkinsonarguesthattattoosseparatetheindividualfrom

    societybyprovidinghim/herauniqueidentityandatthesametimeunitestheindividualwitha

    subculturethroughsharedvalues.

    DeMello,Margo.BodiesofInscription:aculturalhistoryofthemoderntattoocommunity.Durham:

    DukeUniversityPress,2000.

    Thisbookcorrelatesperfectlywiththeintentofmypaper.Itprovidestheculturaland

    anthropologicalcomponentthatiskeyininvestigatinghowsocietysperceptionoftattooshas

    changedovertime.ThissourceprovidesahistoricaltimelineoftattooinginAmericafromthe

    firsttattooparlorinNewYorkin1846tothepopularityoftattoostoday.Shedescribes

  • Porcellavii

    AmericansvaryingreceptivenessoftattooingateachsignificanteventintattooingsAmerican

    historysuchaswhencircusesandfreakshowswerepopularorbeforeandaftertheWorld

    Wars.AnexampleoftheconnectionDeMellomakesbetweenhistoricaleventsandthestatusof

    tattoosatthetimeofthoseeventsisthezootsuitriotsoftheforties.Theriotsbroughtnegative

    mediaattentiontothetattooedpachucoculture.AccordingtoDeMello,theeventalongwith

    theemergenceoftattooedoutlawbikersasasubculturalgroup,alsointheforties,solidified

    postwarsocietysnegativeviewsoftattooing,(p.67).DeMelloalsoemphasizesthesignificance

    ofclasswithintattooingshistoricaltimeline.Forexample,whenSamuelOReillyinventedthe

    firstelectrictattoomachinein1891,thetypeofpeoplegettingtattoosshiftedfromtheupper

    classtothelowerclass.Themachinemadetattooinglesspainful,cheaperandfasterto

    administerthusmakingtattooingavailableandmoreappealingtothelowerclass.

    Gay,KathlynandChristineWhittington.BodyMarks:tattooing,piercing,andscarification.Brookfield:

    TwentyFirstCenturyBooks,2002.

    Theuniquelayoutofthisbookmakesitseemmoreofanencyclopediathansimplyaliterary

    source.Itprovidesconciseinformationonanarrayoftopicsconcerningtattoos.Itgivesabrief

    backgroundonthehistoryoftattooing,highlightingtheevidenceofitsexistenceinprehistoric

    cultures.GayandWhittingtondiscusstattooingpracticesoftheancientEgyptians,Greeks,and

    Romans;andhighlightthepossibilitythatthesepracticesmayhaveservedmedicalpurposes.

    Parallelingthedescriptionofculturalpractices,thissourcedescribesdifferingperceptionsof

    tattoosincludingreligiousviews,socialviewsduringthecircusandfreakshowyears,andsocial

    viewstoday.Thissourcealsoprovidesdescriptionsofdifferenttypesoftattoossuchasgang

    tattoos,traditionaltattoosortattoosthatdrawfromJapaneseculture.Iammostexcited

  • Porcellaviii

    aboutthesectionsthatdiscussthepossiblemedicalconsequencesoftattooingandvariouslaws

    restrictingtattoos.Themilitaryespeciallyhasrestrictionsoncontentandquantityoftattooson

    itspersonnel.

    Kosut,Mary.AnIronicFad:thecommodificationandconsumptionoftattoos.TheJournalofPopular

    Culture.39.6(2006):10351048.AcademicSearchElite.EBSCOhost.CalPolyStateUniversityLib.,

    SanLuisObispo,CA.30May2009..

    Kosutdiscussestattoostransitionfromfringetomainstream.Shefocusesontheinfluenceof

    themediaontattoospopularitywithinsociety.Tattoosarepresentinthemovies;onactors,

    musicians,andathletes;andevenwithinthechildrenstoymarket.AnexampleKosutgivesof

    theimpactmediacoveragehasonsocietysperceptionoftattoosisthe2002blockbustermovie

    XXX.InXXXactorVinDieselscharacter,asociallydetachedthrillseeker,hasaheavilytattooed

    torsoandneck.Eventhoughthecharacterfitswhatcouldbeconsideredatattooedstereotype

    Kosutarguesthatratherthanreinforcingthatstereotype,thecharacterelevatestattoosinthe

    eyesofsociety.Thecoolappealoftheheromaketeenageaudiencesthinktattoosalsoare

    cool.OtherexamplesoftheproliferationoftattoosinthemediaincludeatattooableBarbie

    andaVISAcommercialthatnotesthecapabilityofusingthecreditcardatalocaltattooparlor.

    Withtheseexamplesandothers,Kosutarguesthattheyouthofthisgenerationaregrowingup

    inanincreasinglytattoofriendlyenvironment.

  • Porcellaix

    Kosut,Mary.MadArtistsandTattooedPerverts:DeviantDiscourseandtheSocialConstructionof

    CulturalCategories.DeviantBehavior.27.1(2006):7395.AcademicSearchElite.EBSCOhost.

    CalPolyStateUniversityLib.,SanLuisObispo,CA.16May2009..

    InthisarticleKosutdiscussessocietysperceptionoftattoosovertime.Shestatesthat

    academicshaveindecadespastlabeledtattooingasdeviantbehaviorandindicationsof

    pathologicalbehavioraswell.However,shenotesthatinrecentyearsthisperceptionmaybe

    changing.Tattooscanbeseentohavemoremeaning,specificallyasauniqueculturalform.A

    particularquotefromthisarticlethatstoodouttomewasoneinwhichKosutcontrastedthe

    evolvingacceptanceoftattooingtothejazzmovement.Sheclaimsthatunlikeotheraesthetic

    culturalformslikejazz,tattooinghasfailedtomakethetransitionfrommarginalityto

    mainstreamlegitimacybecauseofalongestablishedandpowerfulpublicaversiontothe

    practice,(p.90).Thisunderlyingpublicaversionseemstothwartanyprogressoftoleranceby

    youngergenerations.

    Langman,Lauren.Punk,PornandResistance:CarnivalizationoftheBodyinPopularCulture.Current

    Sociology.56.4(2008):657677.PsycINFO.EBSCOhost.CalPolyStateUniversityLib.,SanLuis

    Obispo,CA.16May2009..

    Thissourceservesasalinkbetweenthelabelingoftattooingasdeviantbehaviorandthe

    applicationoftheconceptofalienationtoanindividualsdecisiontogettattooed.Langman

    providesanexplanationapossiblemotivefortherecenttattooingphenomena.Sheclaims

    thatanincreasinglyimpersonalsocietyhasdrivenindividualsintoareversiontowardscarnival

    likebehavior.Inmedievalsocietiescarnivalsservedasanenvironmentwhererepressed

    peasantscouldunleashtheircreativity,participateinculturalrituals,ridiculetherulingeliteand

  • Porcellax

    engageinpromiscuousbehavior.Langmanassociatestattooingwithmodernday

    carnivalization.Additionallyshearguesthattattooingisalsoanactofrebellionagainsttheideal

    bodytype.Tattoosthencebecomefashionstatements,amethodbywhichanindividualcan

    reclaimcontrolofhis/herbody,andsymbolsofinclusioninalternativeidentitygranting

    communities,(p.664).

    Polhemus,Ted.HotBodies,CoolStyles:newtechniquesinselfadornment.NewYork:Thames&

    Hudson,2004.

    Despitesocietyshabitofnormalizingthem,Pohlemusexamineshairstylesandmakeupasbody

    adornmentsamongotherappearancealteringtechniquessuchastattooingandpiercing.Of

    mostrelevanceforthisprojectishisinsightontattooing.However,Pohlemusdecisiontobe

    broadinhisexaminationallowsforuniqueobservationsIhavenotseeninotherwritingsonthe

    topic.FromthestartofhisbookPohlemusarguesthathumanshaveaninnatedesiretobeautify

    theirbodies.Hecontrastshumansagainstsuchanimalsaszebras,parrotsandtropicalfishall

    ofwhichhaveuniquepatternsorcolorings.Humans,accordingtoPohlemus,werecursedwith

    blandness.Yethealsoarguesthatthissamecurseisahiddenblessing.Humanskinbecomesa

    perfectmediumforadornmentablankcanvas.Pohlemuscontinueshisdiscussionon

    tattooingbyfocusingonhumanslonghistoryoffascinationwiththetechniqueandonthe

    sociologicalmotivesandsociologicalsignificancesurroundingtattooing.

  • Porcellaxi

    Ritzer,George.SociologicalTheory.7thed.NewYork:McGrawHill,2008.

    Iwillbeusingthistextbookasareferencetothesociologicaltheoriesapplicabletomypaper.In

    particular,IwilluseGeorgSimmelstheoryonfashiontoexplainthedualityoftattooingevident

    byitsassociationwithbothmarginalityandpopularity.Simmelclaimsthatfashionallowsthose

    whowishtoconformtothedemandsofthegrouptodosoandthosewhowishtobe

    individualistic[to]deviate,(p.162).Iftattooscanbeconsideredaformoffashion,Simmels

    theorycanexplainhowconflictingperceptionsoftattooingcanexistsimultaneously.Iwillalso

    attempttouseKarlMarxstheoryofalienationtoprovideanexplanationoffactorsmotivating

    anindividualtogettattooed.Inhistheoryofalienation,Marxclaimsthatanalienatedindividual

    doesnotdevelopfreelyhisphysicalandmentalenergybutmortifieshisbodyandruinshis

    mind,(p.54).Tattooingcanbeviewedasonesuchmortificationofthebody.Alsobecause

    alienatedindividualsnolongerfindselfworththroughtheirjobs,tattooingcanbeseenasa

    creativeoutletusedtoestablishasenseofidentity.

    Wohlrab,Silke.,etal.DifferencesinPersonalityAttributionsTowardTattooedandNontattooedVirtual

    HumanCharacters.JournalofIndividualDifferences.30.1(2009):15.PsycINFO.EBSCOhost.Cal

    PolyStateUniversityLib.,SanLuisObispo,CA.26May2009..

    ThisarticlereportsthefindingsofastudyconductedinGermanyattheUniversityofGttingen

    testingthegeneralperceptionoftattooedindividuals.Thefindingsconcludedthatdespite

    increasingpopularityoftattoos,anegativeperceptionoftattoosstillremained.Participantsin

    thestudywereeithergivenanimageofamanandwomanbothtattooedoranimageofaman

    andwomanbothnottattooed.Theparticipantswerethenaskedtoratethemanandwomanon

  • Porcellaxii

    arangeofpersonalityattributes.Resultsshowedthatparticipantsbelievedthetattooedman

    andwomanweremorelikelytoseekthrillandadventure,tobesusceptibletoboredom,tohave

    hadagreaternumberofsexualpartners,andwerelesslikelytobeinhibitedcomparedtothe

    nontattooedmanandwoman.

  • Porcellaxiii

    Outline

    I. Introduction

    II. TattoosthroughHistory

    A. OriginsofTattooing

    1. Europeandiscoveryoftattooing

    2. Perceptionsshapedbytattoosfunctioninsociety

    a. TongansandSamoans

    b. NorthAmericans

    c. GreeksandthestoryofOliveOatman

    B. DiffusionofTattoostotheWesternWorld

    1. Displayoftattooedcaptives

    2. Popularityamongthearistocracy

    C. TattoosinAmerica

    1. Inventionoftheelectrictattoomachine

    2. Associationwiththearmedforcesandpatriotism

    D. TheCircus

    1. DisplayoftattooedWesterners

    2. StoryofHoraceRidler

    E. NegativityintheFortiesandFifties

    1. Unsanitaryconditions

    2. Sociobiologicalperspectives

  • Porcellaxiv

    3. Linkstomarginalizedgroups

    a. Motorcyclegangs

    b. Pachucoculture

    F. TattooRenaissance

    1. InfluenceofJapanesetattooing

    2. Adoptionoftattooingbycounterculturerevolutionists

    III. TattoosToday

    A. TattoosintheMedia

    1.Reframingoftattoosbymediasources

    2.Tattooedmoviecharacters

    3.Tattooedcelebrities

    B. CommodificationofTattoos

    1.Tattoosinchildrenstoys

    2.Useoftattoosinadvertisement

    C. TattoosandBodyImage

    1.Conformingtobodyidealsthroughbodymodification

    2.Rejectionofbodyideals

    D. ModernPerceptionsofTattoos

    E. Conclusion

  • Porcella1

    Introduction

    Societysperceptionoftattooinghasfluctuatedovertheyearssincetattooingwasfirstexecuted

    intheUnitedStates.Atitsinceptiontattooingwasprimarilyreservedtotheupperclass.Tattoos

    becamesymbolsofhighstatusandindicatedthebearersworldlinessorappreciationofculture.

    Tattooswerealsopopularamongservicemen,whousedtattoosasbadgesofhonor,indicatorsof

    patriotism,ordocumentationoftheirtravels.Later,however,technicaladvancementsmadetattooing

    lessexpensiveandtattoosbecamethefashionofthelowerclasses.Withthisshift,societysperception

    oftattoosalsoshifted.Tattooingwasseenassavagelike,immoral,orunclean.Aroundthesametime,

    tattoosenteredthecarnivalscene.Tattooedindividualsweredisplayedatfreakshowsandsideshows

    asobjectsatwhichaudiencesgawked.Muchlater,inthe1950sand60s,tattooswerelinkedtosuch

    marginalizedgroupsasbikers(motorcyclists)andgangbangers(AdamsMarkedDifference285).

    Todaytrendsseemtohaveshiftedagain.Ratherthanbeingassociatedwithaparticulargroup,however,

    todaythetypesofpeoplegettingtattoosareconstantlydiversifying.Tattooscanbefoundmarkingthe

    skinofcollegestudents,soccermoms,andbusinessmenalike.

    Thechangesinsocietysperceptionoftattooscanbeexplainedbytheshiftingpopularityof

    tattoosfromonesocialsubgrouptoanother.Theparticularsocialsubgroupengagingintattooingata

    giventimeperiodhasinfluencedwhethersocietyheldafavorablevieworunfavorableviewoftattoos

    duringthatsametimeperiod.Forexample,whentattooswerepopularamongelitistsubgroups,society

    perceivedtattooingasanacceptablesocialpractice.Inaddition,theprevailingopinionoftattooswithin

    societyhasinfluencedtattoospopularityamongsubgroups.Forexample,anunfavorableattitude

    towardtattoosencouragedindividualsassociatedwithadeviantsubgrouptoacquiretattoos.Therefore,

    tattoospopularityamongaparticularsubgroupandsocietysperceptionoftattoosformapositive

    feedbackloop.Theparticularsocialsubgroupengagingintattooingaffectshowsocietyperceivesthe

  • Porcella2

    practice.Societysperceptionoftattooing,inturn,increasestheamountofindividualsbelongingtothat

    particularsocialsubgrouptoacquiretattoos,whichreinforcessocietysperceptionoftattooing(See

    Figure1).

    Figure1:TattoosPositiveFeedbackLoopformedbytherelationshipbetweensubculturalgroupsoftattooedindividualsandsocietysperceptionoftattooing

    Thetypeofpeoplegettingtattooshasvariedovertimeandfromculturetoculture.Duringone

    timeperiodtattooswerepopularamongthehigherclassandinasubsequenttimeperiodtattooswere

    popularamongamarginalizedgroup.Inoneculturetattoossymbolizehonorandprestigewhereasin

    anotherculturetattoosarethemarkofslaves.Byexaminingthetrendsintattoopopularityincertain

    socialgroupsovertime,thisresearchpaperseekstoanalyzethecorrespondingtrendsinsocietys

    perceptionoftattoos.Inadditiontopopularitytrends,otherfactorsinfluencingsocietysperceptionof

    tattooswillbeexplored.Finally,thisresearchprojectwillinvestigatethegeneralperceptionoftattoos

    todayandexplainthisperceptioninasociologicalcontext.

    TattoosThroughHistory

    OriginsofTattooing

    Tattooingsprehistoricoriginshavehadanaffectonhowthepracticewasperceivedforages

    proceedingitsdiscoverybyEuropeanexplorers.Europeansgenerallyviewedtattooingasapractice

  • Porcella3

    executedbyprimitive1people.Naturally,theculturalpracticesofcivilizationsclassifiedasprimitive

    havealsobeenviewedasprimitive.Itisinthiscontextthattattooshaveoftenbeenclassified.Records

    reflectingsocietysattitudetowardstattoosareminimalduringtheageofexploration,however,itis

    easytounderstandwhysocietyatthetimemightviewtattooingascrudeorbarbaric.Assumingthat

    mostEuropeansbelongedtooneoftheAbrahamicfaiths(Christianity,Judaism,orIslam),Europeans

    probablyreveredthebodyasholyorprecious.ThesefaithsholdthatGodcreatedthehumanbodyin

    Hisownimage;therefore,anyunnaturalmarksonthebodywouldbeseenasdefacingGodscreation.

    Someofthecivilizationsthatpracticedtattooingalsopracticedhumansacrifice.Europeansviewed

    humansacrificenotonlyasimmoralbutalsogrotesque.Inscribinginkintothefleshandcuttingouta

    humanhearttosacrificetothegods(aspracticedamongtheAztecs)mayhavebeenperceivedas

    equivalentinthemindsofEuropeans.Thus,tattooingwasviewedasagrotesqueandmorallyrepugnant

    practice.

    NotallEuropeans,feltrepulsedoroffendedbythepracticeupondiscoveringit.Infact,themost

    famoustattoodiscoverer,Josephbanks,hadanoppositeinitialreaction.Hewasintrigued.JosephBanks

    workedunderthecommandofBritishCaptain(thenLieutenant)JamesCookasnaturalistaboardthe

    1PrimitiveisatermusedbyearlyEuropeananthropologistindescribingnonWesterncivilizations,typicallythosethatcameintocontactwithEuropeanexplorers.Thetermreferstoacivilizationslackofsocialoreconomicdevelopment,butoftenthetermwasappliedtothemembersofacivilizationaswell.Whenappliedtopeople,thetermtakesonanegativeconnotation.Primitivedescribesanindividualasbeingunsophisticated,simple(asinsimpleminded)orcrude(Primitive).ManyEuropeanexplorersviewedthecivilizationstheyencounteredasinferior.Thisviewwasprimarilyinfluencedbyreligion.NonWesterncivilizationspracticedanimism(beliefthatnaturalobjectshavespirits)orotherpaganreligionswhereasmostEuropeanexplorerswereChristianandinsomecasesmayhavebeenallowedtoexploreundertheguiseofevangelism.Modernanthropologistscriticizeearlyanthropologistsforusingthetermnotonlybecauseitisderogatory,butalsobecauseitisinvalid.SomenonWesterncivilizationsparticularlytheAztecandIncancivilizationswereextremelycomplex.ThesocialandeconomicdevelopmentofthesecivilizationsrivaledthoseofEuropeancivilizations.

  • Porcella4

    Figure3Figure2

    ANewZealandchief(Figure2)andwarrior(Figure3),engravedafterdrawingsbySydneyParkinson,1770

    EndeavourduringitsfirstvoyagetothePacificbetween1768and1771.Thoughhisjournalentriesare

    mostlydescriptive,Banksdoesprovideinsightintohisopinionsregardingthetattooingheobserved.In

    TheEndeavour:JournalofJosephBanksheexpresseshiscuriositywhenhewrites,Whatcanbea

    sufficientinducementtosuffersomuchpainisdifficulttosay;notoneIndian(thoughIaskedhundreds)

    wouldevergivemetheleastreasonforit(qtd.inGilbert37).Banksshowsgenuineinterestinthe

    motivesbehindtattooing.Hisconfusionintryingtounderstandthepracticeismerelybasedonthefact

    thattattooingwasapracticecompletelynewtohim.Tattooingdidnotexistinhisideaofculture.His

    tone,apparenteveninjustthisonesentence,indicatesthathisinquiryisnotdrivenbyabhorrencebut

    bygenuinecuriosityanddesireforunderstanding.Banksdoesnotseekanexplanationinordertoprove

    thattattooingisadetestablepracticeortousetheinformationforanyotherreasonthanknowledge

    acquisition.Bankscontinuesbyspeculating,possiblysuperstitionmayhavesomethingtodowithit,

  • Porcella5

    nothingelseinmyopinioncouldbeasufficientcauseforsoapparentlyabsurdacustom(qtd.inGilbert

    37).Banksadmitsthathethinkstattooingisabsurd.Eveninhisadmittance,however,Banksdoesnot

    passjudgmentonthepractice.Theperceptionofacustombeingabsurdisnotinherentlyanegative

    perception.Absurdmeansillogicalorcontrarytoallreasonorcommonsense(Absurd).The

    practiceoftattooingisabsurdtoBanksbecausehecouldnotcomprehendthemotivesorpurposes.

    Hiscomprehensionwaslimitedtohisknowledgeandhisconceptsofculture.Byrememberingthat

    BanksencounterwithPacificIslanders(inthequotereferredtoasIndians)wasacollisionofextremely

    contrastingcultures,absurdcanbeunderstoodnotasalabelindicatingpointlessness,butasalabel

    acknowledgingthecomprehensiongapthatexistsbetweentwodifferingcultures.Banksdoesnot

    choosetolabeltattooingaseitherasociallyacceptableorsociallyunacceptablebehavior.Thisdecision,

    regardlessifitwasmadeconsciously,indicatestherespectBankshadfortheculturesheobserved.

    Figure4

    TraditionalTonganmaletattoo.DrawingbydUrville,early1800s.Areas thatappear tobe solidblackareactuallyfineandcloselyspacedpatterns.

    Theperceptionoftattooingwithintheprehistoricsocietiesthatpracticedtheartisevidentin

    thefunctionstattooingplayedintheirculture.Formanysocietiestattooingplayedanintegralrolein

    socialization,religion,andwarfare.InboththeancientTonganandtheancientSamoansocietiesof

    Polynesia,tattooartistwasahighlyprivilegedposition.FortheTongans,priestswelltrainedand

    followingstrictritualsexecutedthe

    tattooing(Gilbert22).Theideaofcurrent

    priestsadministeringtattoosasapartofa

    religiousritualwouldlikelybecontroversial.

    ThefactthatintheTongansocietypriests

    weretheonestoadministertattoos

    indicatestheextentoftattooings

    significancewithintheculture.Forthe

  • Porcella6

    Samoans,tattooingheldsimilarreligioussignificance.InSamoanculture,tattooingoccurredduringa

    ceremonyinwhichthetattooartisttattooedgroupsofsixtoeightyoungmen.Asapartofthetattooing

    ritual,friendsandrelativeswouldattendtheceremonyandparticipateinspecialprayersand

    celebrations(Gilbert23).

    AmongtheindigenoustribesofNorthAmerica,tattooingwasusedasvisualindicatorsofan

    individualsplacewithinthetribe.FortheOsageandtheOmahatattoosheldsignificanceinwarfare.A

    skulltattooedonthebackofanOsagewarrior,forexample,indicatedthathehadbeensuccessfulin

    battle.Likewise,thesuccessesofOmahamenonthebattlefieldwerehonoredbytattoosontheir

    daughtersbacksorbreasts(Gay26).TheInuitpracticedtattooingaswell.Inuitmentattooedmarkson

    theirbodiesasatallysystemtokeeptrackofhowmanywhalestheykilled.Inuitwomenweretypically

    tattooedontheirchinsasanindicationofmaritalstatus(Gay26).Inallofthesecases,tattooswere

    usedasawaytocommunicate.AmericananthropologistTedPolhemusrecognizestheimportanceof

    tattooingespeciallyinsocietiesthatlackwrittenlanguage.Hestates,contrastingtattoostylesof

    particularindividualswithinagroupoftenarticulateandunderlinedifferencesinroleandstatus

    immediatelyidentifyingthechief[and]thosewhohaveshowncourageinbattleorprowessinthe

    hunt(Polhemus40).IndigenousNorthAmericansperfectlyexemplifythetattooingusageoutlinedby

    Polhemus.Tattooingfortheseandothertribeswasusedtosetindividualsaparttovisually

    communicateanindividualsplaceinsociety.Tattoosrepresentedprideandexactedhonorandrespect.

    Asastatussymbol,tattooswerealsousedtosubjugatevariousmembersofsociety.Incertain

    societiestattooingwasusedasaformofpunishmentandasawaytodistinguishslavesfromfree

    membersofsociety.Figure5picturesOliveOatman,awomanwhowascapturedbyNativeAmericansin

    1851attheageofthirteen.HerfamilyhadbeentravelingwithasectoftheMormonChurchthatwas

    movingfromMissouritoCaliforniawhentheirwagonwasattackedbyNativeAmericansnearwhatis

  • Porcella7

    Figure5

    StudyportraitofOliveOatman,circa1860.

    nowYuma,Arizona.ShewaslatersoldtotheMohavetribe,who

    despitetreatingherwell,tattooedherchinwiththetraditionalmark

    ofaslavefiveparallellinesonthechinwiththeoutermostlines

    havingadifferingdesignadjoiningthem.TheancientGreeksalso

    practicedtattooingslavesstartinginthefifthcentury.TheGreeks

    adoptedthepracticefromtheirenemy,thePersians,whoallegedly

    tattooedGreekprisonersofwar.Beyondsimplydistinguishingthem

    fromlawabidingcitizens,Greeksmarkedslavesandcriminalswith

    descriptionsoftheircrimestattooedontheirforeheads,includingin

    onecasethewords,Stopme,Imarunaway(Gay24).Though

    tattoosinthesesocietieswereusedtostigmatizecertaingroups

    (slavesandcriminals),thesocietiesdidnotnecessarilystigmatizetattooingingeneral.Infacttattooing

    wasauniversalcustomwithintheMohavetribe.TheMohavebelievedthatmenandwomenalikehad

    tohaveatattooinordertobegrantedentranceintotheafterlifeupondeath.Mohavetribemembers

    thatdidnotgettattoosduringtheirlifetimewereoftentattooedpostmortemtoadheretothebelief

    (TattooArchive).

    Regardlessofwhatfunctiontattooingplayswithinparticularsocieties,thephenomenon

    revealedthroughthisexaminationisthattattooingwasaverycommonpracticewithinprehistoric

    societies.AnintroductorystatementforabodyartexhibitatNewYorksAmericanMuseumofNatural

    Historyin2000stated,Thereisnoknowncultureinwhichpeopledonotpaint,pierce,tattoo,reshape,

    orsimplyadorntheirbodies(Gay14).Bodydecorationappearstobeauniversalpracticeamong

    peopleofallsocieties.Anthropologists,psychologists,andsociologistshaveallattemptedtoexplain

    whythisissowhyhumansdecoratetheirbodyandwhybodydecorationseemstobeahuman

  • Porcella8

    universal.Butexplanationaside,thefactthatitispresentinallculturessuggeststhatsocietiesshould

    perceivebodyadornmentasanacceptablepracticeoratleastasanintegralpartofculture.

    Tattooingisthoughttobeindependentlyinvented.2Tattooingwithintheislandculturesof

    Polynesialendssupporttothistheory.InhisjournalVoyagesandTravelsinVariousPartsoftheWorld,

    GeorgH.vonLangsdorffnotes,Itisundoubtedlystriking,thatnationsperfectlyremotefromeach

    other,whohavenomeansofintercoursewhatever,andaccordingtowhatappearstousnevercould

    haveany,shouldyetbeallagreedinthispractice(qtd.inGilbert26).Thepracticetowhichvon

    Langsdorffrefersistattooing.ThedistancebetweenthePolynesianislandswerefartoogreattomake

    culturalexchangecommon.Thereforeitcanbeassumedthatratherthanonecultureinventingthe

    practiceoftattooingandsharingitwithotherislandcultures,tattooingwasinventedbyseveralcultures

    independentfromoneanother.Thisisfurthersupportedbythefactthattattooingwaspresentinthe

    AfricancivilizationsaswellcivilizationsthathadnoknowncontactwithPolynesians.Tattooingasan

    independentinventionexpandsupontheconceptofubiquity.Iftattooingwasindependentlyinvented,

    thentattooingcouldnothavebeenunwillinglyforceduponaculturebyanother.Tattooingwithinthose

    civilizationsthatinventedthepracticeexistednotasaforcedhabit,butasacustominthatitwasas

    muchapartofthecivilizationscultureasreligiousrituals.Tattooingwasapartoflife.

    DiffusionofTattoostotheWesternWorld

    TattooswerebroughttotheWesternWorldbytheEuropeanexplorerswhohaddiscoveredthe

    practiceamongnativePolynesians.Notonlydidmanyofthesailorsreturnhomebrandishingtattoos

    2Independentinventionreferstothephenomenonwhenaparticularcustomappearswithinseveraldifferentsocietiesthataregeographicallyisolatedfromeachother.Independentinventioncountersthesuspicionthatthecustominquestionemergedfromonecultureandspreadtoothercultureswithsucceedingculturesadoptingthecustomfromtheoriginalinventingculture.

  • Porcella9

    (havingacquiredtattoosassouvenirsoftheirvoyages),buttheyalsobroughtwiththemtattooed

    natives.Onhissecondvoyagein1774CaptainCookbroughtbacktwotattooedTahitians,Omaiand

    Tupia(DeMello48).TheseTahitianshadoriginallyservedasguidesandinterpretersforCookduringhis

    voyage,butuponreturntoEnglandtheyquicklybecameobjectsdisplayedatpubs,museums,andfairs

    (DeMello4748).Omai,Tupia,andothercaptiveslikethemwereheldasspecimensofnativepeoples.

    TheframingoftattoosinthecontextofentertainmentshapedhowEuropeansperceivedtattooingin

    theseventeenthtonineteenthcenturies.AnthropologistTedPolhemusstatesthatduringthistime

    period,forEuropeans,tattooingbecameinexorablylinkedwiththeexoticsomethingthatstrange

    peopleinverydistantlandsdidtotheirbodies"(Polhemus42).Europeanswerefascinatedwiththe

    exoticandeagerlypaidmoneytoseetattooedattractions,makingthecaptureanddisplayoftattooed

    nativesanextremelylucrativebusiness.Buttheassociationwiththeexotic,consequentlyresultedinthe

    additionalassociationoftattooswithinferiority.Duringtheseventeenthtonineteenthcenturies,

    Europeansviewedtattoosasmarksofsavageryandasahallmarkoftheprimitive(DeMello49,47).

    Tattooattractionsatworldfairsinparticularexemplifytheextenttowhichtattoosexistedasan

    indicatorofprimitiveness.Atworldfairs,tattooattractionsweredisplayedalongsideexhibitsof

    Westernachievement.Bycontrastingachievementssuchastechnologicaladvancementswithprimitive

    activitiessuchastattooing,worldfairsnotonlyhighlightedWesternprogress,butalsoeffectively

    constructedanarrativeabouttattooedpeopleassavages(DeMello47).Becausetattoosstoodatthe

    heartofwhatdistinguishedtheindigenousindividualsfromtheEuropeansandmoreimportantlywhat

    distinguishedbetweenprimitiveandcivilizedclassificationstattoos,moresothananyothercultural

    practices,wereviewedassignsofinferiority.Itisthisperceptionofinferioritythatgaverisetothe

    stigmatizationoftattooedindividualsregardlessofculturalbackground.

    Thesameassociationwithexoticismthatrenderedtattooingasavagepracticealsoservedasa

    lurefortheiracquisition.InparticularEuropeanroyaltyandmembersoftheupperclasssoughtto

  • Porcella10

    obtainthedistinctivemarks.Howthesetwodifferingattitudestowardtattoosduringtheseventeenth

    tonineteenthcenturiescouldexistinsuchparadoxhasyettobeexplained.However,inferencescanbe

    madebyexamininganthropologistMargoDeMellosinsightontheroleofsailorsinpopularizingtattoos.

    DeMellobelievesthatsailorsactedasmiddlemenintattooingstransitionfrombeingperceivedas

    primitivetobecominganintegralpartofworkingclasslife.Thisexplanationfailstoexplainthe

    popularitytattooingexperiencedamongtheupperclassthatoccurredbeforeitexperiencedpopularity

    amongthemasses.YetDeMellosinsightmaybeabletoexplainbothsurgesinpopularity.Asan

    explanationtotheincreaseintattooingspopularityamongworkingclassmen,DeMellostatesthat

    tattooingstransitionfromtaboototrendoriginatedinthelifestyleofsailorsandwhatthisrepresented

    toworkingclassmenbackhome:adventure,travel,exoticlandsandpeople,andafreespirit(49).

    AppliedtoupperclassEuropeans,itcanbespeculatedthattheytooweredrawntothesenseof

    adventureandexcitementthattattoospresented.Infact,someEuropeanroyaltyembarkedonactual

    adventuressimplytoacquireatattoo.BritainsKingGeorgeVandRussiasTsarNicholasIIjourneyed

    toJapan,afteritwasreopenedtotheworldin1854,specificallytoacquiretattoos(Polhemus42).

    Tattoosassociationwiththeexoticappealedtotheupperclassandtransformedtattoosinto

    socialcapital.Tattoosbecameindicatorsofstatus.Whiletheupperclassviewedtattoosasindicatorsof

    culturalknowledge(tattooedEuropeanswerethoughttobecultured),themiddleandlowerclasses

    viewedtattoosassimplyindicatorsofwealth.Specifically,tattoosindicatedthatthebearerhadenough

    wealthtotraveltoexoticlocationsaroundtheworldorhireanemergingtattooartisttoacquirethe

    tattoos.Theupperclassalsocouldaffordthetimerequiredfortattooing.Untilthelatenineteenth

    century,tattooingwasstillperformedmanuallyusingasetofneedlesattachedtoawoodenhandle.

    BorrowingtechniquesfromthePolynesians,atattooartistdippedtheneedlesininkandmovedhis

    handupanddownrhythmically,puncturingtheskintwoorthreetimesasecond(Gilbert126).This

    techniquewasextremelytimeconsuming.Priortothenineteenthcentury,themajorityofthelower

  • Porcella11

    classesworkedinagricultureandcouldnotaffordanytimebeyondearningalivingwage.Therefore,

    fromtheseventeenthtothenineteenthcenturytattoosservedtodistinguishtheupperclassfromthe

    massesandconsequentlybecameassociatedwithwealthandstatus.

    TattoosinAmerica

    ThearrivaloftattooingtotheUnitedStatesduringthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenth

    centuriesbroughtrevolutionarychangetothepractice.In1891,NewYorktattooartistSamuelOReilly

    patentedthefirstelectrictattoomachine.ThemachinewasdesignedafterThomasEdisonsperforating

    pen3andallowedtattooartiststouseseveralneedlessimultaneously(DeMello50).Usingthetattoo

    Figure6

    (a)

    UnitedStatesPatentdocument(a)anddrawing(b)ofthefirstelectrictattoomachine.InventedbySamuelOReilly.PatentedonDecember8,1891.UnitedStatesPatentNo.464,801

    (b)

    3ThomasEdisonpatentedtheperforatingpen(Figure6)in1876and1877.TheinventiondevelopedasabyproductofEdisonstelegraphyresearch.ThepenofEdisonsprintingtelegraphleftachemicalresidueasitpuncturedthepaper.ThisobservationledEdisontobelievethattheperforatedpapercouldbeusedasastencilformakingcopies.ThusEdisoninventedtheelectricpenasaperforatingdevice(Burns).SamuelOReillymodifiedEdisonsdesignininventingthefirstelectrictattoomachine.

  • Porcella12

    machine,tattooscouldbeadministeredfasterandforlessmoney,makingthemavailabletothelower

    classes.Tattooingsensuingpopularityamongthemassesresultedintheabandonmentofthepractice

    bytheupperclassbothintheUnitedStatesandinEurope.Tattooingnolongerrepresentednoveltynor

    indicatedstatus.Thustattooinglosttheexoticismandprestigethathadluredtheelitetothepractice.

    Amongtheelite,perceptionsoftattooingrevertedbacktoitsassociationwiththeconceptof

    primitiveness.Inthiswaytheelitecontinuedtoseparatethemselvesfromthelowerclasses.

    Theeffectofanewenvironmentontattooingwasareinventionofitsappearanceinsociety.

    TattooingasaculturalpracticeunderwentwhatanthropologistMargoDeMellocallsAmericanization

    (49).Shestates,Tattooingwas[]modifiedbyearlyUStattooisttofitalocalsensibilityemphasizing

    patriotismratherthanexoticism(DeMello49).Tattooingsassociationwithpatriotismdeveloped

    primarilyasaresultofitspopularityamongmilitarypersonnel.InhisNewYorkshop,Martin

    HildebrandtthefirstknownprofessionaltattooartistintheUnitedStatestattooedmostlysailors

    andsoldiers.HistattooworkonsoldiersfrombothsidesoftheCivilWarhascausedmanytattoo

    historianstorecognizeHildebrandtasbeinginstrumentalinestablishingtheUStraditionoftattooed

    servicemen(DeMello49).Indeedtattooinghasbeenextremelypopularamongthearmedforces

    throughoutAmericanhistory.DuringtheperiodbetweenthetwoWorldWars,thelinkbetween

    soldiersandsailorsandtattooingwassostrong[]thatitwasassumedamanwithtattooswasserving

    inthearmedforcesorhadbeenatonetime(DeMello63).Consequently,tattooingduringthattime

    experiencedthehighestlevelofsocialapprovalandtheerabecameknownastheGoldenAgeof

    Tattooing(DeMello63).PopularityamongservicemenbuiltuptattooingsrapportamongAmericans.It

    appearedthatAmericansocietywillinglyextendedtherespectitgrantedtoservicementothe

    servicemenstattoos.Inaddition,tattooinghadbecomesynonymouswithpatriotismandnationalism.

    Individualseagerlyacquiredtattoosinordertoexpresstheirnationalpride.

  • Porcella13

    Despiteitspositiveassociationwithpatriotism,tattooingstillcarriedastigmaintheUnited

    Statespriortothetwentiethcentury.Sinceitsintroductiontothecountry,tattooinghadbecome

    extremelypopular,buthadnotnecessarilyexperiencedwidespreadacceptance.Thestrongestevidence

    oftattooingsstigmaistheabsenceofwomenamongthosewhoacquiredtattoosduringthattime.Not

    onlywerewomensimplynotpartakinginthepractice,tattooartistswereactivelypreventingwomen

    fromacquiringtattoos.Itwasnotuncommonforatattooartisttohaveapolicyofrefusingtotattooa

    woman.Theperceptionofwomenduringthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesexplainsthe

    motivationbehindtheseprohibitivepolicies.Duringthistimeperiod,knowninhistoryastheVictorian

    era4,womenwereseenaspoisedandpure.Inkeepingwiththisperception,womendressedinmodest

    clothinganddidnotwearanyadornmentsorjewelry.Tattoosonwomenduringthisera,therefore,

    corruptedthefeminineimageofpurityandmayhaveevenbeenlinkedtopromiscuity.Anthropologist

    MargoDeMellodescribestattooartistsduringthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesas

    guardiansofthefemaleimage.Shestates,Thetattooist,likethewomansothermalekeepers,tookit

    uponhimselftokeepnicegirls(i.e.attractive,middleclass,heterosexualwomen)fromtransgressing

    theclassandsexualbordersofthetimeandofturningintotramps(DeMello61).Societysconcernof

    tattooscorruptiveinfluenceonwomensuggeststhatsocietyperceivedtattoosascorrupt,immoralor

    unclean.Tattoosmayhavebeenacceptableforsoldiersandsailors,roughenedbythegravityofwar,

    buttattoosamongthenonmilitarysocietywasseenastransgressiveviolatingtheparticularmorals

    definingappearanceatthattime.

    4TheVictorianera,whichlastedfrom1819to1901,drewitsnamefromthereigningQueenofEnglandatthetimeQueenVictoria.Amongmedical,technologicalandeconomicadvances,theperiodisknownforthefamilyvaluesandworkethicitfostered.TheidealVictorianwomanpossessedsocialdeference,chastity,andrespectability(Shepherd).IntheUnitedStatesthefeminineidealofthetimewasoutlinedbythecartooncharacterknownastheGibsonGirl.Shepossessedsimilarqualitiesofsophisticationandmodesty.

  • Porcella14

    TheCircus

    Tattooednativescontinuedtobedisplayedpubliclyasentertainmentthroughoutthe

    eighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.Abolitionistmovementsduringthetwentiethcentury,however,

    causedsuchdisplaystolosepublicfavor.Thetattooednatives,receivingnopayfortheirentertainment,

    wereviewedbythepublicasbeingessentiallyslaves.Itisatthistimethattattooedattractions

    transitionedfromdisplayingtattooedindigenouspeopletotattooedWesterners.Regardlessofthis

    change,anthropologistMargoDeMelloarguesthatthecontinuationoftattooedattractionsreliedon

    thecontinuingassociationbetweentattooingandsavageryinordertoselltickets(53).Simplythe

    existenceoftattooedattractionsestablishedtheperceptionoftattooingassavagelike.Tattooed

    westernerswerepromotedashumanodditiesorfreaksandweredisplayedinwhatappropriately

    becameknownasfreakshows.Labelingthesetattooedindividualsasfreaksnecessarilyostracizedthem

    fromsocietyandportrayedtattoosasfreakishorabnormal.Inmanycases,tattooedindividualson

    displayconcoctederroneoustalesthatdetailedtheircaptureandforcedtattooingbysavages.5For

    example,thefirsttattooedwhitemanexhibitedintheUnitedStates,JamesOConnell,claimedtohave

    beenshipwreckedinMicronesiawherehemarriedoneofthechiefsdaughtersandwastattooedby

    Micronesiannatives(DeMello56).Westernershadembracedtattooing,yetplacedtheguiltof

    committingsuchatransgressiveactonpeopleconsideredinthosetimestobeprimitive.Thisdeferralof

    accountabilitysuggeststhepersistingviewoftattooingasbeingbarbaricoruncivilized.Society

    collectivelydeniedanypossibilityofWesternersintentionalacquisitionoftattoosespeciallysuch

    dramatictattoosasthosedisplayedatcircusshows.However,inthelatenineteenthcenturycircus

    5ThestoryofOliveOatman(previouslymentionedinthesectionOriginsofTattooing)wasoneoftherarecasesofatattooedWesternerduringthenineteenthcenturywhohadactuallybeencapturedandtattooedbyanindigenousgroup.

  • Porcella15

    The Circus

    Charles Wagner (seated), the mosttalented and prolific of the earlyAmericantattooartists,andtattooedcircuspeopleinChathamSquare,circa1930. The woman seated is tattooartistMildredHull(Gilbert127,130).

    Prince Costentenus, the mostremarkable tattooed man of the1800s was put on exhibition byP.T. Barnum. The only part of hisbodynottattooedwasthesolesofhisfeet(TheHumanMarvel).

    Satisfiedcustomer.TattooedbyfamoustattooartistGeorgeBurchett.

    ArtoriaGibbons.TattooedbyherhusbandRedGibbonsinthe1920s.

    EdithBurchett.TattooedbyherhusbandfamoustattooartistGeorgeBurchett.

    Selfnamed The Great Omi,Horace Ridler was tattooed byGeorge Burchett in the 1930sduring500sittings.Ridlergotthetattoos purposely to become ashowa raction.Hew sdis ayedatRipleysBelieveItOrNotOddit

    Figure7

    tt a pl

    orium(TattooArchive).

    2 31

    5 64

  • Porcella16

    entertainmentthrivedontheambitionsofWesternerstoundergointensetattooinganddisplay

    themselvesaslivingattractions.

    ThestoryofHoraceRidler,selfproclaimedTheGreatOmi,illustratesthesuccess,eccentricity

    andevencompetitivenessoftattooedattractionsduringtheearlytwentiethcentury.Shortlyafter

    enteringtheprofession,Ridlerbecameunsatisfiedwithhiswages.Intensecompetitionwithinthe

    sideshowbusinesshadlessenedthegrandeurofhistattoos.TattoohistorianSteveGilbertreportsthat

    by1920,overthreehundredcompletelytattooedpeoplewereemployedincircusandsideshows

    (138).Committedtotheprofession,Ridlerdecidedtotransformhimselfintoahumanzebra.Inthe

    1930shehiredLondonstoptattooist,GeorgeBurchett,totattooaheavycurvilineardesignoverhis

    entirebodyincludinghisface(DeMello56).

    Circusperformersembodimentoftattoosatatimewhensocietyheldanegativeperceptionof

    tattooingestablishedtattooingslongstandingmarginality.Duetotheireccentriclifestyle,circus

    performerswereostracizedfrommainstreamsociety.Whereasopinionleadersmayhavebeenableto

    influencesocietysperceptionoftattoos,circusperformersreducedtattoostoamarginalstatus.In

    succeedingeras,tattooingsmarginalnaturepersistedanddevelopedintoapatterninwhichdiffering

    timesmerelysawachangeintheparticularmarginalizedgroupbearingtattoos.

    NegativityintheFortiesandFifties

    Midtwentiethcenturymarkstheperiodwhentattooingsassociationwithdeviancefirsttook

    root.AnthropologistMargoDeMellodescribesthetimeperiodastheperiodthatsolidifiedpostwar

    societysnegativeviewsoftattooing(67).ThoughlawshadbeenestablishedbeforeWorldWarIIthat

    setalegalminimumagerequirementfortattooing,stategovernmentsstruggledtoenforcethemduring

    thewar.Afterthewar,however,thegovernmentbeganrigorouslyregulatingtattooingpractices.Not

  • Porcella17

    onlywereagelimitsstrictlyenforced,butmunicipalauthoritiesconductedhealthinspectionsoftattoo

    parlorstoensurethattattooartistswerefollowingsafetyprocedures,suchasusingcleanneedles.

    Outbreaksofhepatitisthoughttobecausedbyunsafetattooingproceduresfurtherpropelledthese

    inspectionsandevenresultedinthebanningoftattooingalltogetherinseveralstatesduringthe1960s

    (DeMello66).Theheightenedregulationsduringthistimeperiodreflectedsocietysgeneralperception

    oftattooing.Tattooinghadgonebeyondbreakingsocialcomfortbarriersthreateningsocietyshealth.

    Societyperceivedtattoostobedangerousonaccountofitshealthrisksaswellasthedeviantbehavior

    thatseemedtodevelopinconjunctionwithtattooing.Prevailingsociobiologicalperspectives

    particularlythoseofcriminologistCesareLombrosoinfluencedthedevelopmentofassociations

    betweentattooinganddeviantbehavior.Lombrosoarguedthatcriminality(anindividualspropensityto

    beacriminal)couldbedeterminedbyanindividualsphysicalattributes.Amongthephysicaltraits

    Lombrosoclaimedindicatedinherentdeviancewastheattributeofhavinglittlesensitivitytopain

    (qtd.inAdamsMarkedDifference270).Thoughexplicitmentionoftattooswasabsentfrom

    Lombrososreport,societyinterpretedhightoleranceforpainasanexplanationforthetendencyof

    criminalstobetattooed.Thislogicledsocietytobelievethatatattooonanindividualwastheexternal

    signofinwardmoralobtuseness(GibsonqtdinAdamsMarkedDifference270).Tattooingnolonger

    appearedtobeanactofsavagerybutanactofimmorality.

    Linksbetweentattooingandmarginalizedgroupsduringthelate1940stolate1950salso

    contributedtosocietyadoptinganegativeviewoftattoos.Inthe1940soutlawmotorcyclistgangs

    (morecommonlyknownasbikers)beganemergingasasubculturalgroup.Inadditiontotheir

    commoninterestinmotorcycles,bikersunitedaroundtheirattractiontotattoos.Bikertattoosoften

    expressedantisocialsentiment.Becausebikerslivedonthemarginsofsociety,tattoosbecame

    associatedwithsocialdetachmentanddeviance.Tattooswerecommonamongcriminalgangsaswell.

    Tattoosplayedamajorroleingangsbeforethe1940s,butitisthemediaattentionthatthesetattooed

  • Porcella18

    1 July 15, 1945: Jewish youth whosurvivedNaziconcentrationcampsshowtheir tattooed identification numbers. 2

    December 9, 2004: Holocaust survivorLeon Greenman (age 93) displays histattooednumberattheJewishMuseuminLondon.

    Figure8

    1

    2

    gangsreceivedduringthattimethathadanimpactontattoossocialacceptance.Forexample,riots

    betweenservicemenandChicanogangsinLosAngelesduringthe1940shighlightedthetattooingthat

    existedinthePachucoculture(DeMello67).Inreportingtheeventnewspapersandothermedia

    sourcesstirredupantiMexicanAmericansentiments6wronglyfocusingthenegativepublicityon

    youngChicanovictims(Pagn224).Regardlessoftruthor

    impartialreporting,thepublicityoftattoosonreported

    gangmemberslinkedtattooswithcriminalbehaviorinthe

    publicsmind.Inaddition,anthropologistMargoDeMello

    arguesthatknowledgeabouttheNazipracticeoftattooing

    Jewsintheconcentrationcampsprobablycontributedto

    tattooingsdownfallintheUnitedStates(SeeFigure14)(67).

    TattooRenaissance

    Theliberationmovementsinthe1960sand1970s

    broughtimprovementstothetattooingprofessionand

    broadenedtheperceptionsoftattoosintheUnitedStates.

    ThoughthestylewaspresentintheUnitedStatesbeforethis

    time,Japanesetattooingbecameparticularlypopularamong

    Americansinthe1970s.Japanesetattooingdifferedfrom

    Americantattooinginitsfluidityanduseofthebodyasa

    6OnJune3,1943approximatelyfiftysailorsstationedattheNavalReserveTrainingSchoolinLosAngelesstormedthroughMexicanAmericanneighborhoodsstrippingzootsuitsoffofChicanoteenagers(Pagn223).(ZootsuitshadbeenthecurrentfashionamongChicanomales.)AweekofriotingensuedpredominatelyinwhichmilitarypersonnelterrorizedMexicanAmericanswithlittletonointerventionbyLosAngelespolice.TheHearstPress,ownedbyWilliamRandolphHearst,stoodattheheadofthemediasantiMexicanAmericancampaign(Pagn224).

  • Porcella19

    threedimensionalobjectratherthanatwodimensionalsurface.Comparedtotattoosexecutedby

    Japanesetattooists,Americantattoosappearedtobeaseriesofsmall,independent,badgelikedesigns

    placedhaphazardlyonthebody(DeMello74).TheJapaneseavoidedawkwardpiecesofblankskin

    betweentattoosbyintegratingtattoosintoathematicbackground,typicallyconsistingofwindor

    water,andcreatingmovementwithintheoverallartwork.AccordingtoanthropologistMargoDeMello,

    Japanesetattoosatthattimewerethoughttobemodern,sophisticatedandlinkedtothemore

    spiritualandrefinedEast(DeMello75).Itisthisspirituality,vibrancyandillusionofmovementthat

    mostlikelyattractedthefreespiritsofthesixtiesandseventiestotheJapanesestyleoftattooing.The

    adoptionofJapanesetechniquesusheredAmericantattooingintotheartworld.Tattooingsuddenly

    heldaestheticvalue.Infact,tattooingslegitimacyasanartformwasfurthersolidifiedbythedramatic

    increaseinthenumberofuniversitytrainedartistsinthe1970sand1980s(KosutMadArtists87).

    SociologistMaryKosutarguesthatthediscoursesandtechniquesacquiredinvariousartprograms

    thatenteredthetattooingworldinthe1970sinfluencedthecreationofnewtattoostyles[]aswellas

    acommitmenttoinnovationandexperimentation(MadArtists88).Influencesfromtheartworld

    causedsocietytoviewtattooingmoreasanartformthanadestructiveordeviantpractice.Thus

    attitudestowardtattoosimproved.Inaddition,startinginthe1970s,thetattooingindustrybegan

    improvingthesanitaryconditionswithintattooshopsafterreceivingcriticismforhepatitisoutbreaks

    decadesearlier.Theseimprovementsestablishedtattooingasaprofessionalbusiness.Individualswho

    hadbeenpreviouslyturnedoffbytattooingsgriminessasentimentmostlikelyfoundedontattooings

    circustiesnowrecognizedtattooingasalegitimatepractice.

    Ofgreatersignificancetotattooingstransformationduringthe1960sand1970swasits

    adoptionbytherevolutioncrazedyouth.AnthropologistTedPolhemusbelievesthatthetattoo

    renaissancemaywellhaveremainedconfinedtotheexperimentsofahandfulofenthusiastswereitnot

    fortheyouthquakeandcounterculturerevolutionsthatshooktheworldinthesecondhalfofthe

  • Porcella20

    1960s(48).Ironically,astattooinggainedlegitimacyduringthistime,itsprevalenceamongtheyouth

    existedprimarilyasanactofdeviance.Asprominentproponentsoftheculturalrevolution,theyouthof

    thesixtiesandseventiesembracedtattooingasameanstorebelagainsttheestablishment.Like

    rippedjeans,barefeet,andlovebeads,tattoosbecamethegarbsportedbyindividualspromoting

    peaceandfreedominaperiodmarkedbytheVietnamWarandtheCivilRightsmovement(Gay37).

    Thereforedespitegreateracceptanceoftattooingasaprofessionalindustry,tattooingcontinuedtobe

    associatedwithdevianceandmarginalizedgroups.

    TattoosToday

    Nowinthetwentyfirstcenturytattooingisexperiencingwidespreadacceptance.Morepeople

    andamorediversegroupofpeoplearegettingtattooed.In2003aHarrispollreportedthat

    approximately16%ofAmericanshaveatleastonetattoo.In2005,justtwoyearslater,theAmerican

    SocietyofDermatologicalSurgeryreportedthatthepercentageofAmericansthathaveatleastone

    tattoohadincreasedto24%nearlyoneineveryfourAmericans(Keel18).Thesestatisticsseemto

    suggestthattattoosarenolongerexclusivetotheparticularsubculturalgroupstheyhavebeen

    associatedwithinthepast.Whiletattoosstillremainprominentwithinthesegroups,manyindividuals

    gettingtattoostodaydonotfallunderthestereotypesofbikers,inmates,gangmembersormilitary

    personnel.Adefinitionofthetattooedindividualnolongerexists.

    TattoosintheMedia

    Explanationsvaryonwhysomanypeoplearegettingtattoosaswellashowsocietynow

    perceivestattoosconsideringitsgrowingpopularity.Themediahasanenormousinfluenceinpropelling

    thetattooedtrendanddeterminingsocialresponsetoincreasedtattooing.Themediahasthepower

    toregulatehowmuchattentionisgiventotattoosandhowaudiencesprocessandevaluatethe

  • Porcella21

    information.Startinginthe1990s,tattoosappearedineveryfacetofthemediaincludingmagazines,

    popularandscholarlyliterature,movies,andtheentertainmentindustryatlarge.Simplytheprevalence

    oftattoosinthemediahasaffectedsocietysperceptionoftattoosbyincreasingsocietysexposureto

    tattoos.Increasedexposureiscriticalinnormalizing7thepractice.Themoreawaresocietyisof

    tattooing,themoretattooingisacceptedintosociety.TelevisionshowssuchasLAInkandMiamiInkgo

    beyondnormalexposuretoshowaudiencesthebehindthescenesactivitiesoftwofamoustattoo

    parlors.InhisarticleTattooed:BodyArtgoesMainstreamTimKeelhighlightstheuniquemannerin

    whichLAInkandMiamiInkpresenttattooing.Hestates,Theseshowsallowpeoplewhomightnever

    enterthetattooworldtotakeafrontrowseatinthesafetyandcomfortoftheirlivingrooms,(Keel

    18).MoreandmoreAmericansarepartakinginwhatKeelnicknamesthetattooworldbysimply

    reading,watchingorhearingabouttattooingthroughmediaoutlets.Thoughtheseindividualsmayjust

    bespectators,theirinterestintattooingadvancestheprevalenceandpopularityoftattoosinsociety.

    Ingeneralthemediasfocushasbeentocultivateinterestintattoos.Themediahasnomotive

    topersuadetheiraudiencetoacquiretattoos.Ratherthemediaismotivatedbywhatsells.Tattoossell.

    Regardlessofpersonalperceptions,societyingeneralisinterestedinlearningmoreinformationabout

    thetattooing.Inseekingtoprovidesocietywiththisinformation,themediahasmanipulatedsocietys

    perceptionoftattooing.CulturalanthropologistMargoDeMellonotesthatmediatodayhasreframed

    tattooinginordertostrengthenitsappeal.UponanalyzingacollectionofarticlesontattoosDeMello

    7Oneofthedefinitionsfornormalizeistoremovestrainsandreducecoursecrystallinestructuresinmetal(Normative).Whilethisdefinitionpertainstometallurgy,itprovidesinsightintoitssociologicalusehere.Theprocessofnormalizingtattooscanbeunderstoodasremovingstrainsorratherremovingthestigmaassociatedwiththepractice.Amoreappropriatedefinitionofnormalizeforsociologicalpurposesisthedefinitiontomakenormal,especiallytocausetoconformtoastandardornorm,(Normative).Inconjunctionwiththefirstdefinition,anewnormvalidatingtattooingappearstoreplacethepreviousstigma.

  • Porcella22

    foundthatwritersgenerallytendtoemphasizethedifferencesbetweenthosewhogottattoosinthe

    pastandthosewhogettattoostoday.Throughthistechnique,themediahassuccessfullyconveyedthat

    tattooingisnolongeradisreputableenterpriseandhasreframedtattooingasapracticeforanew

    tattooedgeneration(DeMello98;DeMelloqtd.inAdamsBodiesofChange106).Thisnewtattooed

    generationdoesnotnecessarilyreflectreality.Itisinsteadaconceptdesignedbythemedia.DeMello

    notesthatarticlesontattoostendtoportraythosegettingtattooedasbeinghighlyeducatedand

    holdingwhitecollarjobs.Byfocusingonthesecharacteristicsoftattooedindividuals,themediahas

    replacedtheimagesocietytypicallyconceptualizesasatattooedindividualwithanewimage.The

    imageofatattooedindividualisnolongerofarebelliousperhapsimmoraldeviant,butofan

    upstanding,respectablecitizen.Themediahasfurthersucceededinreframingtheperceptionof

    tattooedindividualsbybeingselectiveinthetypesofindividualschosentobefeaturedinaparticular

    article.Forexample,DeMellonotesthatmainstreamarticlesontattoosdonotinterviewbikersand

    othernonmiddleclasstattoowearersthosetypesofindividualsthathavebeenassociatedwith

    tattoosinpastdecades.Insteadthemediainterviewstattooedindividualsfallingwithinthecategories

    ofstudents,secretaries,artists,teachers[]andothermembersofthemiddleclassconsidered

    respectable(DeMello100).Thiscategorizationnarrowstherangeoftattooedindividualstomiddle

    classprofessionals.Tattoosmaystillbepresentamongmarginalized,subculturalgroups,butthemedia

    haschosentoexcludethosegroupsfromitsfocus.Theintentofsuchanexclusionistoinfluence

    audiencesperceptionoftheissuebeingstudied.Middleclassprofessionalsaregenerallyperceivedas

    havingmoralsanddemonstratingacceptablesocialbehavior.Therefore,drawingonthisperception,the

    mediahasportrayedtattoosasanacceptablesocialpractice.

    Thetransformationofmovierolesplayedbytattooedcharactersservesasanexampleofhow

    themediahasredefinedtheconceptualizationoftattooedindividuals.InherarticleAnIronicFad:The

    CommodificationandConsumptionofTattoosMaryKosutfocusesontheroleoftheentertainment

  • Porcella23

    Figure9

    Movieposterpromotingthe2002blockbusterxXx.ThexXxtattooprominentlyplacedonthebackofactorVinDieselsneckwasthefocusofmanyofthebillboardsalsousedinthemoviesadvertisingcampaign.

    industryinpopularizing

    tattoos.The2002

    blockbustermoviexXx

    servesasherprimary

    example.Thevisualfocus

    ofthemoviesadvertising

    campaigncentered

    aroundtheimageofthe

    maincharactersheavily

    tattooedbody.Theintent

    wastoemphasizethe

    characterssocial

    detachmentandrebelliousnature.However,thecampaigninadvertentlyelevatedthestatusoftattoos.

    Themaincharacter,XanderCage(playedbyVinDiesel),perfectlyexemplifiesthetattooedstereotype.

    Heisananarchist,anextremesportenthusiastandingeneral,anoutcastofsociety.Yetheisalsothe

    hero.Therefore,insteadofreinforcingthestigmaassociatedwithtattoos,tattoosareportrayedina

    positivelight.Thefactthatthemovieglorifiesatattooedprotagonistpresentstattoosasacceptable

    cooleven(KosutAnIronicFad1037).

    Similarlytattooedcelebritiesandathleteshaveenhancedtattoosappeal.Celebritiesdidnot

    reallystartgettingtattoosuntilthe1990s.The1990smarkedtheheightoftattooingspopularityinthe

    UnitedStates.Thefactthatcelebritiesweregettingtattooedatthistimecouldbeinterpretedasmerely

    membersofsocietyfollowingasocialtrend.Thoughtheirfameoftensetsthemapart,celebritiesareas

    muchamemberofsocietyasanyindividual,andassuch,arejustaslikelytoconcedetoacurrent

    fashion.However,itisbecauseoftheirfamethattheirinterestintattoosisnotseenasanexampleof

  • Porcella24

    concedingtoatrendbutasonegivingrisetoatrend.Whenviewedinthismanner,whycelebrities

    startedgettingtattoosbecomesunimportant.Theimportanceistheirinfluenceinfurtherpopularizing

    tattoos.InAmericanculture,celebritiesrolesextendbeyondtheirjobtitlestoincludefashionicon,role

    modelandallaroundpublicfigure.Society,inessence,lookstocelebritiestosetsocialnorms.When

    celebritiesbegancomingoutinpublicwithtattoosontheirbodies,societyacceptedtattoosasanew

    socialnorm.Itisthissocialnormthatsomesociologistsbelievespurredtattoospopularityamongnon

    celebrityindividualsinthe1990s.Moresothanafashionstatement,celebritiesdisplayoftheirtattoos

    servedasastatementofacceptance.Tattoosbecamepermissible.Celebritiesdebunkedthe

    stereotypicaltattooedindividualandelevatedtattoostoahigherstatus.Thosewishingtoexpress

    themselvesthroughtattoosfeltthattheycoulddosoafterseeingcelebritiesproudlywearingtattoos.

    Beforetheriseoftattoopopularityamongcelebrities,theseindividualsmayhavefeltthattheywould

    beostracized,marginalizedorinsomewayscornedfortheirtattoos.

    CommodificationofTattoos

    Increasingprevalenceoftattoosinthemediahascausedsomesociologiststolookatthe

    increasingpopularityoftattoosascommodificationofthepractice.Manyindividualsbelievethat

    commodificationoftattoosonlyconsistsofcasesinwhichtattoosarebeingadvertised,bought,orsold

    asacommodity.However,theconceptofthecommodificationoftattoosencompassesallcasesin

    whichtattoosarepresentinthecommercialworld.Tattoosincommercemaynotpromotetheactual,

    physicalconsumptionoftattoos(thatis,gettingatattoo)atall.Thepresenceoftattoosinthechildrens

    toymarketisanexcellentexamplewheretattoosdonotdirectlybenefitthetattooindustry

    economically.Toydolls,includingarguablythemostfamousdoll:Barbie,nowhavetattoosasoptional

    accessories(SeeFigure10).Tattoodollscomewithinstructionsshowingchildrenhowtotattoothe

    dollthemselvesandoftenincludeatemporarytattoochildrencanwear.Itcanbegenerallyunderstood

  • Porcella25

    thattattooartistsandstudiosdonotusetoysasamediumforproductplacement.However,tattoos

    presenceinthetoymarketisusefulinhighlightingtheextenttattooshavepermeatedsociety.Atan

    earlyagechildrenareinstilledwiththeideathattattoosareacceptable.Studiesshowthatitismuch

    easierforchildrentolearnandretainasecondlanguagethanitisforadults.Inthesameway,social

    normsandbehaviorslearnedasachildhavea

    greaterinfluenceandahigherretentionratethan

    thoselearnedasanadult.Whenthesechildren

    mature,tattooswillmostlikelybeevenmore

    popularthantheyaretoday,simplyduetotheir

    earlyexposure.

    Inrecentyears,advertisershaveturnedto

    tattooartforinspiration;however,tattoosin

    advertisementremainedtabooforyearspasttheir

    breakoutpopularityinthe1990s.Advertisements

    hesitationinembracingtattoosasadesignscheme

    suggeststhecontinuedpresenceofastigma

    plaguingtattoos.Particularlyinfashion,tattooson

    modelswereconsideredtaboo.Ifmodelshappened

    tohavetattoos,themarkswerecreativelycovered

    byclothingorsimplyairbrushedforphotographs.

    Thoughtattoosarestillrarelyseenonrunway

    models,printadstodaydisplaytattooedmodels.In

    somecases,tattoosappeartohavebeendigitally

    addedtophotographsusingPhotoshop.Figure11

    Figure10

    BARBIE Totally STYLIN' TATTOOS Doll by Mattel.Thedescription foundbelowtheproductonMattelsonline store is as follows: Your daughter will lovegetting creative with these superstylish tattoos!Using the tattoo stamper, she can design anddecorateherdollsawesomeoutfitsandevenapplytemporarytattoostoherself.Howhipandtrendy!

  • Porcella26

    showsprintadsinwhichtheactualphysicalexistenceoftattoosonthemodelsskinisdebatable.Thead

    promotingIdpanemasandals(Figure11:3)featuresaheavilytattooedGisele,afamousBrazilianmodel.

    ImagesofGiselefromothermediasources,includinglivefootage,indicatethatGisele,infact,doesnot

    haveafullbodytattoo.Thedigitalplacementoftattoosinphotographscanbeseenastoolsadvertisers

    usetoinsomewayenhancetheircampaign.IntheadpromotingRushchocolatemilk(Figure11:1),

    marketerscapitalizedontheassociationoftattooswithrebelliontoreinforcetheirslogan:JustaLittle

    Naughty.Incontrast,tattoosinspiredtheactualproductdesignofaConverseshoe.Theuseofafacial

    tattoointheConversead(Figure11:5)furtherpromotesthatdesign.

    Regardlessoftheintent,tattoosinadvertisementhasbecomecommonplaceandhaseven

    transcendedthecognizanttothesubliminal.InhisarticleTattooArtFlowsintoMainstreamAdsAzam

    Ahmedstates,Marketersaredoingmorethanshowcasingtattoocoveredmodels.Theyrealso

    applyingtattooculturesaesthetictographicimagesandtypefaces.Evenifsubtlythroughtheuseof

    fontsmimickingtattooinkonproductlabelscompaniesareincreasinglytappingintotattoos

    popularityinanattempttoappealtoayoungeraudience.Thesecompaniesbelievethattheirproducts

    associationwithagrowingdesigntrendwilllurenewbuyersandreinvigorateloyalcustomerstobuy

    theirproduct.Tohelpwithstyling,advertisersareactuallyhiringtattooartiststosketchartworkfor

    productlabels(Ahmed).Notonlydoesthisauthenticatethedesigns,theemploymentoftattooartistsin

    themarketingworldfurtherlegitimizestattooingasanartform.Tattoosappearanceinadvertisement

    hasbeenavitalfrontierintattoosexpandingpopularityduetoadvertisementsenormousinfluencein

    shapingsocietysperceptionofculture.Tattooedmodelssendthemessagethattattoosdonotdestroy

    beautybutcanservetoenhanceit.Tattoosusedinprintadsshowcasethecreativitycultivatedthrough

    theartoftattooing.Tattoosinadvertisementingeneralserveasanindicatoroftattooingsprominence

    inAmericancultureandfurtherelevatesitsstatuswithinsociety.

  • Porcella27

    AROUNDTHEWORLD:AUSTRALIA:1RushchocolatemilkbyParmalatLtd.FRANCE:2ChanelEyewear.BRAZIL:3IpanemaGiseleBundchenSandals.UNITEDSTATES:4PostItby3M.5Converseshoes.6CaptainMorganTattoospicedrum. ADVERTISING

    TATTOOS

    IN

    65

    3

    4

    12

    Figure11

  • Porcella28

    TattoosandBodyImage

    RisingtattoopopularitycanalsobeattributedtoAmericansincreasingpreoccupationwithbody

    image.ThemediaisagaintheculpritinAmericasobsessionwithbodyappearances.ThePsychological

    Bulletinreportsthatrepeatedexposuretomediacontentleadviewerstobegintoacceptmedia

    portrayalsasrepresentationsofreality(Grabeetal.460).Thisengineeredperceptionofrealityresults

    inwhatiscalledtheidealbodytype.Typicallypsychologistsandsociologisthavestudiedtheideal

    bodytypeasitpertainstoindividualsselfviewofbodyweight.Yettheidealbodytypedefinestheideal

    appearanceofmorephysicalaspectsthansimplyweight.Forexample,theidealbodytypealsoincludes

    smooth,unblemishedskinanidealthatdirectlyrelatestotattooacquisition.

    Individualsgenerallystrivetoachievetheidealbodyoutlinedbythemediaoratleastfeelthat

    theyneedtoachievetheidealbodytobesociallyaccepted.8 Thus,bodyidealscreatedbythemedia

    havetheaffectofeitherencouragingordiscouragingindividualsfromparticipatinginbodymodification.

    Infactatrendthathasgrownparalleltopreoccupationwithbodyimageistheattractiontowardsbody

    modification.Magazines,celebrities,andtelevisionshows(suchasExtremeMakeover)havenotonly

    popularizedbeautyattainment;theyhavepopularizedbeautyattainmentthroughdrastic,often

    surgical,means.Tattooingisnotexcludedfromthesebodymodificationpractices.SociologistMichael

    Atkinsoncomparestattooingtootherformsofbodymodificationintendedforbeautyattainment.He

    states,Justascosmeticsurgery,dieting,andexercisingempowerpractitionersbygeneratingculturally

    reveredbodyshapes,tattooingproducesaestheticallyenhancedandsociallyacknowledgedbodies,

    8Thenotionthatindividualsstrivetoachievetheidealbodytypestemsfromsocialcomparisontheory.AccordingtoanarticlepublishedbytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,Socialcomparisontheorystatesthatweseektocompareourselveswithothers(Bessenoff239).Oneparticulartypeofsocialcomparison,upwardsocialcomparison,pertainstotheaffecttheidealbodytypehasinmotivatingindividualstoaltertheirbody.Inupwardsocialcomparison,individualscomparethemselvestoothers[they]perceivetobesociallybetterthan[them]selves(Bessenoff240).Whentherearediscrepanciesbetweenanindividualsbodyandthebodytowhichitiscompared(heretheidealbodytype),individualsaremotivatedtochangetheselftobemorelikethecomparisonstandard(Bessenoff240).

  • Porcella29

    (Atkinson133).Withtheirrisingpopularity,tattoosarenowconsideredonewayinwhichindividuals

    canimprovetheirappearance.

    Incontrast,pressuretofitanidealbodytypemaypropelindividualstoacquiretattoosnotout

    ofadesiretoconformbutoutofadesiretorebel.Tattooingasanactofdefiancesuggeststhat

    tattooingspopularitytodaymaynotbeduetoincreasedacceptance.Rather,tattooingasanactof

    defianceplaysonthesocialperceptionoftattooingasbeingimmoralorunclean.Inthiscontexttattoos

    signifyanindividualsrejectionoftheidealbodytypeandtheinstitutionthatdictatesnormsdefining

    appearance.Acquiringtattoosmayalsobeseenasamethodinwhichindividualscanreclaimcontrol

    overtheirbodies.SociologistLaurenLangmandescribestheidealbodytypeasamassproduced

    selfhood(664).Langmansdictionpaintsapictureofaconveyorbeltofhumanbeingsthatappear

    morelikemannequinsthanlivingcreatures.Theeffectoftherepetitionofcertainphysicalattributesin

    themediasportrayalofbeautyisaminimizationofindividualityandanemphasisonconformity.

    Externalpressurestoconformstripindividualsofcontrolovertheirownbodies.Bytakinganactiverole

    inthecreationofappearance,anindividualschoicetoacquireatattoocanbeseenasestablishinga

    senseofself.SociologistMichaelAtkinsondescribestattooingascustomizingthebodyinpursuitof

    individualityorliterallyillustratingindividuality(134135).Tattooshavetheabilitytosetindividuals

    apartfromoneanotherfargreaterthanclothingstyles.Becauseindividualshavecompletediscretionin

    choosingadesign,itishighlyunlikelythatanyothermarkedindividualwillsportthesametattoo.Thus

    tattooedindividualshavetheabilitytocreateanappearancethatstandsoutfromthecrowd.In

    addition,tattoostakeonpersonalmeaningsthatreaffirmanindividualsuniqueidentity.

    ModernPerceptionsofTattoos

    Tattooinginmodernsocietyexistsinastateofcomplexity.Increasedpopularityoftattoosas

    evidentbyitsprevalenceinthemediaandthegrowingnumbersoftattooedindividualsseemsto

  • Porcella30

    suggestsocietysacceptanceoftattooingasasocialnorm.However,sociologistJoshAdamsarguesthat

    thepracticeoftattooingstillappearstoretainsomeofitsmarginalcharacteristics(Marked

    Difference285).Adamsattemptstoprovethecontinuedassociationoftattooingwithdeviancenotby

    investigatingsocietysattitudetowardstattoos,butbyinvestigatingtheextenttowhichtattooinghas

    becomeamainstreampractice.Forthisinvestigation,Adamsperformssecondaryanalysisondata9

    collectedviaatelephonesurveybythePublicOpinionLaboratoryatNorthernIllinoisUniversity.Five

    hundredpeople(ranginginagefrom18to50yearsandlivinginthecontiguousUnitedStates)were

    selectedusingrandomdigitdialingtoensurethateveryindividualwithinthepopulationhadanequal

    probabilityofbeingselected(AdamsMarkedDifference277).10Usingarandomselectionmethod

    allowsresearcherstotesttheirhypothesisamongasamplethatisrepresentativeofthepopulation.The

    results,therefore,appearmoreapplicabletothepopulationasawhole.Adamsdifferentiatesbetween

    hisresearchmethodsandthoseofsociologistsinthepastclaimingthathisdatacomesfroma

    nationallyrepresentativedatasetwhereaspriorsociologicalworkontattooingtypicallyused

    institutionalizedpopulations,ormorecommonly,collegestudents(AdamsMarkedDifference269).

    Indeed,priorsociologicalworkontattooinghasbeencriticizedforexhibitingbiasedselection

    methods.Associationsbetweentattooing,criminality,andinsanitymayhaveresultedfromhow

    sociologicalstudiesframedthetopic.SociologistMaryKosutclaimsthatresearchersfrom1960to1990

    exhibitedbiasinselectingsamplepopulations.Shestates,Onecharacteristicthesearticlesshareis

    theirunsoundmethodologicalpracticesandthesubjectivebiasesoftheresearchers.Forexample,some

    9Thedata,collectedbetweenFebruaryandAprilof2004,wasoriginallyusedforhealthorientedresearchstudyingtheprevalenceoftattooingintheUnitedStatesandcorrespondingmedicalconsequences(AdamsMarkedDifference277).

    10Note:Thesamplefailstobe100%representativeofthepopulationduetothepollingmethodemployed.NoteverypersonlivingintheUnitedStateshasaregisteredtelephone.Thestudyexcludesthoseindividualsthatdonotownaphoneorthosewhorelysolelyoncellphones.

  • Porcella31

    focusexclusivelyontattooedmalepsychiatricpatientsimprisonedwithinstatehospitalsandprisons

    (KosutMadArtists81).Thesebiaseshaveframedtattooingasapotentialindicator,orsymptom,ofa

    mentalhealthproblem(AdamsBodiesofChange106).Analysisofpriorsociologicalworkon

    tattooingandthesubsequentdiscoveryofmethodologicalerrorssuchasselectionbiaseshavefurther

    propelledresearcherstodaytoinvestigatethephenomenondeeperandtodevelopnewmethodsto

    studysocietysperceptionoftattoos.

    Whilepriorsociologicalworkontattooingmainlyconsistedofqualitativedata,Adamsseeksto

    measuretheextenttowhichtattooinghasbecomemainstreamusingquantitativedata.Adams

    developsseveralhypothesesthattogetherformameasureoftattooingsmarginality.Ofparticular

    relevancearethehypothesesthatexaminewhetherornottattooinghastranscendedage,genderand

    socioeconomiclines.Thesehypothesesare:

    H1:Highereducationalattainmentwillbepositivelyrelatedtohavingatattoointhecontemporaryera.

    H2:Higherincomelevelswillbepositivelyrelatedtohavingatattoointhecontemporaryera.

    H3:Agewillbenegativelyrelatedtohavingatattoo.[]H4:Thereshouldnolongerbeasignificantrelationshipbetweengenderandwhether

    onehasatattoo(AdamsMarkedDifference276).Adamsresultsshowthattattooinghasinfactovercomesomeofthebarriersithasfacedinthepast.

    However,thecontinuedpresenceofotherbarrierspreventstattooingfromreceivingfullsocial

    acceptance.Oftheabovehypothesestested,theonetestingtherelationshipbetweenanindividuals

    genderandhavingatattoowassupported.Adamsfoundthatmalesandfemaleshadtattoosinsimilar

    numbers(MarkedDifference279).ThroughitshistoryintheUnitedStates,tattooinghasexistedas

    primarilyamasculinepractice.Tattooedwomeninthecircuswereextremelysuccessfulnotonly

    becausedisplayingtheirtattoossometimesrequiredthemtoexposetheirlegsandthighs(anact

    consideredracyduringtheVictorianera)butalsobecausetattoosuntilthattimehadonlybeenseenon

  • Porcella32

    men(DeMello58).Tattooedwomentrulywereanoddityduringtheeighteenthandnineteenth

    centuries.Adamsarguesthatthedecliningrelevanceofgendertowhetheronehasatattooseemsto

    beindicativeofbothitsgrowthasapracticeandtheweakeningofnormativeprohibitionsagainst

    tattooing(MarkedDifference286).Duringtheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,tattooingwas

    thoughttobesuchavilepracticethatitwasthoughttocorruptthepurityofwomen.Societysgeneral

    acceptanceoftattooedfemalestodaysuggestsadeparturefromaperceptionofrepugnance.

    Thoughtattooingseemstohavebrokenthroughgenderbarriers,tattooinghasnotseen

    widespreadacceptanceacrosssocioeconomiclevels.Adamsfoundthathishypothesisthatsuggesteda

    positiverelationshipbetweenanindividualslevelofeducationandhavingatattoowasnot

    substantiatedbythedata.Prevalenceamongthehighlyeducated,Adamsargued,wouldindicatethat

    societynolongerperceivedtheacquisitionoftattoosasanirresponsibleorrashdecision.However,as

    Figure12indicates,thepercentagesofindividualswhohavetattoosascomparedtothosewhodonot

    havetattoosdecreasesasanindividualslevelofeducationincreases.Similarly,thereisanegative

    relationshipbetweenanindividualsincomelevelandhavingatattoo.Ingeneral,individualswhohave

    higherincomesarelesslikelytohaveatattoothanindividualswhohavelowerincomes.Collectively,the

    resultsfromthesetwohypothesessuggestthattattooingremainsmorepopularamongthelower

    classesthantheupperclasses.Therefore,itwouldseemthattattooingtodayremainsontheoutskirtsof

    societyandthattheaversionfromtattoosbytheupperclassindicatesacontinuedassociationwith

    uncivilizedorunrefinedbehaviors.However,Adamspointsoutthatthetrendmaybebetterexplained

    bynormativeexpectationsintheworkplace(MarkedDifference285).Individualseducationallevel

    oftencorrelatestotheiranticipatedcareertrajectory(AdamsMarkedDifference285).Typicallyjobs

    atthemiddleandhighincomelevelsprohibitemployeesfromhavingtattoos.Therefore,thosewho

    wishtoenterintoamoderatetohighpayingcareertypicallythosewhohaveattainedahigherlevel

    ofeducationwouldabstainfromacquiringatattootomaximizetheiremployability.Tattoosasa

  • Porcella33

    potentialoccupationalconstraintstillindicatesadegreeofitsstigmatizationinsociety.Thefactthat

    tattooinghasfailedtocrossoverintotheprofessionalworldimpliesthattattoosareconsidered

    aestheticallyoffensiveorindicativeofunprofessionalism.

    Thenegativerelationshipthatexistsbetweenageandhavingatattoobestexemplifiesthe

    complexityoftattooingsexistenceintodayssociety.Adamsfoundthattattoosweremuchmore

    prevalentamongindividualsofyoungergenerationsthantheywereamongindividualsofolder

    generations.Thisfindingillustratesbothtattooingsgrowingpopularityanditsfailuretogainfullsocial

    acceptance.Indeed,tattooinghasbecomeincreasinglyprevalentsinceitsadvancementduringthe

    tattoorenaissance.Yetthisgrowingpopularityappearstohaveonlyoccurredamongtheyouth.Youth

    havealwaysbeenconsideredthevehiclesthroughwhichsocialandculturalchangetakeplace.The

    tattooingphenomenonhasemployedtheyouthtoexpanditsacceptanceaswell.Thecommodification

    oftattooinghasbeenprimarilyfocusedonayoungeraudiencewiththemediaemphasizingtattoos

    inherentcoolnessandassociationwithrebellion.Rebellion,despitetypicallyinterpretedasbeing

    negative,appealstotheyoungergenerationswhoseektobreakfreefromauthoritativefigures.Older

    generationsgeneralaversiontotattooingcanbeexplainedbytheirretentionoftraditional

    characterizationsoftattooing.Whenindividualsoftheoldergenerationswerethesameageastodays

    youth,tattooingwasinstinctivelyperceivedasadeviantpractice.Unliketoday,devianceinthosedays

    wasneitherdesirednoracceptedinsociety.SociologistMaryKosutarguesthattheperceptionof

    tattoossharedbyoldergenerationshassuppressedtattooingfromeverattainingsocialacceptance.She

    states,Unlikeotheraestheticculturalformsthatmadethetransitionfrommarginalitytomainstream

    legitimacy,suchasjazz,folkartandphotography,tattooinghasbeenuniquelybeleagueredbyalong

    establishedandpowerfulpublicaversiontothepractice(KosutMadArtists90).Therefore,the

    capacityoftodaysyouthtobemoretolerantandacceptingofculturalchangethanpreceding

  • Porcella34

    generationshasnotbeenenoughtoovercomethenegativitysurroundingthepracticethroughoutits

    history.

    Conclusion

    Peoplemakejudgmentsbecausetheyneedtomakesenseoftheirworld.Tattooingdidnot

    makesensetotheEuropeanexplorerswhodiscoveredthepracticeamongPacificIslanders.Society

    thereforeneededtoconstructaperceptioninordertojustifytheabsurdpractice.Withitsreligious

    backgroundandsocialconservatismactingasinfluences,Europeansocietyadoptedtheperceptionthat

    tattooingwasanactofprimitivenessapracticeonlyuncivilizedpeopleperformed.Yettattooings

    exoticismluredmanyEuropeanstoengageintheverypracticethatsocietyscorned.Monarchs,

    upperclassmanandcircusandsideshowperformersinEuropeandinAmericaneagerlyacquiredtattoos.

    Participationbytheelitetemporarilyelevatedsocietysopinionoftattooing.However,theburgeoning

    entertainmentindustrycausedperceptionsoftattoostoretrogress.Thedisplayofheavilytattooed

    freakishlookingpeoplelessonedtattooingsappealtomainstreamsocietywhilesimultaneously

    attractingmarginalizedindividualstotattooingseccentricsandlucrativebenefits.Associationwithan

    exclusiveandeccentricsocialgroupsentencedtattooingtomarginality.Intheyearsprecedingcircuss

    heyday,tattoosasaunifyingritualshiftedfromonemarginalizedsubculturalgrouptoanotherand

    increasinglybecameassociatedwithdeviance.Devianceevolvedintoselfexpressionwiththehelpof

    counterculturerevolutionistsinthesixtiesandseventies.Todaytattooinghasbecomesoprevalent

    despiteitsretentionofmarginalcharacteristicsthatsocietyisbeingforcedtodevelopanewperhaps

    conflictedperceptionoftattooing.Themedia,consumerism,andarebelliousyouthhaveattemptedto

    paintanimageoftattooingasaprosocialandselfexpressiveartformapplicabletoeverymemberof

    society.Yetasquicklyasjudgmentsaremade,theyarenotquicklyforgotten.Modernsocietyhasbeen

    unabletogranttattooingacceptancebecauseofitslonghistoryofstigmatization.

  • Porcella35

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  • Porcella36

    Burns,Bill.EdisonsElectricPen:1875:thebeginningofofficecopyingtechnology.14Nov.2009.FTL

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    DukeUniversityPress,2000.

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  • Porcella37

    ,Mary.AnIronicFad:TheCommodificationandConsumptionofTattoos.TheJournalofPopular

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    Hudson,2004.

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  • Porcella38

    FigureCreditsFigure2

    Parkinson,Sydney.TheHeadofaChiefofNewZealand.DrawinginJournalofaVoyagetoSouthSeas.

    p.90.StateLibraryofNewSouthWales.17March2009.29Oct.2009.< www2.sl.nsw.gov.au/>.

    Figure3

    Parkinson,Sydney.HeadofOrgoongoon:SonofaNewZealandChief.DrawinginJournalofaVoyage

    toSouthSeas.p.109.StateLibraryofNewSouthWales.17March2009.29Oct.2009..

    Figure4

    dUrville,JulesDumont.TonganTatatau.Drawing.TatatauTonganTattoo.29Oct.2009.

    Figure5

    OliveOatman.Photo.WordPress.com.27July2009.29Oct.2009.

  • Porcella39

    Figure7

    1. Artoria.Photo.CircodaTatuagem.29Oct.2009..

    2. EdithBurchett.Photo.CircodaTatuagem.29Oct.2009..

    3. TheGreatOmi.Photograph.ProdigiesbyJamesG.Mundie.27Sept.2009.29Oct.2009..

    4. CharlesWagnerandCircusFriends.Photo.CircodaTatuagem.29Oct.2009..

    5. CaptainConstentenus.PictureCard.TheHumanMarvel.29Oct.2009..

    6. SatisfiedCustomer.Photo.CircodaTatuagem.29Oct.2009..

    Figure8

    1. GPO/GettyImages.JewishYouth.Photo.Life.15July1945.19Nov.2009..

    2. Waldie,Ian.98288.Photo.Life.4Dec.2004.19Nov.2009..

    Figure9

    BLT&Associates.xXx.MoviePoster.TheChronicle.7April2009.6Nov.2009..

    CloseuponXanderCagesNeck.Image.MovieForums.30Sept.2009.6Nov.2009..

  • Porcella40

    Figure10

    BarbieTotallyStylinTattoosTMDoll.Productimage.Mattel,Inc.2009.31Oct.2009..

    TwoGirlsPlayingWithBarbie.Productimage.Mattel,Inc.2009.31Oct.2009..

    Figure11

    1. Gifford,Amy.Rush.ImageinSellingonSkinTheBestofTattooAdvertising.InventorSpot.

    2009.12Nov.2009..

    2. Gifford,Amy.Chanel.ImageinSellingonSkinTheBestofTattooAdvertising.Inventor

    Spot.2009.12Nov.2009..

    3. Gifford,Amy.IpanemaGiseleBundchenSandals.ImageinSellingonSkinTheBestofTattoo

    Advertising.InventorSpot.2009.12Nov.2009..

    4. Gifford,Amy.PostIt.ImageinSellingonSkinTheBestofTattooAdvertising.Inventor

    Spot.2009.12Nov.2009..

    5. Gifford,Amy.Converse.ImageinSellingonSkinTheBestofTattooAdvertising.Inventor

    Spot.2009.12Nov.2009..

    6. CaptainMorganTattoo.ProductImage.CaptainMorgan.2009.12Nov.2009..

    Tattoos: A Marked HistoryByAudrey PorcellaTable of ContentsResearch ProposalAnnotated BibliographyOutlineIntroductionDiffusion of Tattoos to the Western WorldTattoos in AmericaThe CircusNegativity in the Forties and FiftiesTattoo RenaissanceTattoos TodayTattoos in the MediaCommodification of TattoosTattoos and Body ImageModern Perceptions of TattoosConclusionWorks CitedFigure Credits


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