In the Name of God

Ketabe Arshad Series

Language Teaching Methodology

Fourth Edition

For M.A. and Ph.D. Candidates of

TEFL

By: Arash Saharkhiz Arabani

Assistant Professor at Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran

2017

-1365 ، آرش ، عربانی زسحرخی: سرشناسه Saharkhiz Arabani, Arash: ورآعنوان و پدید by Arash Saharkhiz Arabani. Language Teaching Methodology for M.A. and Ph.D. Candidates of TEFL: عنوان و نام پدیدآور

چهارم: ویراست وضعیت ویراست . م.2017=1396وران پژوهش، : تهران: پ مشخصات نشر ص. 497 : مشخصات ظاهري .ارشد کتاب: فروست 6-269-184-964-978: شابک : فیپا. نویسی وضعیت فهرست ... لنگیویچ: آوانویسی عنوان تدریس --کتاب هاي قرائت –زبان انگلیسی : موضوع ها (عالی) تمرین ها و آزمون --تدریس—کتاب هاي قرائت--سی : زبان انگلی موضوع ها (عالی) ها و تمرین آزمون--زبان انگلیسی : موضوع آزمون ها—ایران –دانشگاه ها ومدارس عالی : موضوع PE 1127/ت37س3 1394 : بندي کنگره رده 640243711/428: بندي دیویی رده 3976634: شماره کتابخانه ملی

انتشارات پوران پژوهش

Language Teaching Methodology نام کتاب:

ربانیعآرش سحرخیز تألیف:

پوران پژوهش ناشر:

پوران پژوهش حروفچینی:

ولیعصر -داالهو : یو صحاف چاپ

نسخه 500 شمارگان:

1396 بهار – چهارم نوبت چاپ:

تومان 26000 قیمت :

978-964-184-269-6 شابک:

ISBN: 978-964-184-269-6

66927040تلفن: 5و4واحد – 9پالك –کوچه مهدیزاده –ابتداي کارگر جنوبی –دفتر مرکزي: میدان انقالب

است، هر کس تمام یا قسمتی از این 1348این اثر، مشمول قانون حمایت مؤلفان و مصنفان و هنرمندان مصوب

گرد قانونی قرار خواهد گرفت.اثر را بدون اجازه مؤلف و ناشر، نشر یا پخش یا عرضه کند مورد پی

دی� ق�م را آ�� ید� ی� �م ��ھا ���

گفتار انتشارات پیش

ها درخواست تحصیل در دهد که در این سال نگاهی به شمار داوطلبان آزمون کارشناسی ارشد نشان می

یشتر داوطلبان، ها افزایش چشمگیري داشته است. دشواري پیش روي ب هاي تحصیالت تکمیلی دانشگاه دوره

هـاي مناسـب بـراي تمـرین و فهـم چنین نمونه آزمـون گوناگونی منابع درسی و نبود دسترسی به آنها و هم

تر مفاهیم درسی است. بیش

با بـیش آقاي دکتر احمد هژبر و همسرشان بانو افسانه عبدي پژوهش، مدیریت بنیاد انتشاراتی پوران

هـاي ارزنـده بـا بهـایی زي نیازداوطلبان، با سیاست کلیِ چـاپ کتـاب سا سال کوشش در راستاي برآورده 20از

را در دستور کار قرار داده است.هاي گوناگون انگیزهي گوناگون با سازي و گردآوري چهار مجموعه درخور، آماده

رنگ) که تاکنون به دست داوطلبان رسیده، با پذیرش (با جلد آبی کتاب ارشدي نخست با نام مجموعه

هـاي گیري همراه بوده است. در هر عنوان کتاب ارشد، پس از شرح کامل درس در هر فصـل، پرسـش چشم

هاي تشـریحی آورده شـده اسـت. شـرح هاي سراسري و آزاد چند سال گذشته با پاسخ اي آزمون چهارگزینه

د است و نیز تر سودمن هاي پایین اي است که براي دانشجویان سال درس در هر کتاب از این مجموعه به گونه

باشد. کتاب ارشد نخستین بار در مهرمـاه ها می یک منبع درسی مناسب براي دانشجویان و استادان دانشگاه

گیرد. عنوان را دربرمی 300اینک بیش از در قالب پانزده عنوان به داوطلبان شناسانده شد و هم 1380سال

اي گردآوري شـده رنگ) به گونه جلد سیاه(با هاي جامع ارشد و دکتري آزموني دوم با نام مجموعه

هـاي گذشـته را بـا سـال کارشناسـی ارشـد و دکتـري هـاي سراسـري هاي آزمون است که دانشجو دفترچه

هاي تشریحی در یک کتاب خواهد داشت. پاسخ

پایه و تخصصیِ هر رشته، یک (با جلد نارنجی رنگ) در دروس بانک تست ارشدي سوم با نام مجموعه

هـاي تشـریحی آورده شـده شده به همراه پاسـخ بندي هاي طبقه رود که در آن پرسش ار به شمار میکتاب ک

ها را به دست آورد. گویی به آزمون ها توانایی بایسته براي پاسخ با حل و بررسی آن است تا دانشجو

ها آموخته اههاي مرجع در دانشگ اي رنگ عرضه شده و به عنوان کتاب ي چهارم که با جلد قهوه مجموعه

بهـاي مؤلفـان بـزرگ ها شامل تألیفات اساتید برجسته کشور و همچنین ترجمه آثار گران این کتاب شود. می

باشد. خارج از کشور می

شود پیشنهادات و انتقادات خود را به پست الکترونیکی انتشارات در پایان از خوانندگان محترم تقاضا می

ارسال فرمایند. info@pouran.netپوران پژوهش

Preface

In this textbook, it has been tried to give the reader a comprehensive picture of

language teaching methodology, clarify the issues, and touch the pivotal concepts in the

field. This textbook is a compilation of concepts from a number of textbooks salient for

the M.A./Ph.D. University Entrance Examination in Teaching English as a Foreign

Language (TEFL). Although in the author’s opinion, the reader does not need to study

the original textbooks necessarily, generally speaking, it is believed that coupling

studying this textbook with studying the original textbooks will enhance the

understanding of issues. It is worth mentioning that the concepts in the main textbooks

have been enriched by some material from other seminal, but secondary sources. To the

aims mentioned above, the author has divided up the whole discussion into three main

issues, namely theoretical bases, historical issues, and actual practices in the field of

applied linguistics; each issue has been discussed under a different section. The logic

behind this decision has been to first initiate the reader into the field of applied

linguistics and its theoretical underpinnings, then present a history of what has gone in

the field during the past century and how the theoretical issues discussed in the previous

section were applied to classroom contexts throughout the past century, and lastly

introduce the actual practices and principles which have been accepted and established

in the field.

It is deeply hoped that this textbook can significantly enhance the understanding of

the field and help the reader gain a considerable knowledge repertoire for both a

satisfactory performance on the M.A./Ph.D. Examination and a successful participation

in M.A./Ph.D. course classes.

Table of Contents

Section I. Theoretical Bases .............................................................. 1 1. Schools of Thought in Human Learning, in First Language Acquisition, and in

Second Language Acquisition ........................................................................... 3 2. Issues in First and Second Language Acquisition .............................................. 44 3. Age and Acquisition ......................................................................................... 51 4. Some General Concepts in Human Learning ..................................................... 65 5. The Brain and Learning .................................................................................... 75 6. Individual Differences (A): Cognitive Individual Differences ............................ 85 Individual Differences (B): Affective Individual Differences ........................... 110 Individual Differences (C): Sociocultural Differences...................................... 125 7. Communicative Competence .......................................................................... 138 8. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis, and Learner Language ........................... 159 9. SLA Theories ................................................................................................. 181

Section II. Historical Issues ........................................................... 201 10. The Nature of Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching ..................... 203 11. A History and the Grammar Translation Method (GTM) ............................... 217 12. Language Teaching Innovations in the 19th Century...................................... 225 13. The Direct Method (DM) .............................................................................. 231 14. Situational Language Teaching (SLT) ........................................................... 237 15. The Audiolingual Method (ALM) ................................................................. 244 16. Cognitive Approach/Cognitive-Code Learning Method (CCLM) ................... 256 17. Total Physical Response (TPR) ..................................................................... 262 18. The Silent Way (SW) .................................................................................... 269 19. Community Language Learning (CLL) ......................................................... 279 20. Desuggestopedia/Suggestopedia (SM/SP) ..................................................... 288 21. Dartmouth Intensive Language Program (DILP) ............................................ 298 22. Whole Language (WL) ................................................................................. 301 23. Multiple Intelligences (MI) ........................................................................... 311 24. Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) ............................................................. 318 25. The Lexical Approach (LA) .......................................................................... 322 26. Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT), Standards, and Common

European Framework of Reference (CEFR) ................................................... 328 27. Proficiency-Based Approach ......................................................................... 338 28. Notional-Functional Syllabus (NFS) ............................................................. 339 29. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) ................................................... 346 30. The Natural Approach (NA).......................................................................... 362 31. Comprehension Approach (CA) .................................................................... 373 32. Acculturation Model ..................................................................................... 375 33. Participatory Approaches (PA) ...................................................................... 377 34. Cooperative Language Learning (CLL) ......................................................... 379

35. Content-Based Instruction (CBI) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) ............................................................................................................... 393

36. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) .......................................................... 410 37. Learning Strategy Training; Learners, Approaches, and Methods; Computer-

Assisted Language Learning (CALL) ............................................................... 432 38. Text-Based Instruction (TBI) ............................................................................ 438 39. The Post-Methods Era and Approaches, Methods, and the Curriculum ........... 442

Section III. Actual Practices.............................................................. 455

40. Teaching Listening ............................................................................................ 457 41. Teaching Reading ............................................................................................. 467 42. Teaching Writing .............................................................................................. 478 43. Teaching Speaking ............................................................................................ 488 44. Teaching Culture ............................................................................................... 496 45. Teacher Education and Teachers, Approaches, and Methods ........................... 501

References ...................................................................................... 507

Appendix A

A Tabulated Summary of Methods and Approaches .............................................. 508

Appendix B

A Sketch of the Developmental Course of Methods and Approaches Throughout the 20th Century ........................................................................................................... 511

SECTION I

THEORETICAL BASES

1. Schools of Thought in Human Learning,

in First Language Acquisition, and in

Second Language Acquisition

Our Field of Study The whole field of applied linguistics (AL) is about the study of

second and foreign language learning and teaching. AL uses information from linguistics, sociology, sociolinguistics, psychology, psycholinguistics, anthropology, and information processing theory in order to:

1. develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then

2. use this information and theory in practical areas such as syllabus design, speech therapy, language planning, curriculum development, methodology, language testing/assessment, etc.

Language, Learning, and Teaching Language: a universal, rule-governed, locally conventionalized

system of communication the main form of which is oral-aural/vocal and one which is species-specific

Learning: a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of reinforced practice, teaching, or experience. It is acquiring or getting of knowledge of a subject or a skill through study, experience, or instruction.

Teaching: ► Traditional definition: Teaching is being a source of knowledge. ► Constructivist definition: Teaching is being a facilitator of

learning. ► A more comprehensive definition: Teaching is showing or helping

someone to learn how to do something, giving instruction, guiding in the study of something, or providing with knowledge, causing to know or understand.

4 Language Teaching Methodology

Research Research (either informal or formal) has been the primary impetus for

any changes in the world throughout history (including the field of applied linguistics).

Therefore, we should accept that each of the three schools of thought in human learning, in first language acquisition, and in second language acquisition includes a research theory as one of its key components to be investigated besides its linguistic and psychological components. Actually, the language and learning theories in each school are deeply influenced and even determined by its research theory. Accordingly, we dissect each school of thought into three components and we study each component for each school in detail:

Research theory: A theory which explains how and through which method researchers should examine phenomena

Learning theory/psychological theory: A theory which explains how learners learn something

Language theory/linguistic theory: A theory which explains the nature of language

Under this topic we investigate three schools of thought in first language acquisition, in second language acquisition, and in human learning in general; however, before investigating these three schools of thought, which have been in vogue since the onset of the previous century and even before it, we will discuss a tradition which we call “the zero school of thought” here, which was prevalent before the emergence and prominence of the first school of thought. As mentioned above, we indentify each school of thought in terms of its three components, but for matters of convenience we assign a short name to each school of thought based on its nature.

The Zero School of Thought: The Traditional Era This period, in fact, was not a true school of thought, but rather it was

a period during which some ideas and common beliefs were prevalent. It had no well-established theory or research basis; nevertheless, just for convenience and for your better understanding we try to discuss it under the three components mentioned for the other schools of thought.

Research Theory: Traditional Rationalism/Mentalism This kind of prescientific rationalism was based on the personal

logic and hunches of theorizers. Armchair speculation was common

5 Section I: Theoretical Bases

practice and research had no room during this era; that is, scholars were not required to test their theories in actual practice. Everything uttered by an authoritative figure or believed as logical was preconceived as true.

Learning Theory/Psychological Theory: Faculty Psychology, German Scholarship, and Traditional Humanistic Orientation

This common belief approach to science influenced all their ideas about learning and language.

Faculty psychology believed in the maxim “Practice makes perfect.” The more one practiced and tried to learn, the more they would succeed regardless of the path through which they practiced.

They viewed brain as a muscle which needs exercise to improve in terms of its volume. Learning was viewed as taking a bitter medicine. As the bitter medicine helps you recover, doing difficult gruesome activities like translation and memorization were believed to enhance learning. Analysis was the main way of learning. That is why the grammar-translation approach was common practice in language teaching during this era. This method stressed the memorization of bilingual vocabulary lists and deductive teaching of grammatical rules.

German Scholarship argued that if you want to know something you should know everything ABOUT it. That is, knowing a language for them meant to know all the rules and exceptions and all the words in that language. This way they believed you can be claimed to know the language and be able to use it. Usage, rather than use, was what mattered. Usage refers to our knowledge about an element in our linguistic system and use refers to our ability to use that element in actual communication. However, as it is clear, knowing all the words and rules of a language does not equal being able to use it.

Traditional Humanistic Orientation was based on the idea of perfectionism and absolutism. Moral values are emphasized and humans should be perfect beings and no mistake in human behavior is tolerated. This idea is extrapolated to learning, too. There should be no errors in human learning. Any error in behavior or learning leads to imperfections in one’s personality and soul and students who have faults in their class work have faults in their personalities.

Language Theory/Linguistic Theory: Prescriptive Grammar and Traditional Approach/Linguistics

Prescriptive grammar refers to a grammar which states rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. Prescriptive grammars are often based not on descriptions of actual usage but rather on the grammarian’s views of what is best. Actually, they prescribe for people how to form their utterances and what kind of structures not to say.

6 Language Teaching Methodology

The First School of Thought: Behaviorism and Structuralism Research Theory: Empiricism and Positivism

Empiricism insisted on only examining observable data and gaining knowledge through experience. Its followers followed a scientific method of observation for analyzing data. Phenomena can and should be studied only in terms of physical processes, without reference to mind. They rejected studying the mind or any other abstract or unobservable phenomena in order to gain knowledge. In this sense they had an anti-mentalistic view, no preconceptions or introspections were allowed in carrying out research, and researchers were required to act objectively. Positivism, as a version of empiricism, asserted that the world is orderly, that all natural phenomena have natural causes, and that nothing is self-evident, but the laws of nature can be discovered through experimentation.

Learning Theory/Psychological Theory: Behaviorism As mentioned above, the research theory influenced all aspects of

their theories of learning and language. Accordingly, their learning theory was only allowed (based on the research agenda of that time) to only investigate what was observable in human learning, namely human behavior; hence the name behaviorism.

Generally speaking, behaviorism states that human and animal behavior can and should be studied only in terms of physical processes, without reference to mind. It led to theories of learning which explained how an external event (stimulus) caused a change in the behavior of an individual (response), based on reinforcement. The whole behaviorism, then, is about stimulus (=S), response (=R), and reinforcement (=Reinfo.):

Therefore, behavioristic theories are called associative theories, because they explain the formation of associations between stimuli and responses.

Since they could not observe what goes on in the mind of the learner, they conceived human mind at birth as a blank slate (tabula rasa) bearing no preconceived notion about the world or language.

7 Section I: Theoretical Bases

Imitation (especially thoughtless imitation=parrot fashion learning), repetition (=rote-learning=verbatim learning=overlearning=mastering), and memorization are the main processes involved in learning and teaching is carried out through the process of habit formation and conditioning the desired behavior. By mechanistic learning they aimed at reinforcing the desired response, so they used mechanical drills to shape the correct behavior in learners.

Analogy rather than analysis is the main way of learning. Analogy points out that when we are placed in a new situation, we tend to react in ways that would be appropriate in similar or analogous situations; that is, we transfer responses from one situation to another. In language learning, it refers to a process by which unknown forms are constructed according to the pattern of other forms that the learner knows.

A multitude of divergent behavioristic theories have emerged during history, but two of the most pivotal branches include Pavlov’s classical conditioning and Skinner’s operant conditioning:

1. Pavlovian Classical/Respondent Conditioning Pavlov and Watson were the known figures of this branch. Pavlov

introduced classical conditioning. For him the learning process equaled the formation of associations between stimuli and reflexive responses. His theory of learning stressed the role of stimuli in learning. According to him, stimuli, or in other words identifiable stimuli elicit certain responses, and it is the repetition of this chain of stimulus-response which leads to learning. In other words, in his theory, responses are the influences of the environment (stimuli) on the organism (the subject or the individual). Responses in his theory are called respondents because they are reactions to the forces of the environment (stimuli):

The stimulus leads to the occurrence of a response: the stimulus elicits a response.

In classical conditioning, the process of conditioning is actualized

through contiguity explanation. It maintains that the simultaneous occurrence of events is sufficient to bring about associative learning. Thus it is sufficient to pair the bell and the meat, for example, a number of times for learning to occur. A stimulus that does not produce a response is paired with a stimulus that does elicit a response. After many such parings the stimulus that previously had no effect begins to produce a response. Contiguous elements exchange their effects. This happens in three stages:

8 Language Teaching Methodology

1. Giving a natural unconditioned stimulus to elicit a natural unconditioned response: the dog’s natural unconditioned response to meat is salivation.

An Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)/A Natural Stimulus Like Meat

An Unconditioned Response (UCR)/A Natural Response Like Salivation

2. Pairing the original natural unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus to condition the organism to the neutral stimulus to elicit the same response: the dog salivates to the pair of the bell ring and the meat.

A Neutral Stimulus (NS) Paired with the UCS Meat + Bell Ring

UCR Salivation

3. Omitting the original natural unconditioned stimulus and just giving the conditioned unnatural stimulus which used to be neutral to elicit an unnatural conditioned response which used to be given to the natural stimulus: the dog this time salivates to mere bell ring.

A Conditioned Stimulus (CS)/An Unnatural Stimulus Bell Ring

A Conditioned Response (CR)/An Unnatural Response Salivation

Three learning processes are central in classical conditioning: ► (Stimulus) generalization: the tendency of a new S similar to the

original S to produce a similar R. For example, the baby sees a dog and learns its name. Next, the baby sees a wolf and calls it a dog because of the similarity.

► Discrimination: when the organism learns to respond to certain stimuli but not to others. It is the opposite of generalization. Here the subjects learn to react differently in different situations. For example, the baby gradually learns to distinguish between a dog and a wolf.

► Extinction: the weakening of the conditioned R in the absence of the original unconditioned stimulus. For example, the dog does not salivate to the ring of the bell any more after not accompanying the bell ring with meat a number of times.

2. Skinnerian Operant Conditioning/Neobehaviorism Skinner and Thorndike were the known figures of this branch.

Skinner, who was called a neobehaviorist (since he introduced a new conceptualization of behaviorism), considered Pavlovian conditioning