Texte_ Física Material

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Jcholrh`l ~lr4@lfkmilu Ebkuuh~h Yhpjch1

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Kmprl`zéålH ~hchwrh gæukeh ë `j lrkijf irjih jf ~b{uku xzj ukimkgkeh mhpzrjth- Jmpål h gæukeh ë h ekämekh xzjjupz`h h mhpzrjth- Glk Hrkupõpjcju xzj k`jhcktlz l jupz`l kulch`l `lu gjmõfjmlu gæukelu `hm`l huukf hlrkijf `juph ojch eh`jkrh -Gæukeh ë h ekämekh xzj jupz`h lu gjmõfjmlu gæukelu xzj lelrrjf mh mhpzrjth-

Pjf elfl lodjepkwl `juelorkr hu rjizchrk`h`ju j hu cjku xzj jmelmprhf uzofjpk`lu lu gjmõfjmlumhpzrhku j zpkckthr&clu ~hrh l ojmjgkekl `l blfjf-Gjmõfjml uål pl`hu hu fz`hméhu j prhmuglrfhéúju xzj lelrrjf mh mhpzrjth

Uål wèrklu lu gjmõfjmlu xzj lelrrjf mh mhpzrjth fhku h gæukeh jupz`h h~jmhu lu gjmõfjmlu fjeïmkelu

"xzj`h `lu elr~lu+# gjmõfjmlu ulmlrlu" jfkuuål `l ulf ~jch wlu# kmuprzfjmplu fzukehku¡+#

gjmõfjmlu përfkelu " `kchphéål `lu elr~lu hl hxzjej&clu# l ijcl hl `jrrjpjr¡+# gjmõfjmlu jcëeprkelu"

jcjeprkthéål `lu elr~lu# hu `juehrihu jcëeprkehu hpflugërkehu+# gjmõfjmlu czfkmlulu " lu rjcïf~hilu#

loujrwhéål `lu ~chmjphu hprhwëu `l jcjeprlueõ~kl¡+# jpe- j l elmdzmpl `jupju pl`lu lu gjmõfjmlurjejojf l mlfj `j gjmõfjmlu gæukelu

Uj h gæukeh jupz`h h mhpzrjth# jmpål l xzj ë h mhpzrjth<

L mlfj `j hcizmu ekjmpkuphu xzj elmprkozærhf ~hrh l `jujmwlcwkfjmpl `juph eh`jkrh uål4 IhckcjzIhckcjk# Ghrh`h{ Clflmluulw# Kuhhe Mjyplm Fhrkj Ezrkj# Hcojrp Jkmupjkm

Fj`k`hu `jelf~rkfjmpl

fj`k`hu `jeh~hek`h`j

Fj`k`hu `juz~jrgæekju

Fj`k`hu `jfhuuh lz ~jul

Fj`k`hu `jwlczfj

Fôcpk~clu af & xzkclfjprlbf& bjepõfjprl`hf& `jeïfjprl

a c& xzkclckprlbc& bjeplckprl`hc& `jehckprl

bh ¸ bjephrjh ¸ hrj

p& plmjch`hx& xzkmphc`hai&

`jehxzkckai^rkmek~hc f& fjprl c ¸ ckprl f¿ & fjprl

xzh`rh`lai & akclirhfh fµ & fjprl eôokel

Uzofôcpk~clu

`f¿& `jeæfjprlxzh`rh`l ef¿& ejmpæfjprlxzh`rh`lff¿& fkcæfjprlxzh`rh`l

`fµ & `jeæfjprleôokelefµ& ejmpæfjprleôokelffµ& fkcæfjprleôokel

Elfl ~l`jflu loujrwhr ml xzh`rl hmpjrklr hu irhm`jthu gæukehu uål `kgjrjmpju ~hrh eh`h ~lmpl jzmk`h`j `j fj`kéål ~lku# elfl ~lku `kpl hmpjrklrfjmpj irhm`jth gæukeh ë pz`l hxzkcl xzj ujrwj ~hrhfj`kr-HuukfXzhc ë l kmuprzfjmpl `j fj`kéål zuh`l ~hrh fj`kr h gzoh ë xzhc ë h uzh zmk`h`j ~rkmek~hc ml ukupjfhkmpjrmheklmhc `j fj`k`hu-





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Hcizfhu cjku `j jupz`l mh eh`jkrh-Cjk `h prhmuglrfhéål j elmujrwhéål `j jmjrikh4 h jmjrikh mål `juh~hrjej mjf uj erkh `l mh`hzmkehfjmpj uj prhmuglrfh `j zf pk~l h lzprl j uj prhugjrj `j zf elr~l lz ukupjfh ~hrh lzprl-

Cjk `j lbf mzf h~lréhl `l ekrezkplH kmpjmuk`h`j `h elrrjmpj zfh ~lréål `l ekrezkpl ë `krjphfjmpj ~rl~lreklmhc h pjmuål mlu jprjflu`juph j kmwjruhfjmpj ~rl~lreklmhc h rjukupämekh-

8´ cjk `j Mjyplm L juph`l mhpzrhc `lu elr~lu ë l rj~lzul lz F_Z- Zf elr~l fhmpjf l ujz juph`l mhpzrhchfjmlu xzj ulorj hepzj zfh glréh jupjrklr xzj ght fz`hr phc juph`l-

Zf ~lmpl fhpjrkhc kulch`l jupè jf rj~lzul lz jf flwkfjmpl rjpkcæmjl zmkglrfj- Kuul ukimk¼eh xzj zf ~lmpl fhpjrkhc kulch`l ~luuzk wjclek`h`j wjplrkhc elmuphmpj-

Kmërekh ë h ~rl~rkj`h`j `h fhpërkh `j rjukupkr h xzhcxzjr whrkhéål jf uzh wjclek`h`j- Zf elr~l jf rj~lzul pjm`j# ~lr kmërekh# h ~jrfhmjejr jf rj~lzul- Zf elr~l jf flwkfjmpl pjm`j# ~lr kmërekh# h elmpkmzhr jf F_ Z-

?¤ cjk ¸ ~rkmek~kl gzm`hfjmphc `h pjrfl`kmïfkeh H rjuzcphmpj `hu glréhu h~ckeh`hu h zf ~lmpl fhpjrkhc ë kizhc hl ~rl`zpl `j uzh fhuuh ~jch

hejcjrhéål h`xzkrk`h4 hfG_

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5¤ cjk `j Mjyplm& ^rkmeæ~kl `h héål&j&rjhéål

Pl`h wjt xzj zf elr~l H jjrej mzf elr~l O zfh glréh # jupj phfoëf jjrej jf H lzprh glréh phcxzj juuhu glréhu4h+ päf h fjufh kmpjmuk`h`j1

o+ päf h fjufh `krjéål1e+ päf ujmpk`lu l~luplu1`+ päf fjufh mhpzrjth# ujm`l hfohu `j ehf~l lz hfohu `j elmphpl-

8 ¤ cjk pjrfl`kmïfkehH Whrkhéål `h jmjrikh kmpjrmh `l ukupjfh ml ~rlejuul `h uzh ~huuhijf `zf juph`l h lzprl# ë kizhc hulfhu `lu prhohcblu `hu glréhu jpjrmhu j `h xzhmpk`h`j `j ehclr prhmufkpk`h `l ukupjfh4 J6 Y!X

Cjk `j ElclfoH glréh `j kmpjkrhéål ml whtkl jmprj `lku elr~lu ~lmpzhku# ehrrjih`lu j kfõwjku ë `krjephfjmpj

~rl~lreklmhc hl xzh`rh`l `h `kuphmekh jmprj jcju-Cjk `j Ghrh`h{ ~hrh h jcjeprlckuj h fhuuh `h uzouphmekh xzj uj ckojrph ml jcëeprl`l `zrhmpj l kmpjrwhcl`j pjf~l p ml ~rlejuul `j ~huuhijf `h elrrjmpj jcjeprkgkeh# ë ~rl~lreklmhc î kmpjmuk`h`j `h elrrjmpjj hl pjf~l-

H elrrjmpju jcëeprkeh ijrh`h mzf ekrezkpl gjkh`l xzhm`l whrkh l m´ `j ckmbhu fhimëpkehu xzjhprhwjuuhf h èrjh ckfkph`h ~lr jupj ekrezkpl1 `j helr`l elf h rjirh `j Cjmt h elrrjmpj jcëeprkeh xzj glkijrh`h mzf ekrezkpl gjebh`l jmelmprh&uj lrkjmph`h `j phc fl`l xzj l gczl fhimëpkel h jch huulekh`lj xzj ~huuh hprhwëu `h uz~jrgæekj ckfkph`h ~jcl ekrezkpl# pjm`j h elf~jmuhr h Whrkhéål `l gczlfhimëpkel ~rlwleh`h ~jch elrrjmpj jcëeprkeh loujrwh`h-

& h kmpjmuk`h`j `h elrrjmpj jcëeprkeh km`ztk`h ë `krjephfjmpj ~rl~lreklmhc î wjclek`h`j `j Whrkhéål `lgczl fhimëpkel xzj ~huuh hprhwëu `h uz~jrgæekj ckfkph`h ~jcl ekrezkpl-& h g-j-f km`ztk`h mzf glrml gjebh`l ë kizhc jf fl`zcl# î wjclek`h`j `j Whrkhéål `l gczlfhimëpkel hprhwëu `h uz~jrgæekj ckfkph`h ~jcl ekrezkpl_jgrheéål `h czt elmukupj mh ~huuhijf `j zf fjkl prhmu~hrjmpj ~hrh lzprl- _jgrheéål ë ijrhcfjmpjhelf~hmbh`h `j fz`hméh u `j `krjeéål `lu fjklu czfkmlulu--_jgcjål `h czt& ë l gjmõfjml xzj uj `h xzhm`l h czt# `j~lku `j kmek`kr mh uz~jrgæekj `j uj~hrhéål `j fjklu õ~pkelurjirjuuh hl fjkl `j lm`j uj ~rl~hihwh-





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Cjku& l rhkl kmek`j h mlrfhc ml ~lmpl `j kmek`ämekh j l rhkl rjgcjepk`l jupål ukpzh`lu ml fjufl ~chml-- l ïmizcl `j rjgcjål ë kizhc hl ïmizcl `j kmek`ämekh--H jmjrikh j h ~rl~rkj`h`j xzj zf elr~l pjf `j rjhckthr prhohcbl fjeïmkel-Jmjrikh jcëeprkeh ë l flwkfjmpl lr`jmh`l `hu ~hrpæezchu ehrrjih`hu mzf elm`zplr-Cjk `h Whrkhéål xzhmpk`h`j `l flwkfjmpl

L kf~zcul `j zfh glréh elmuphmpj xzj hpzh ulorj zf elr~l# ë kizhc î whrkhéål `h xzhmpk`h`j `jflwkfjmpl `l fjufl

Cjk `h kizhc`h`j `lu prhohcblu&`kt xzj l prhohcbl `j zfh glréh flprkt ë kizhc hl prhohcbl `j zfh glréh `j rjukupjmekh-Pjlrkh ekmëpkel flcjezchr-Pl`lu lu elr~lu jupål elmupkpzæ`lu ~hrpæezchu xzj uj jmelmprhf jf elmuphmpj flwkfjmpl ehõpkelu-

Mjuph pjlrkh ebhfh&uj ièu ~jrgjkpl hl ièu elf~lupl ~lr flcëezchu # jmprj hu xzhku h kmpjrheéål ë pål ~jxzjmh xzj ~l`j ujr `ju~rjth`h-

Flwkfjmpl `j Orlymkhml& ë l flwkfjmpl përfkel# ehõpkel# `julr`jmh`lu `hu ~hrpæezchu `ku~jruhumzf ckxzk`l lz ièu#

Kmjrikh& ë h ~rl~rkj`h`j xzj lu elr~lu pjf `j elmujrwhr h uzh wjclek`h`j mh hzuämekh `h heéål `jlzprlu elr~lu ulorj jcj-

Fhuuh kmjrekhc& ë h rjukupämekh xzj lu elr~lu pjf `j h Whrkhéål `h wjclek`h`j xzj ~luuzjf j xzj ëzfh ~rl~rkj`h`j kmpræmujeh `lu fjuflu-Glréh ë pl`h h heéål xzj uj jjrej lorj zf elr~l ehzuhm`l Whrkhéål mh wjclek`h`j ml ujz flwkfjmplJkupjf wèrklu pk~lu `j glréh elfl 4 `j hprkpl# ~jul# `j rjukupämekh# -Lu elr~lu ~l`jf h~rjujmphr `lku pk~lu `j jmjrikh# xzhku uål j `jgkmj&lu

L xzj uål fhxzkmhu ukf~cju< JXzhmpk`h`j ehclr ë h jmjrikh xzj zf elr~l ihmbh lz ~jr`j `zrhmpj h pjrflprhmugjrjmekh-Xzhmphu glrfhu `j ~rl~hihéål `j ehclr jkupj<L xzj ë h pjmuål_jgkrh&uj ulorj h rjukupämekh `lu elm`zplrjuH elrrjmpj jcëeprkeh ~rl~hih&uj phfoëf mlu cæxzk`lu- elfjmpj

Ehclr ju~jegkgkel& ë h jmjrikh mjejuuèrkh ~hrh jcjwhr 8ai `j uzouphmekh h zfh pjf~jrhpzrh `j 8É-L xzj ë zf ekrezkpl jcëeprkel

{ Xzhku uål lu elf~lmjmpju `j zf ekrezkpl jcëeprkel{ L xzj ë mjejuuèrkl ~hrh xzj bhdh elrrjmpj jcëeprkeh ml ekrezkpl{ Elrrjmpj jcëeprkeh j kmpjmuk`h`j `h elrrjmpj

{ Jkupjf `lku pk~lu `j ckihéål `lu elm`zplrju-{ Xzhc ë h gzméål `j zf hezfzch`lr `h elrrjmpj jcëeprkeh<{ Jf xzhc `jcju h elrrjmpj jcëeprkeh mål ulgrj hcpjrhéål hpj hl elmuzfk`lr<

H wjclek`h`j fj`kh mzf F-_-Z-W ë kizhc î ujfk&ulfh `hu wjclek`h`ju kmkekhku j gkmhcF_ZW ë hxzjcj flwkfjmpl jf xzj h whrkhéål `j wjclek`h`j ë `krjephfjmpj ~rl~lreklmhc hlkmpjrwhcl `j pjf~l jf xzj uj wjrkgkeh juuh whrkhéål-





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Kmprl`zéål î L~pkeh8- Kmprl`zéål

H fhklrkh `hu kmglrfhéúju xzj rjejojflu `l fzm`l xzj mlu rl`jkh ë rjejok`h ~lr fjkl `h wkuål# xzj ë ehrhepjrkth`h ~jch kmpjrhéål `h czt elf h rjpkmh `j

mluulu lcblu- Wjflu# irhéhu î ujmukokck`h`j xzj mluulu lcblu h~rjujmphf jf rjchéål î czt xzj ~rlwëf`lu lodjplu-

?- CztH czt ë zfh glrfh `j jmjrikh xzj uj ~rl~hih mlu fjklu fhpjrkhku j phfoëf ml wèezl- H czt jfkpk`h

~jcl Ulc ¸ juprjch fhku ~rõkfh `h Pjrrh ¸ ebjih h mõu jf 2 fkmzplu j ?> ujizm`lu# ~jrelrrjm`l 8:> fkcbúju `j xzkcðfjprlu h zfh wjclek`h`j `j 5>> fkc xzkcðfjprlu ~lr ujizm`l-@j~lku `l Ulc# h juprjch fhku ~rõkfh `h Pjrrh ë h juprjch hcgh `h elmupjchéål `j Ejmphzrl xzj ujjmelmprh h 0#5 hmlu&czt `h Pjrrh# kupl ë# h czt jfkpk`h ~jch juprjch hcgh `jflrh 0#5 hmlu ~hrh ebjihr î

Pjrrh-H irhm`jth 8 hml&czt# fzkpl zuh`h jf Huprlmlfkh# elrrju~lm`j î `kupïmekh ~jrelrrk`h ~jch czt jf zfhml# ml wèezl- ^hrh prhmuglrfhrflu 8 hml&czt jf xzkcðfjprlu# `jwjflu fzcpk~ckehr h wjclek`h`j `hczt ml wèezl# 5>> >>> af,u# ~jcl kmpjrwhcl `j pjf~l `j 8 hml xzj# jf ujizm`lu# elrrju~lm`j h#

h~rlkfh`hfjmpj# 5#8: ¹ 8>9 u- Huukf# pjflu48 hml&czt 6 5#> ¹ 8>: af,u ¹ 5#8: ¹ 8>9 u

H czt jfkpk`h ~jcl Ulc ë orhmeh# zfh czt ~lckerlfèpkeh "wèrkhu elrju+ xzj ~l`j ujr `jelf~luph jfcztju flmlerlfèpkehu "zfh uõ elr+- Hu cztju flmlerlfèpkehu ~rkmek~hku xzj elf~újf h czt orhmehuål jf môfjrl `j ujpj# h uhojr4 wjrfjcbh# hchrhmdh`h# hfhrjch# wjr`j# htzc# hmkc j wklcjph- ^hrhloujrwhrflu h `jelf~lukéål `h czt orhmeh jf uzhu elrju elf~lmjmpju ~rkmek~hku# ohuph ghtjrflu hczt ulchr kmek`kr ulorj zf ~rkufh lz ulorj ilpæezchu `j èizh "hrel&ærku+-

Eh`h elr elf~lmjmpj `h czt orhmeh ~luuzk zfh jmjrikh `kgjrjmpj# j h jmjrikh hzfjmph `h elr wjrfjcbh ~hrh h wklcjph# fhu pl`hu hu elrju ~rl~hihf&uj ml wèezl elf h fjufh wjclek`h`j4 5>> >>> af,u- Mlu fjklu blfliämjlu j prhmu~hrjmpju# h czt uj ~rl~hih jf ckmbh rjph- ^hrh rj~rjujmphrflu h ~rl~hihéål rjpkcæmjh `h czt# zpkckthflu lu rhklu `j czt xzj uål ckmbhu lrkjmph`hu xzj rj~rjujmphf h`krjéål j l ujmpk`l `j ~rl~hihéål `h czt- L elmdzmpl `j rhklu `j czt elmupkpzk zf gjkj `j czt- Huukf#

~l`jflu pjr gjkj `j czt elmupkpzæ`l ~lr rhklu ~hrhcjclu# elmwjrijmpju lz `kwjrijmpju-

Elf ohuj ml elmejkpl `j rhkl `j czt# ~l`jflu rj~rjujmphr lu präu gjmðfjmlu czfkmlulu oèukelu4 rjgcjål# rjgrhéål j houlréål# hprhwëu `hu gkizrhu h ujizkr4





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L~pkeh4 ^rkmek~hku elmejkplu8- Elmejkplu

Hcizmu elmejkplu uål gzm`hfjmphku ~hrh h elf~rjjmuål `lu gzm`hfjmplu `hõ~pkeh- Uål jcju4

H- Elr~lu Czfkmlulu j Kczfkmh`lu

Hu glmpju `j czt uj echuukgkehf jf `lku pk~lu4 glmpju `j czt ~rkfèrkhu j glmpju `j czt ujezm`èrkhu-

Elr~lu Czfkmlulu "lz Glmpj `j Czt ^rkfèrkh+ Uål lu xzj jfkpjf czt ~rõ~rkh- ^lr jjf~cl4 l Ulc# zfh cïf~h`h jcëprkeh kmehm`juejmpj lzgczlrjuejmpj j zf chf~kål-

Elr~lu Kczfkmh`lu "lz Glmpj `j Czt Ujezm`èrkh+ Uål lu xzj rjgcjpjf h czt ~rlwjmkjmpj `j zfh glmpj `j czt ~rkfèrkh- ^lr jjf~cl4 h Czh# zfh ~hrj`j`j zfh uhch xzj `kgzm`j ml hfokjmpj h czt rjejok`h `j zfh cïf~h`h-

Glmpj `j Czt ^zmpkglrfj Zfh glmpj `j czt ë ebhfh`h `j ~zmpkglrfj xzhm`l hu uzhu `kfjmuúju uål `ju~rjtæwjku jf rjchéål î

`kupïmekh `l lodjpl kczfkmh`l-^lr jjf~cl4 zfh wjch clmij `l lodjpl kczfkmh`l-

Glmpj `j Czt JpjmuhZfh glmpj `j czt ë ebhfh`h `j jpjmuh xzhm`l uzhu `kfjmuúju uål elmuk`jrèwjku jf rjchéål î`kupïmekh `l lodjpl kczfkmh`l-Jjf~cl4 zfh wjch ~rõkfh hl lodjpl kczfkmh`l-

O- Fjklu Õ~pkelu Zf fjkl ë `kpl l~hel xzhm`l h czt ~rhpkehfjmpj mål uj ~rl~hih mjcj- Jjf~clu4 fh`jkrh j fjphku-@kt&uj prhmucôek`l xzhm`l h czt uj ~rl~hih# fhu ~jrelrrjm`l ehfkmblu kf~rjwkuæwjku `jwk`l îbjpjrlijmjk`h`j `l fjkl- J# gkmhcfjmpj# `kt&uj prhmu~hrjmpj xzhm`l h czt uj ~rl~hih h irhm`ju`kupïmekhu j ujizm`l prhdjpõrkhu ~rjwkuæwjku j ojf `jpjrfkmh`hu- Mlpj xzj zf fjkl# ~lr jjf~cl# hèizh# ~l`j ujr elmuk`jrh`l prhmu~hrjmpj uj h ju~juuzrh `h ehfh`h `j èizh ~jrfkpkr h ~huuhijf `h cztmhu elm`kéúju `juerkphu hekfh# j ~l`j ujr elmuk`jrh`l l~hel uj h ju~juuzrh`h `h ehfh`h `j èizh glr elmuk`jrèwjc# elfl ml ehul `lu gzm`lu `lu lejhmlu-

E- _hklu `j Czt Ë zfh ckmbh lrkjmph`h xzj fluprh l ujmpk`l `j ~rl~hihéål `h czt mzf fjkl-

@- Gjkrj `j Czt j ^kmejc `j Czt

Jf grjmpj h zfh wjch# elclehflu zf hmpj~hrl elf zf ~jxzjml gzrl- H wjch ë hejuh j kczfkmh hrjikål fluprh`h mh gkizrh hohkl- Juuj ju~hél# ~lr lm`j h czt uj ~rl~hih# ë ebhfh`l ~kmejc `j czt-Zf gjkj `j czt ë elmupkpzæ`l ~jclu kmgkmkplu ~kmeëku `j czt ~rlwjmkjmpju `j zfh glmpj czfkmluh-





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Jcju ~l`jf ujr echuukgkeh`lu4K+ ^kmejc Eðmkel Elmwjrijmpj4 xzhm`l lu rhklu `jczt elmwjrijf ~hrh zf ~lmpl-

KK+ ^kmejc Eðmkel @kwjrijmpj4 xzhm`l lu rhklu`j czt `kwjrijf `j zf ~lmpl-

Õ~pkeh4 _jgcjål `h Czt

8- Kmprl`zéålLu lodjplu xzj mål ~luuzjf czt ~rõ~rkh ¸ lodjplu kczfkmh`lu ¸ uål wkuplu ~lrxzj rjgcjpjf `kgzuhfjmpjh czt xzj mjcju kmek`j- Xzhm`l kczfkmh`lu ~lr zfh czt ~lckerlfèpkeh# zf lodjpl ~l`j mål rjgcjpkr

pl`lu lu elf~lmjmpju `h czt kmek`jmpj# houlrwjm`l hcizmu `jcju- Huukf# ~l`jflu hgkrfhr xzj hu elrjuelf xzj wjflu lu lodjplu elrrju~lm`jf îu elrju `h czt rjgcjpk`h ~lr jcju-

Zf elr~l ë orhmel xzhm`l rjgcjpj pl`hu hu elrju elf~lmjmpju `h czt orhmeh# j zf elr~l ë mjirlxzhm`l houlrwj pl`hu hu elrju xzj mjcj kmek`jf-

Wkwjflu mzf fzm`l `j elrju- Ml jmphmpl# `jwjflu cjforhr xzj lu lodjplu elclrk`lu xzj wjflu hl

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