The Language Teacher - JALT Publicationsjalt-publications.org/files/pdf/the_language_teacher/tlt-39.5.pdf · 27 Gary J. Wolff reviews CNN Student News, Vol. 2 ... Glenn Magee tlt-editor2@jalt

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Feature Articles

3 Absorbed Expectations About English Study of Adolescent Japanese Students: Insights to the Ought-to L2 SelfRichard J. Sampson

9 Japanese Students’ Attitudes Towards the Use of Facebook in the EFL ClassroomGilbert Dizon

Readers’ Forum

15 The Case Against the Case Against Holding English Classes in EnglishRintaro Sato

19 英語教師の成長を促す自己評価チェックリストの提案 • Suggestions on Self-Evaluation Checklists for EFL Teachers in Japan三上明洋 Akihiro Mikami

My Share

22 Classroom ideas from James C. Jensen, Rachel A. Manley, Charles McLarty, and Annie Menard

Book Review

27 Gary J. Wolff reviews CNN Student News, Vol. 2

TLT Wired

30 Practical Introduction of Tablets as Educational ToolsDavid Taquet

JALT Praxis Columns

35 The Writers’ Workshop

37 Teaching Assistance

39 Young Learners

41 Dear TLT

TheLanguage Teacher

The Japan Association for Language Teaching

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THE LANGUAGE TEACHER 39.5 • September / October 2015 1

SEPTEMBER / OCTOBER 2015 • Vol. 39, No.5

ContentsFeature Articles

} Absorbed Expectations About English Study of Adolescent Japanese Students: Insights to the Ought-to L2 Self . . . . . 3

} Japanese Students’ Attitudes Towards the Use of Facebook in the EFL Class-room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Readers’ Forum } The Case Against the Case Against Hold-

ing English Classes in English . . . . . . . . 15

} 英語教師の成長を促す自己評価チェックリストの提案 Suggestions on Self-Evaluation Checklists for EFL Teachers in Japan . . 19

Resources } My Share . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 } Book Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 } Recently Received . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 } Outside the Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 } TLT Wired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

JALT Focus } JALT Notices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 } Showcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 } SIG Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

JALT Praxis } The Writers’ Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . 35 } Teaching Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 } Young Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 } Dear TLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 } Old Grammarians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

} JALT Membership Information . . . . . 44

JALT Publications Online<http://jalt-publications.org>

September/October 2015 online access

Material from all our publications produced in the last 6 months requires a password for access. These passwords change with each issue of TLT and are valid for a 3-month peri-od. To access our archives:

[ login: sep2015 / password: tagqJxLf ]

In this month’s issue . . .

W elcome to the September/October issue of TLT. In this, the third issue after introducing our new JALT Praxis section, we come to you stronger than

ever. Feedback from the readership has been overwhelmingly positive, and we at TLT would like to encourage you to get in touch with column editors if you have particular topics, or a submission, you would like to see in print. After all, our goal, generally speaking, is to promote dialogue within our language teaching community. We thank you for your feedback and for your active participation.

Our second to last issue of 2015 comes loaded with two Feature Articles: Richard J. Sampson, in “Absorbed Expec-tations About English Study of Adolescent Japanese Students: Insights to the Ought-to L2 Self”, offers a qualitative study on contextualizing motivation in Japanese Kosen students; and Gilbert Dizon, in “Japanese Students’ Attitudes Towards the Use of Facebook in the EFL Classroom”, explores the benefits of using Facebook as a language learning tool. In the Readers’ Forum, we bring you two articles: first, “The Case Against the Case Against Holding English Classes in English”, by Rinta-ro Sato refutes the opinion by many teachers who see the MEXT decision to hold English classes entirely in English as inefficient; second, “Suggestions on Self-Evaluation Checklists for EFL Teachers in Japan”, by Akihiro Mikami, argues for incorporating self-evaluation checklists for EFL teachers as part of their professional development.

To the more classroom-minded reader, we bring four great My Share practical activities by James C. Jensen, Rachel A. Manley, Charles McLarty, and Annie Menard. In Book Reviews, Gary J. Wolff reviews CNN Student News, Vol. 2. In addition, we have new thought-provoking articles in TLT Wired and Outside the Box. Of course, also be sure to meander through our JALT Focus section and see what’s going on in the larger JALT community.

A hearty thank you to all the volunteers at TLT who work to bring the readers six quality issues a year. From the production team to the column editors and editorial staff, TLT is made possible by volunteers who are energetic and enthusiastic about getting involved and collectively contributing to the

TLT Editors: Carol Borrmann-Begg, John RobertsTLT Japanese-Language Editor: Toshiko Sugino

Continued over

2 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online • <http://jalt-publications.org/tlt>

The Language Teacher • Foreword & JALT Information

acquisition and dissemination of ideas that help keep our professional fields and personal interests lively and energized. At TLT, we are always looking for volunteers who can help us not only run the journal, but take an active role in developing and improving the quality of TLT. If you are interested in getting involved in, copyediting, proofreading, or editing, don’t hesitate to contact us.

Finally, and certainly not least, a brobdingnag-ian thank you and Otsukaresama-deshita to Carol Borrmann-Begg, who is completing her tenure as TLT senior co-editor. This being Carol’s final issue, we thank her for all her hard work, and wish her the best with future endeavors.

Please enjoy what we have to offer here in the September/October issue.

John Wolfgang Roberts, TLT Co-EditorGlenn Magee, TLT Associate Editor

T LT9/10月号へようこそ。新JALT Praxisセクション導入以来3号目になりますが、TLTは進化し続けています。読者の皆様から非常に肯定的なフィードバッ

クをいただいていますが、論文や記事を書くことを考えている方は、各コラムの編集者に連絡を取り、ぜひ出版されるようお勧めします。我々の究極の目標は言語教育に携わる人々の会話・交流を推進させることですので、皆様のフィードバックや積極的な参加を感謝しております。

2015年の最後から2番目にあたる本号では、2本のFeature Articleがあり、Richard J. Sampsonが“Absorbed Expectations About English Study of Adolescent Japanese Students: Insights to the Ought-to L2 Self”の中で、日本の高専の学生におけるcontextualizing motivation（文脈化への動機）に関する質的研究を提供し、Gilbert Dizonは“Japanese Students’ Attitudes Towards the use of Facebook in the EFL Classroom ”の中で、語学学習の手段としてのフェイスブック利用の利益について調査研究しています。Readers’ Forumは2本あり、最初に、Rintaro Satoが、“The Case against the Case against Holding English Classes in English”の中で、英語のみで英語の授業をするというMEXTの決定は非効率であるという多くの教師の意見に反論します。次に、Akihiro Mikamiが、“英語教師の

成長を促す自己評価チェックリストの提案”の中で、EFL教師のための自己評価チェックリストを専門能力の開発の一部として取り込むよう提案します。

授業のやり方に興味を持つ読者のために、My Shareでは、James C. Jensen、Rachel A. Manley、Charles McLarty、Annie Menardの4氏がそれぞれ、実用的なアクティビティを紹介します。Book Reviewでは、Gary J. Wolffが、CNN Student News, Vol.2を論評します。さらに、TLT WiredとOutside the Boxでは、啓蒙的な新記事を提供します。もちろんJALT Focusを読めば、より大きなJALTコミュニティーについて知識を深めることもできます。

ここで、良質な論文誌を年に6回読者に届ける仕事をして下さるボランティアの皆様に感謝を表したいと思います。制作チームからコラムの編集者や編集スタッフまで、TLTはエネルギッシュで熱意にあふれたボランティアで成り立っていますが、一致団結し、専門分野や個人の興味を活性化し、やる気を起こさせてくれるような様々なアイデアを見つけ出し、皆様にお届けしています。TLTでは、この論文誌を発行し続けるためだけではなく、TLTの質の開発、向上のためにも、常にボランティアを募集しております。原稿整理編集、校正や編集に興味がある方は、ぜひご連絡ください。

最後になりましたが、本号で担当を終えるTLT Senior co-editorのCarol Bormann-Begg氏に心からの感謝の言葉を捧げます。これまでの貢献に感謝するとともに、これからのますますのご健闘をお祈りします。

　皆様、どうぞ9/10月号をお楽しみください。John Wolfgang Roberts, TLT Co-Editor

Glenn Magee, TLT Associate Editor

Correction: In the July issue of TLT, In the JALT Notices col-umn on p. 30, we introduced a new Associate Member, Cor-nelsen. The final sentence of the article should have read, “Only our local partners, such as Seibido Publishing (which Cornelsen is already working with), have the expert regional knowledge which will ensure the best possible fit between coursebooks and learners.” We apologise for the error.

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Sampson: Absorbed Expectations About English Study of Adolescent Japanese Students . . .

Absorbed Expectations About English Study of Adolescent Japanese Students:

Insights to the Ought-to L2 Self

Richard J. SampsonGunma University

Dörnyei’s (2009) L2 Motivational Self System draws the notion of possible selves into understanding language learning mo-tivation. Whilst one element of this system involves language learners’ perceptions of expectations from significant others, research has revealed inconsistent conclusions as to the role of these influences on motivation. Moreover, little research has uncovered a picture of the qualities of such absorbed expec-tations. This paper presents part of a qualitative study into the contextualized motivation of one class group of first-grade Japanese kosen students. Emergent from data collected over one year, the results reveal that these students held detailed, often conflicting perceptions of expectations absorbed from various sources in their social environment. The results sug-gest that further research is necessary to explore the devel-opment of such perceived expectations with students and to investigate the impact on motivation of conflicting detail in expectations.

Dörnyei (2009)のL2 Motivational Self Systemは、第2言語学習者の動機を理解するためにpossible self概念を用いている。第2言語学習者が感じる「他人の期待」が動機付けになるというのがこのシステムの一部だが、その動機への影響に関して今までの研究結果は一貫性に欠けている。その上、第2言語学習者が感じる「他人の期待」の質に関する研究も少ない。本論は、ある工業高等専門学校１年の学生の動機を質的に調べる研究の一部である。1年間に収集したデータの分析により、学生が社会環境の様々な情報源から得た、詳細だが時には矛盾する期待を感じていたという結果が導き出された。第2言語学習者への「他人から感じる期待」を考察し、矛盾する期待が動機へ及ぼす影響について、更なる研究が必要とされる。

D örnyei (2009) reconceptualised lan-guage-learning motivation with his highly influential L2 Motivational Self System. This

system posits an important role for interactions be-tween language learners’ ideas of self and the learn-ing environment in the development of motivation, and draws on the notion of possible selves (Markus & Nurius, 1986). In part connected to Dörnyei’s system, in the L2 motivation literature there is a growing consideration of learners as holistic human beings who have lives and experiences predominantly out-side the language classroom (Ushioda, 2013). Indeed, one of the original proponents of possible-self the-ory, Markus (2006) contends that “the social world,

particularly peoples’ relations with others, is very often the source of the materials for the creation of possible selves, and has a large hand in what, if any-thing, is done with them” (p. xii). Considering these social elements, there is a clear need for research that encourages language learners to give voice to their perceptions of influences on motivation from their own particular social environment.

The L2 Motivational Self SystemDörnyei (2009) put forth a motivational system composed of three elements. The Ideal L2 Self is the image of who we wish to become, our best possible self in the second language-learning domain. The Ought-to L2 Self is what one believes about exter-nal influences, the “attributes that one believes one ought to possess to meet expectations and to avoid possible negative outcomes” (p. 29; italics in original). Such external influences are primarily socially constructed through the explicit or per-ceived expectations of significant others. Lastly, the L2 Learning Experience concerns motives emergent in the learning environment, such as the teacher, curriculum, lesson style, and so on.

Much research (i.e., Dörnyei & Chan, 2013; Magid, 2015) and pedagogical material (i.e., Dörnyei & Kubanyiova, 2013; Hadfield & Dörnyei, 2013) has focused heavily on learners’ images of an ideal L2 self. For example, Magid’s (2015) research with Chinese international students studying at a British university found that these students reported put-ting more time and effort into English study as their images of ideal L2 self became stronger. Regarding the ought-to L2 self however, recent literature gives a conflicting picture of its influence in different contexts (i.e., Csizér & Lukács, 2010; Dörnyei & Chan, 2013; Lamb, 2012; Pigott, 2011). For instance, Csizér and Lukács’ (2010) research with high school students in Hungary found that the ought-to self had very little influence on motivated behaviour, with these scholars suggesting that “the lack of the emergence of an ought-to self dimension might . . .


The Language Teacher • Feature Article

be explained by the fact that the secondary-school participants are still relatively young to internalise the pressure the environment might put on them” (p. 6).

In contrast to such findings, research conducted by Pigott (2011) in the Japanese high school context found that 89% of respondents reported a stronger influence on their motivation from the ought-to L2 self than an ideal self using English in the future (p. 544). The present paper is an attempt to build on Pigott’s insightful findings by exploring the detail of ought-to L2 self images that Japanese adolescent students in one class expressed during a qualitative research project.

The StudyThe current paper focuses on one dimension of an emergent, interpretive study of EFL learning motivation carried out in Japan (Sampson, 2014). The research was conducted longitudinally over one year with one class of 40 students aged 15-16 years at a kosen, a 5-year college of technology. These first-grade students had just made a transition from the regular Japanese junior-high school system to a college environment in which their studies focused primarily on the development of young, work-ready engineers. The participant group existed naturally together in the context of the kosen for only one year (April 2011–February 2012), and so data were collected over this period that the group was de-fined in the environment of study.

MethodMy previous experiences with older students at the college had been of disengaged learners who struggled to understand the purpose of their com-pulsory English studies. For this study, I used action research to introduce change-action activities to encourage members in a class group that I was teaching to reflect on and share their ideas about EFL motivation and an English-using self. I used ac-tion research as it lends itself to the pursuit of both new knowledge and change in classroom spaces (Dick, 2000). The discussion in this article focuses in particular on one of the introduced change-ac-tion activities.

Predominantly qualitative data collection tools were employed. Activity worksheets encouraged learners to reflect on and compare ideas of self and EFL learning motivation. Learning journals (LJ) elicited student experiences about using such activ-ity worksheets and in general about sessions with me as their teacher. Phelps (2005) has argued that

reflective journals are a particularly effective tool in education research as they allow participants to give voice to the “complex interplay of factors that impact upon an individual” (p. 40). Students wrote in these LJs in Japanese at the end of each session to allow the collection of detailed data that directly followed experience of the change-action activities and lessons. Although there were additional sources of data, the discussion in this paper draws on the aforementioned two forms.

Data AnalysisData were analysed during the action research by looking for repetitions and regularities in data sources to find connections in the data (see Ryan & Bernard, 2003). Broad themes emergent from a selection of texts were compared with a further selection, involving the reading of all participant texts at that data-collection point. The analysis was conducted in the first instance in Japanese, with extracts then being translated and analysed again in English. Themes from the Japanese and English analyses were then compared for congruence. In line with the action research cycle, analysis was iterative as new data led me to introduce additional change-action activities to add further depth to my understandings.

Results and InterpretationsAt various times throughout the year I noticed in students’ reflections in their LJs hints of the ways in which they perceived expectations from society around them regarding their future English abil-ities. The following extract is representative (all names are pseudonyms):

Through today’s lesson, I thought once again how necessary English is for the globalizing world, for my future when I go out into society. (Aoi, LJ, 12/4/2011)

Aoi’s writing reveals that she perceives English ability as a necessary quality of future membership of adult society in Japan, possibly due to process-es of globalisation, leading to a sense of pressure from the world around her. In another example, a role-model presentation in which an older student made a speech about his experiences during an overseas internship, one student, Yuma, was en-couraged to write in great detail about the influence of the opinions of those around him on his ideas of future possibility:

I think that I want to do some kind of work re-lated to space. If I only could, I’ve even thought

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that I’d like to become an astronaut. But from all around, all I hear is, “you’re dreaming!” or “get real!” And then, I’ve even been told, “If you go overseas to where lots of international engineers come together, you’ll have to speak not only En-glish but many other languages too.” But listen-ing to today’s presentation about the overseas internship, and the fact that you don’t have to have perfect English, my motivation has gone up. I might be following a dream too much, but I want to try! (Yuma, LJ, 11/5/2011)

Yuma reflects on the ways in which the opinions of those around him have swayed his ideas of a future occupation. Such extracts from students reveal the possible influence of the ought-to L2 self on their conceptions of future possibility, as they perceive expectations from those around them.

Absorbed Expectations from PeersAs reflected in Yuma’s writing above, a significant influence on attitudes towards learning English for many youths is the values perceived from imme-diate peer networks (Ryan, 2009). Hints of such influences were revealed in the regular LJ writing of students. For example, some students made social comparisons with others relating to their own level of effort in studying:

At first today we thought about the goal we’d set at the start of second semester. Everyone had been doing something, even a small thing, to move towards their goals. But I haven’t been doing anything, so I got uneasy. So I think I’ll change it to a smaller goal that I can achieve soon. (Taichi, LJ, 8/12/2011)

Taichi’s reflection implies an initial perception that his peers would also not be expecting serious engagement in working towards English goals. He expresses surprise and anxiety however when he realises that this perception was misplaced, and motivation through this peer-comparison to adjust his actions. Other students also wrote of perceived inferiority with others leading to expectation:

When friends said they did an [overseas] home-stay, or lived in England, I thought I want to get close to English so that I don’t lose out to those kinds of experiences. (Sayaka, LJ Reflection 1, 5/10/2011)

Sayaka compares herself with peers who have experience overseas, and notes that she doesn’t want to “lose out to those kinds of experiences.” Her comment suggests that for her, comparison with peers encourages her to perceive such overseas experience as an expectation.

A further aspect of felt pressure from peers emerged through the way in which some students reflected on expectations of a certain level of En-glish ability, usually through achievement on tests. For example, one participant made several compar-isons with his sister and her experiences of English learning and taking a common test of English in Japan:

My older sister is really good at English, and she’s been making fun of me, so that’s given me more motivation. Although my sister has Eiken pre-1st grade, I’ve never even tried taking the Eiken test, so I’ve developed a kind of inferiority complex. But I think not having anything [test certificate] is really not all that good, so I want to try so I can get about the 3rd grade. (Shun, LJ Reflection 1, 5/10/2011)

Introducing Change-ActionSuch responses from student LJ writing prompted me to introduce an activity that explicitly encour-aged students to write brief ideas of expectations connected to English from teachers, companies, and family members. They then mingled and compared these perceptions (see Appendix A for the work-sheet used). Although these written reflections do not allow an understanding of their connections to motivation for these students, they do allow some insight into the kinds of perceptions of pressures and expectations regarding English that students may have been bringing into the classroom with them. The following three sections describe some of the key themes emergent from this activity (all responses are dated 11/1/2012).

Absorbed Expectations from TeachersFirstly, student writing reveals a split between a

majority of students who believed their teachers had only basic expectations of competence for them, and a minority who perceived higher expec-tations of competence:

Lower expectations of competence• The least necessary level of English (conversa-

tion, reading etc.) (Masa)• Able to use to the level least necessary in soci-

ety. (Tetsuo)• Want me to acquire basic English ability. (Ma-

koto)



Higher expectations of competence• Want [me] to master [it]. (Koji)

These students have clear ideas of what teachers expect of them regarding their English studies, and unfortunately these perceived expectations were not on the whole positive. It is well documented how the expectations of teachers can influence student motivation and engagement in learning (Brophy, 1998; Dörnyei, 2001). As Dörnyei (2001) put it, “if you [the teacher] show commitment towards the students’ learning and progress, there is a very good chance that they will do the same thing” (p. 34). However, the message that the majority of these learners brought into the class group was that teachers held quite low expectations for their English learning.

Absorbed Expectations from CompaniesIn contrast, learners’ perceptions of expectations from companies regarding their English abilities not only featured pressure to attain a high degree of competence, but also included reference to specific tasks or purposes for which they might be expected to use English:• English ability to the degree that can do busi-

ness with foreign business partners. Can un-derstand electronic communications correctly. (Eiji)

• Level such that [I] can convey [my] will at meet-ings and presentations. (Tetsuo)

• English ability to a degree that [I] can be active even overseas. (Seiya)

As the final extract from Seiya attests, students often believed that companies would expect them to use English when going overseas or for commu-nication with those overseas. Whilst Ushioda (2013) has argued that in the modern world the idea of foreign language learning has in many ways become untenable due to the relative ease of both virtual and physical travel (p. 5), the perceived expectations of companies that these students brought with them into the classroom suggest that, for many, English is still something predominantly foreign:

Going overseas• Even if [I] go overseas, not an embarrassing

level of English. (Reiji)• Can work overseas. (Kousuke)

Communication with those overseas• Dealing with orders from overseas etc. (Masa)• Someone capable who can use English in the

case that the other company is foreign. (Sa-toshi)

• Email communication with overseas compa-nies. (Jiro)

Absorbed Expectations from Family MembersThe expectations that students perceived from their families also revealed the use of English primarily outside of Japan in the form of travel:• Can interpret at travel destinations. (Eiji)• Useful for travel. (Teru)

In parallel with the perceived expectations of teachers, student writing showed that many stu-dents believed their families held very low expecta-tions for their progress with English study:• Can do somewhat. (Reiji)• Not hoping anything especially. (Koji)• Not necessary. (Ryo)• Nothing special. (Yu)

As Brophy (1998) contends, “each person has a unique motivational system, developed in response to experiences and to socialisation from significant others in his or her life” (p. 168). For adolescent students, parents are one such significant influence. Research by Taylor (2013), with EFL learners in Ro-mania found that neither their teachers nor parents really expected English to play an important role in the students’ future. Taylor also observed a gap between teacher and parent concerns and student conceptions about English: Whilst the former pri-marily considered English an academic subject and held short-term expectations about grades and ex-aminations, students “could not emphasise enough how much they wished lessons would prepare them for real life” (p. 119). The writing of students in my study is perhaps even more shocking due to the apparent disinterest that these students perceive from their family members. For students who bring into the classroom with them a belief that family members, those who have probably been closest to them up to this point in their lives, are not hoping anything especially for their English studies, moti-vation to learn must undoubtedly be affected.

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Sharing Understandings of ExpectationsStudent LJ writing concerning this activity hints that expectations are experienced as part of the ought-to L2 self, as students reflected on a kind of pressure to match up to these expectations:

When I think that there are people who expect things of us, I thought that I have to do my best. (Daiki, LJ, 11/1/2012)

Up until today I hadn’t really thought deeply about how there are expectations of me, but through thinking, something became heavy. . . . I thought to study hard. (Kazu, LJ, 11/1/2012)

As Kazu’s extract reveals, it also appears that the ways in which the change-action activity encour-aged students to reflect on their own understand-ings whilst comparing with their peers allowed a valuable opportunity to notice ideas about expecta-tions:

I was able to think afresh about myself and the people close around me. All the other people’s ways of thinking were all different. I thought [they] would be thinking something kind of the same, but every person had their own different thoughts. (Taku, LJ, 11/1/2012)

ConclusionThe analysis in the current research revealed vari-ous forms in which participants perceived conflict-ing expectations about their English learning and future English use from those around them in their particular social environment. It hints that stu-dents perceive expectations as a form of pressure, but also that this pressure may be subconscious. The research suggests the potential benefits of explicit exploration with students of their ideas of such absorbed expectations, as well as the chance to compare their own ideas with those of their peers and perhaps the actual expectations of those around them. Teachers could allow students to discuss past research findings about the expecta-tions of teachers and potential employers from the students’ particular context (in the kosen context, one excellent source is Koseneigo kennkyuuiinkai, 2008). Another potentially fruitful activity would be to ask students to interview close family members and their peers about what they hope or expect for that individual. Through such activities learners might become more cognizant of expectations about their EFL learning, and reflect on the reasons for those expectations. Further research is necessary to investigate how perceptions of these absorbed pressures develop, in what ways they influence

motivational trajectories of individuals over time, and how dynamically changing, congruent, and dis-crepant perceptions of expectations from the social context interact.

ReferencesBrophy, J. (1998). Motivating students to learn. Boston:

McGraw Hill.Csizér, K., & Lukács, G. (2010). The comparative analysis

of motivation, attitudes and selves: The case of English and German in Hungary. System, 38, 1-13.

Dick, B. (2000). Approaching an action research thesis: An overview. Retrieved from <http://www.aral.com.au/resources/phd.html>.

Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9-42). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

Dörnyei, Z., & Chan, L. (2013). Motivation and vision: An analysis of future L2 self images, sensory styles, and imagery capacity across two target languages. Language Learning, 63(3), 437-462.

Dörnyei, Z., & Kubanyiova, M. (2013). Motivating learners, motivating teachers: Building vision in the language class-room. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hadfield, J., & Dörnyei, Z. (2013). Motivating learning. Harlow: Longman.

Koseneigokyouikunikansuruchousakenkyuuiinkai [Re-search committee for the survey into English educa-tion at kosen]. (2008). Koutou-senmon gakkouni okeru eigokyouikuno genjouto kadai (2) [Realities and challeng-es for English education in kosen (2)]. Motosu, Japan: Council of College English Teachers.

Lamb, M. (2012). A self system perspective on young ado-lescents’ motivation to learn English in urban and rural settings. Language Learning, 62(4), 997-1023.

Magid, M. (2014). A motivational programme for learners of English: An application of the L2 motivational self system. In K. Csizer & M. Magid (Eds.), The impact of self-concept on language learning (pp. 333-356). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

Markus, H. R. (2006). Foreword. In C. Dunkel & J. Kerpel-man (Eds.), Possible selves: Theory, research and applica-tions (pp. xi-xiv). New York: Nova Science Publishers.

Markus, H. R., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. Ameri-can Psychologist, 41(9), 954-969.

Phelps, R. (2005). The potential of reflective journals in studying complexity “in action”. Complicity: An Interna-tional Journal of Complexity and Education, 2(1), 37-54.

Pigott, J. D. (2011). Self and motivation in compulsory English classes in Japan. In A. Stewart (Ed.), JALT2010 Conference Proceedings (pp. 540-550). Tokyo: JALT.



Ryan, G. W., & Bernard, H. R. (2003). Techniques to iden-tify themes. Field Methods, 15(1), 85-109.

Ryan, S. (2009). Ambivalence and commitment, liberation and challenge: Investigating the attitudes of young Jap-anese people towards the learning of English. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 30(5), 405-420.

Sampson, R. J. (2014). Classroom application of the L2 motivational self system—A complex systems theory ap-proach. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Brisbane: Griffith University.

Taylor, F. (2013). Self and identity in adolescent foreign language learning. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

Ushioda, E. (2013). Motivation and ELT: Global issues and local concerns. In E. Ushioda (Ed.), International perspectives on motivation: Language learning and pro-fessional challenges (pp. 1-17). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

Richard Sampson has been work-ing in the Japanese educational context for over 15 years. He holds a MAppL from the University of Southern Queensland (Australia), and a PhD from Griffith Universi-ty (Australia). His research inter-ests include language learner and teacher motivation as a complex system and possible selves. He can be contacted at <[email protected]>.

Appendix: Expectations Activity Worksheet (English translation)You may have various predictions or expectations about your own future, for example, “such-and-such English ability is necessary”, “there might be an occasion to do such-and-such using English” or “as a graduate of kosen I want to be active in such-and-such a field.” However, in the table below, don’t write your own ideas, but instead write what you think other people are expecting of you.

English Kosen Graduate

1. Teachers

2. Companies

3. Family

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JALT’s publications offer advertisers direct access to these motivated people.

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FEATURE ARTICLE

Japanese Students’ Attitudes Towards the Use of Facebook in the EFL Classroom

Gilbert DizonHimeji Dokkyo University

Facebook is the most widely used social networking site in the world. However, little is known of the views that Japanese stu-dents have towards its use to enhance language learning. This paper reports on a survey of students in Japan to determine their perceptions of the use of Facebook in four EFL courses. The participants were 41 students who were a part of the Fac-ulty of Foreign Studies at a university in Japan. Students were divided into separate Facebook groups according to their class and were required to participate in weekly discussions through the site. The results revealed that the survey respon-dents had moderately favorable views of using Facebook to learn English. In particular, the site’s ease of use, convenience, and low-stress environment were seen as distinct advantag-es. These findings illustrate that Japanese students perceive Facebook as a beneficial tool for language learning.

Facebookは世界中で最も広く利用されているSNS（ソーシャルネットワーキングサービス）である。しかしFacebookの言語学習への利用について、日本の学習者がどんな認識を持っているかはほとんど知られていない。本論では4つのEFLクラスでの、Facebook利用に関する日本人英語学習者の認識調査を報告する。対象者は大学の外国語学部に属する英語学習者41名で、クラスごとに別のFacebookグループに分けられ、週に1度Facebookを通じたディスカッションに参加した。その結果、英語学習のためのFacebook利用に関して、学習者は概ね好意的な認識を持っていることが示された。特に、サイトの使いやすさ、便利さ、ストレスの低い環境といった要因が大きな利点として挙げられた。これらの結果から、EFL学習者がFacebookを言語学習の有益なツールとして捉えていることが明らかになった。

A lthough numerous social networking sites have sprung up over the past decade, the most widely used one is Facebook. As of

December 2014, the site had 890 million daily active users, with approximately 82% of them outside of the US and Canada (Facebook, 2015). Because of this, Blattner and Fiori (2009) state that language teach-ers “need to capitalize on the fact that Facebook is already an integral part of many students’ e-routine” (p. 21). However, while online academic platforms such as Blackboard and Moodle have been used exten-sively at the university level, integration of Facebook has lagged behind despite its potential as a powerful learning tool.

Nonetheless, some believe that Web 2.0 tech-nologies such as Facebook may not be appropriate or constructive in the context of formal language

teaching and learning (Lohnes & Kinzer, 2007; Way-cott, Bennett, Kennedy, Dalgarno, & Gray, 2010; Sal-away, Caruso, & Nelson, 2007). Moreover, though EFL students’ views of Facebook have been studied in other regions (Shih, 2011; Bani-Hani, Al-Sobh, & Abu-Melhim, 2014; Omar, Embi, & Yunus, 2012; Suthiwartnarueput & Wasanasomsithi, 2012), little is known about the attitudes of students in Japan regarding the use of Facebook to learn English. Giv-en this gap in the literature, the primary aim of this study is to investigate the perceptions of Japanese EFL students concerning the use of Facebook in the classroom.

BackgroundNot only have recent studies shown that Facebook can support foreign language learning, but students seem to have positive views of its use. Shih (2011) examined the effect of incorporating Facebook in an English writing class at a university in Taiwan. The 23 students who participated in the study were di-vided into three groups based on their English pro-ficiency level: high, medium, and low. Each group was then further divided into two separate Facebook groups or sites where the learners were responsible for posting their weekly assignments, evaluating the writing of their peers, and giving feedback and comments. The participants were given pre- and post-tests of their English writing to determine the impact that the Facebook assignments had on their writing development. The results showed that the learners were able to develop their English organi-zation, grammar and structure, content, vocabulary, as well as spelling through the activities.

In addition to analyzing the students’ writing, Shih (2011) also investigated their attitudes towards the use of Facebook in a blended learning environ-ment through a 30-item questionnaire. Each item was based on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. He found that the students had moderately to highly positive views regarding the use of Facebook in the course. Moreover, the participants indicated that the blended learning approach could help improve the students’ communication, trust, friendship, and



interaction with one another as well as enhance their motivation.

A study by Bani-Hani, Al-Sobh, and Abu-Mel-him (2014) also looked at students’ perceptions of Facebook in an EFL classroom. The 42 female Jordanian university students in the study were added to a Facebook group by the researchers and were instructed to brainstorm, write an entry, and then give each other corrective and formative feed-back. According to the results of the 10-item survey created by the researchers, the participants viewed Facebook as being beneficial to the development of their English writing skills. Nevertheless, nearly half of the students preferred a traditional task instead of writing via Facebook. This is significant because it reveals that some learners may not perceive social networking sites such as Facebook to be appropriate for formal teaching and learning activities.

Another study that incorporated Facebook in an EFL context is Omar et al.’s (2012) investigation of English learners’ use of Facebook groups in task-based activities. The 31 learners in the study were enrolled in an English language communication course at a university in Malaysia. Students were divided into seven groups, each based on a theme chosen by the learners and the instructor. After the conclusion of the task, the learners’ participatory patterns were analyzed and their perceptions of Facebook were collected via an open-ended ques-tionnaire. According to the results of their study, Omar et al. (2012) found that the students displayed a high-level of participation, with each student av-eraging 18 entries, three times the number that was required. Moreover, the authors discovered that 100 percent of the questionnaire respondents (n=28) had favorable views towards the use of Facebook in an information-sharing task. Notably, many of the students also expressed that the site allowed them to “communicate more freely and comfortably with their group members, especially those who were shy and lacked confidence for face-to-face interaction” (p. 71). This is an important finding as it suggests that Facebook can help lower the affective filter (Krashen, 1982) of L2 learners.

Suthiwartnarueput and Wasanasomsithi (2012) also carried out a study examining the use of Face-book in the L2 classroom. A total of 83 first-year university EFL students in Thailand took part in the study, which examined the effects that Facebook had on the writing skills of the learners. Pre- and post-tests were administered to assess the students’ English grammatical and writing competence. The authors concluded that Facebook did indeed en-hance competence in both areas. Moreover, in order gain more insight into the learners’ views of the site,

semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 of the participants. According to Suthiwartnarueput and Wasanasomsithi (2012), all of them had positive perceptions towards its use. In addition, many of the interviewees noted the convenience that Face-book offered in communicating with their teacher and peers.

In summary, Facebook has been shown to be an effective tool in enhancing language learning in the EFL classroom. In addition, students seem to enjoy learning English through the unique medium of Facebook because it lowers learner anxiety, provides more opportunities for interaction, improves stu-dents’ interpersonal relationships, and fosters moti-vation. Thus, the author decided to utilize Facebook in his classes to take advantage of these potential benefits and explore Japanese EFL students’ views of its use.

Research QuestionsThis study examined the following research ques-tions:1. Did the students have prior academic experi-

ence of learning English on Facebook? 2. To what extent did the students make use of

the class Facebook page to learn English?3. How did the students prefer to access the class

Facebook page? 4. What are the attitudes of Japanese students

towards the use of Facebook in the EFL class-room?

Participants The participants in the study consisted of 41 first- second- and third- year students in the Faculty of Foreign Studies at a university in western Japan. All of the students were enrolled in one or more of the four English language classes taught by the re-searcher, which utilized Facebook during the second semester of the 2014-2015 academic year. Students’ proficiency levels ranged from low to intermediate based on their TOEIC Bridge and TOEIC IP scores.

MethodologyUtilization of Facebook in the Courses Facebook was used as the medium for all written tasks and assignments in the four courses involved in the study. Students were divided into separate Facebook groups based on their class. Each group was closed, meaning that member posts were hid-den from the public. Figure 1 below shows a screen-shot from one of the class Facebook group pages.

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Dizon: Japanese Students’ Attitudes Towards the Use of Facebook in the EFL Classroom

Figure 1. Class Facebook group page. Students were required to write on a variety of

topics in class and respond to other student entries either during or outside of class. They were also encouraged to share pictures, videos, and links in their posts. The researcher acted as a moderator and facilitated discussion through his own entries and comments. He also provided corrective and for-mative feedback on students’ posts via the Facebook messenger or chat feature. However, this was not a significant part of the use of Facebook for this study as it was only given for major assignments.

Research Instrument Data was collected via a 13-item questionnaire consisting of closed- and open-ended questions (see survey at <http://surveymonkey.com/r/XFB2DH6>). The survey was created by the researcher based on current literature on blended learning and Web 2.0 technologies and their use in L2 contexts. The survey was arranged into four parts. The first sec-tion contained three closed questions related to the students’ experience and use of Facebook; namely, prior academic usage of the site, access preference (PC vs. mobile), and frequency of class page access. The second and third portions of the questionnaire included eight closed questions, which examined potential linguistic (four questions) and affective advantages (four questions) of Facebook. The final section consisted of two open-ended questions, which asked students to comment on what they liked and did not like about the use of Facebook in the EFL courses.

Completion of the questionnaire was voluntary. Students were informed of the intentions of the research and were ensured that all responses would remain anonymous. The survey was administered

online via SurveyMonkey outside of class. In other words, class time was not used in order to collect data for the research in this study.

Results and DiscussionOut of the 45 students in the classes, 41 (91%) par-ticipants responded to the questionnaire. Items one through eleven were evaluated using descriptive analysis. Responses to the open-ended questions were analyzed based on the emergent methodology approach in which data is coded and analyzed to determine meaningful themes (Suter, 2012).

Have you used Facebook to learn English in anoth-er class before this course?In response to prior formal learning experience with Facebook, 15 (36%) stated that they had some. While still a minority of the respondents, this number is somewhat surprising given that the social networking site has not been widely used in tertiary education (McCarthy, 2010). Language instructors may be resistant to using Facebook in the classroom, yet as Blattner and Fiori (2009) note, “As educators it is essential to take advantage of such techno-logical tools to enhance autonomous language education and abandon our pre-digital instinct and comfort zones” (p. 25).

How often do you view the class Facebook page?

Figure 2. How often students state they use the Facebook page.



Figure 2 shows how often students report using the Facebook page. Although Facebook may have offered more opportunities to use English, the ma-jority of the students (71%) accessed the class page once a week or only when required to during class. Therefore, it can be concluded that most of the learners did not take full advantage of the extra op-portunities to use the target language outside of the classroom. With that said, eight of the respondents (19%) frequently visited the page, viewing it at least once a day. This disparity illustrates the variability between learners when incorporating computer-as-sisted language learning (CALL), particularly in less-controlled environments such as the Internet (Fischer, 2012).

How do you prefer to access the class Facebook page?Regarding question three, more than half of the respondents (56%) preferred accessing the Facebook course pages via a mobile device as opposed to a PC. This preference for mobile technology represents the current shift from PC’s to mobile devices (Wal-ters, 2012). According to Jee (2011), mobile technol-ogy “affords second or foreign language learners and teachers ever greater opportunity to practice the target language” (p. 162) regardless of time and place. Thus, as the ownership rate of internet-en-abled mobile devices continues to grow, so does the need for teachers to leverage their usage and utilize them to help foster language development.

Linguistic and affective advantages of FacebookThe eight items related to the linguistic and affective advantages of Facebook had mean scores ranging from 3.46 to 3.80 on a 5-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=not sure, 4=agree, 5=strongly agree) with standard devia-tions between 1.01 and 1.23, indicating the students generally agreed with the statements (Table 1). Item eight, “I enjoy learning English through Facebook,” received the highest level of agreement with a mean score of 3.80, suggesting that the students perceived writing on Facebook to be a fun and engaging activ-ity. Equally important, items nine and eleven (Table 1), which were related to stress and comfort-level when writing on Facebook, received relatively high scores as well (3.63 and 3.68), signifying that the site helped support an open and comfortable setting for language learning. This echoes a statement made by Jee (2011) regarding one of the affective benefits of Facebook, “The friendly, fun environment of Face-book can help to reduce foreign language learner anxiety, especially in early stages of acquisition” (p.

168). Moreover, these findings correspond with the opinions held by the participants in Shih’s (2011) study who viewed Facebook as an interesting and low-stress method to learn English.

Table 1. Results for Questions 4-11

No. Statement Mean SD

4 My use of English grammar is better because of Facebook.

3.56 1.01

5 My use of English vocabulary is better because of Facebook.

3.59 1.06

6 My English reading skills are better because of Facebook.

3.63 1.12

7 I can express myself more easily in English because of Facebook.

3.46 1.23

8 I enjoy learning English through Facebook.

3.80 1.19

9 I feel less stress writing in English on Facebook than pencil-and-paper writing.

3.63 1.14

10 I am more motivated to write in English on Facebook than pencil-and-paper writing.

3.56 1.17

11 I am more comfortable communicating with my classmates and teacher on Facebook than pencil-and-pa-per writing.

3.68 1.20

Written answers In response to the first open-ended question, “What do you like about using Facebook to learn English?” several students remarked about the ease of use and convenience of the site:

“It’s easy and I can see it anywhere at any time.”

“English on Facebook is really near to me so I can enjoy and use English through SNS easily. More-over it is really practical English.”

“Easy to writing and we can search on the Inter-net.”

“It is good to write easily.”

“I can easily comment.”

In addition, a few students mentioned they en-joyed using the site because it was a modern way to study English:

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Dizon: Japanese Students’ Attitudes Towards the Use of Facebook in the EFL Classroom

“It looks modern, and it is useful. I should print out my report in another class. Therefore, I think Facebook is better.”

“It’s interesting and modern!”

Concerning the second open-ended question, “What do you not like about using Facebook to learn English?” many students complained about the poor performance of the computers and the inability to respond to others quickly:

“PCs are very slow.”“I hate it when my PC is very slow.”“I cannot fast comment.”

This sentiment may have contributed to more students preferring mobile devices to PC’s when accessing the class Facebook page.

Also significant, one student stated that he or she did not use Facebook and as a result, would have preferred an alternate way to complete the writing tasks:

“I don’t Facebook so I prefer other something.”

This is a reminder that although social network-ing sites are very popular among young people, there may be a few students who either do not use them or dislike communicating with their teacher and peers over the Internet. Therefore, it is essential for instructors to help all learners understand the benefits that Facebook and other Web 2.0 technolo-gies can offer them (Blattner & Fiori, 2009).

To conclude, the participants in the study had moderately favorable attitudes towards the use of Facebook in the EFL classroom. According to the results of the questionnaire, the learners enjoyed using the site to learn English. Specifically, they liked the convenience of Facebook, which allowed them to easily comment and respond to others any-time and anywhere. However, the majority of the learners did not frequently visit the course Facebook pages outside of class, illustrating the fact that stu-dents may not take advantage of the opportunities given to them. Furthermore, several students stated that they had issues with the speed of the comput-ers and Internet connection at the university. Thus, the availability and performance of computers or mobile devices, as well as a reliable Internet con-nection both inside and outside of class, need to be taken into account when incorporating Facebook into the classroom.

Conclusion Facebook has the ability to transform language learning and extend communication outside of the confines of the classroom. The convenience it pro-vides affords learners opportunities to communi-cate synchronously and asynchronously, while also decreasing the anxiety of students who may be too timid to use the L2 in a face-to-face setting. Hence, based on the findings of this study, the author sup-ports using Facebook in the classroom to enhance foreign language learning. While skepticism and resistance to the incorporation of Web 2.0 tools will inevitably remain, social networking sites do and will continue to play an important role in many students’ lives. Therefore, teachers must be aware of Facebook’s potential to foster language develop-ment by affording learners additional opportunities to meaningfully interact in the L2 in a low-stress environment.

ReferencesBani-Hani, N. A., Al-Sobh, M. A., & Abu-Melhim, A. R. H.

(2014) Utilizing Facebook groups in teaching writing: Jordanian EFL students’ perceptions and attitudes. International Journal of English Linguistics, 4(5), 27-34.

Blattner, G. & Fiori, M. (2009). Facebook in the language classroom: Promises and possibilities. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learn-ing, 6(1), 17-28, Retrieved from http://www.itdl.org/journal/jan_09/article02.htm

Facebook. (2015). Company Info | Facebook Newsroom. Retrieved January 29, 2015, from http://newsroom.fb.com/company-info/

Fischer, R. (2012). Diversity in learner usage patterns. In G. Stockwell (Eds.), Computer-Assisted Language Learn-ing: Diversity in Research and Practice (pp. 14-32). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Jee, M. J. (2011). Web 2.0 technology meets mobile assisted language learning. The IALLT Journal, 41(1), 161-175.

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles & Practice in Second Language Acquisition. New York, NY: Pergamon Press.

Lohnes, S. & Kinzer, C. (2007). Questioning assumptions about students’ expectations for technology in college classrooms. Innovate, 3(5), Retrieved from http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=431

McCarthy, J. (2010). Blended learning environments: Using social networking sites to enhance the first-year experience. Australasian Journal of Educational Technol-ogy, 26(6), 729-740. Retrieved from http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet26/mccarthy.html

Omar, H., Embi, M. A., & Yunus, M. M. (2012). ESL learn-ers’ interaction in an online discussion via Facebook. Asian Social Science, 8(11), 67-74.



Salaway, G., Caruso, J. & Nelson, M. (2007). The ECAR study of undergraduate students and information tech-nology, 2007. Boulder, Colorado: EDUCAUSE Center for Applied Research. Retrieved from http://www.educause.edu/ECAR/TheECARStudyofUndergraduat-eStu/161967

Shih, R. C. (2011) Can Web 2.0 technology assist college students in learning English writing? Integrating Facebook and peer assessment with blending learning. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 27(5), 829-845. Retrieved from http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet27/shih.html

Suter, W. M. (2012). Introduction to educational research: A critical thinking approach (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE.

Walters, T. (2012). Understanding the “mobile shift”: Obses-sion with the mobile channel obscures the shift to ubiqui-tous computing. Digital Clarity Group. Retrieved from http://digitalclaritygroup.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/DCG-Insight-Understanding-the-Mo-bile-Shift-Nov-2012.pdf

Waycott, J., Bennett, S., Kennedy, G., Dalgarno, B. & Gray, K. (2010). Digital divides? Student and staff perceptions of information and communication technologies. Computers & Education, 54(4), 1202-1211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.11.006

Gilbert Dizon is a lecturer at Himeji Dokkyo University, Ja-pan. He holds a Master of Arts in Applied Linguistics from the University of Massachusetts Boston. His current research interests include computer-as-sisted language learning, mo-bile-assisted language learning, and L2 writing. He can be reached at <[email protected]>.

A full 2-day Conference

and Speech Contest

October 31 - November 1, 2015Meio University, Nago, Okinawa

— Sponsored by —

Speech, Drama, & Debate SIG

and JALT Okinawa Chapter

for more information see

https://sites.google.com/site/sddsigevents/

Sunday December 13 2015, Otsuma Women’s University, Ichigaya, Tokyo

Please come and join us for the sec-ond Creating Community: Learning Together conference. The conference provides opportunities for students and teachers to give poster presen-tations or digital displays, with many chances for conference attendees and presenters to listen, talk, reflect, and learn together.

Call for Contributions: September15 – October18, 2015

For more details:http://ld-sig.org/creating-

community-learning-together-2015/

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The Case Against the Case Against Holding English Classes in English

Rintaro SatoNara University of Education

In senior high school, teachers are now officially supposed to conduct their English lessons mainly in English to develop stu-dents’ communication abilities (MEXT, 2011). However, some researchers in English education have raised the case against this “English lessons in English” principle, asserting that con-ducting English lessons in the target language of English is not only ineffective, but harmful. This paper aims to refute critics of MEXT’s guideline for conducting classes primarily in English by considering studies in second language acquisition (SLA), theories for English learners’ motivation in the Japanese context, and offering an alternative for judicious use of the L1, Japanese.

現在、高校での英語の授業は主に英語で行うことになっている。しかしながらこの「英語での授業」には一部の英語教育研究者から, 効果が無いばかりか害があるとの強烈な反対意見もある。本稿では、この「英語での授業への反対意見」を第２言語習得理論や日本人学習者の英語を話そうとする意欲、有効な日本語の活用などの観点から反論する。

In the 2013 academic year, the language of com-munication in Japanese senior high school English classes officially became English. Under the plan

announced by MEXT on Dec. 13, 2013, English classes in junior high schools will also be conduct-ed primarily in the English language from the 2018 academic year. However, some researchers in English education take a strong position against this practice by asserting that conducting English classes in the target language is not only ineffective, but harm-ful. They refute the effectiveness of English classes conducted in English, considering its theoretical basis and its practical implementation by practicing teachers (e.g., Erikawa, 2009, 2014; Narita, 2013; Terashima, 2009).

From the viewpoints of theories of second language acquisition (SLA), Japanese learners’ motivation for speaking, and a judicious use of L1 (Japanese) in English-medium classes, I explore the effectiveness of English-medium classes by refuting the case against holding English classes in English.

The Case Against Holding English Classes in EnglishArguments against holding English lessons in En-glish can be divided into theoretical, practical, and L1-based objections. From the theoretical perspec-tive, Erikawa (2014) asserts that the idea of teaching English lessons in English is now out of date by introducing Kubota (2014), who suggests the need for effective, creative language activities which utilize the mother tongue. Erikawa presents this as an example of a more up-to-date teaching method that reflects changing attitudes in global TESOL towards using L1 in foreign language classrooms, and therefore dismisses the proposal of English-me-dium classes as lacking a theoretical basis. Terashi-ma (2009), while attaching importance to students’ writing and presentations in English, argues that these output-based activities would be more effec-tively practiced in Japanese language-based English classes since teachers can teach and students can better learn how to produce English through their shared language, Japanese. Narita (2013) claims that as there are huge differences between English and Japanese phonology and grammatical systems, it is very difficult for Japanese English teachers to speak English fluently and accurately, thus making it impossible for Japanese L1 teachers to conduct effective English lessons in English.

Narita (2013) suggests that effective English class-es in English can never actually be realized because both Japanese teachers and students lack sufficient English ability. It is also argued that asking Japanese teachers to conduct their lessons in English would be an excessive burden on teachers (Erikawa, 2009), be physically and mentally exhausted in the cur-rent Japanese EFL teaching environment in which students and teachers do not actually need to use English for communication outside the classroom (Terashima, 2009).

As for the effectiveness of English-medium classes, it is argued that the practice will leave some students behind (Terashima, 2009), and will widen the gap of English proficiency among them, thus creating “English haters” (Erikawa, 2009) because of the difficulty of understanding English input from


The Language Teacher • Readers’ Forum

teachers. In all, Narita (2013) insists that transition-ing to English-medium classes will lower their qual-ity, reduce learners’ English proficiency, and instill teachers with utterly fallacious, superficial ideas on English education. He even goes so far as to regard this principle as a reckless attempt that could lead to the collapse of English education, though with-out showing any specific quantitative or qualitative data to support his claim.

The Crucial Role of Input Krashen’s Input Hypothesis (1982) asserts that language acquisition is input-driven, meaning that acquisition is based primarily on what we hear and understand. He claims learners acquire the target language by understanding input that contains structures a little bit beyond their current level of competence (i +1), implying that mere classroom English which is well below their level cannot lead learners to acquisition or learning. This hypothesis has been criticized because it lacked any direct role for output. For example, Swain (1985) argues for the necessity of output in her output hypothesis, and Long (1996) emphasizes the necessity of interac-tion for target language learning in his interaction hypothesis. However, these influential output hypotheses complement the input hypothesis in that these theories attach importance to input as well. Indeed, there is no lack of theories or hypoth-eses that demonstrate the crucial role of input in the process of second/foreign language learning (e.g., Robinson, 1995; Schmidt, 1990; VanPatten, 1996). From the theories of input, interaction, and output in SLA, we can argue that a large amount of input from the teachers is essential alongside ample output opportunities through meaningful interac-tion with effective feedback in English. Contrary to Erikawa (2014), who stated that there is no theoret-ical basis for teaching English classes in English, it is clear that input beyond simple classroom English is a precondition for learning the language from the point of view of SLA, which implies that there is no justification for English teachers to be unwilling or unable to conduct lessons in English.

Japanese EFL Learners’ Motivation for Speaking To transform classes into “real communication scenes” (MEXT, 2011, p.7), we need to create out-put opportunities for students as well. However, Japanese EFL learners are, in general, “… reluctant to communicate in English, especially when the main focus of the lesson is on communication” (Tomita & Spada, 2013. p.593). Tomita and Spada

(2013) have reported Japanese high school learn-ers’ evident tendency to regard speaking English to their Japanese peers as showing off, as well as on their unwillingness to present themselves as English speakers. This emotional obstacle among Japanese learners should be reduced by improving their willingness to communicate (WTC), and their volition to initiate communication in the target language, since WTC is a prerequisite for language use (MacIntyre et al., 1998).

Sato and Koga (2012) and Koga and Sato (2013) examined the development of Japanese EFL learn-ers’ WTC. In the first study (Sato & Koga, 2012) with 27 second-year university students, 15 lessons were conducted almost all in English, and students were encouraged to use English, but were also allowed to use Japanese when what they wanted to say was beyond their linguistic level. The class was rather input-based in that students were provided with plenty of comprehensible input and interaction (Long, 1996), without being forced to produce En-glish output. The questionnaire results showed that WTC increased significantly. In the second study (Koga & Sato, 2013), a total of 121 university stu-dents were engaged in seven weeks of debate-based lessons. In the lessons, the teacher mainly used Japanese, but students were required to practice and memorize English manuscripts to hold a debate in English. This class can be regarded as output-based in that learners were not provided with a great amount of oral English input from the teacher but were required to produce output. In this study, WTC did not change significantly. Sato and Koga (2013) interpreted that in the first study, students could see a practical example of a successful user of English, or have a clear image of their future ideal L2 self (Dörnyei, 2005), which contributed to the development of WTC. However, this was not the case in the second study (Koga & Sato, 2013).

Though the results of the two studies should not be generalized as relevant to every Japanese EFL classroom, it can be implied that input-rich En-glish-medium classes can improve learners’ moti-vation for speaking and that English Japanese EFL teachers should conduct their classes mainly in En-glish to motivate Japanese EFL learners to improve their L2 communication abilities.

Selective, Judicious Use of L1 As mentioned above, the voluminous provision of comprehensible English input is crucial for lan-guage learning. However, what are the effects of L1 (Japanese) use by Japanese EFL teachers or native speaker teachers in English lessons? As students’

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Sato: The Case Against the Case Against Holding English Classes in English

first language (Japanese) and the target language (English) cannot exist cognitively isolated even in English-medium classes, the question arises as to whether Japanese EFL teachers (and native speaker teachers) should or should not use L1 in the class-room. In SLA and communicative language meth-odologies, using the target language only used to be generally accepted, and use of L1 was regarded as a problem to be avoided (e.g., Polio & Duff, 1994). However, this monolingual view has been chal-lenged, and effective, selective use of L1 as a learn-ing and teaching resource in the ESL/ EFL class-room is now acknowledged or even favored (e.g., Butzkamm, 2003; Butzkamm & Caldwell, 2009; Cook, 2001). In neighboring East Asian EFL coun-tries, the positive effects of English-medium classes incorporating L1 are reported. In a study with Chinese undergraduate students, He (2012) found that L1 use provided scaffolding which enabled students to raise their conscious awareness of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English, and activating students’ existing schema. In Korea, students’ improved understanding and active participation are also reported in the settings where both languages (i.e., L1 and L2) co-exist (e.g., Cook, 2001; Lee, 2001). I myself conducted high school English lessons almost entirely in English with some selective, judicious use of Japanese (i.e., explanation of grammar rules, abstract words, or expressions without direct correspondence, class procedures, teaching of pronunciation, feedback on linguistic aspects). The questionnaire results re-vealed that the English-medium classes with limited code-switching was favored by most of the students (Sato, 2009).

Theoretically speaking, we can conclude that the selective, judicious use of L1 has crucial roles in facilitating learning in English-medium class-es. However, one crucial point which contradicts the claim made by those against English-medium classes is that the base language of teaching must definitely be the L2 to create an input-rich learning environment. Ideally, as Macaro (2011) suggests, 80% of classroom time should be spent in the target language. I believe this should be applied not only to communication-oriented classes but also to exam-oriented classes in which L1 can be used judiciously only when needed (i.e., explanation of grammar rules, teaching of pronunciation, feed-back to linguistic aspects). I believe that Japanese EFL teachers with high proficiency in English can teach students how to learn effectively since they have experience and direct insight into the learning process, which can be true of native speaker teach-ers who have learned Japanese. Some may argue

that asking Japanese EFL teachers to possess a fine command of English can exhaust and corner them (e.g., Erikawa, 2009, 2014; Terashima, 2009), but if we are to improve students’ English skills, teachers should be highly encouraged to improve their own English abilities.

Conclusion In this essay, I have argued that Japanese learners need a great deal of high quality input from teach-ers. However, exposure to input cannot improve Japanese EFL learners’ speaking or writing abilities (e.g., Hato, 2013). Learners invariably need to be engaged in interaction through which they can produce output (Long, 1996) and in output-based activities in the classroom (Swain, 1985). However, we have to make clear that the provision of ample input is a precondition for effective output activi-ties, meaning that the facilitating effect of output should never be expected without previous and ongoing input. By conducting lessons mainly in English, teachers will have to provide a lot of high quality, comprehensible input that can facilitate learning and improve students’ motivation to communicate as well. Then, students can actively engage in output-based communicative activities.

In summary, I would argue that Japanese EFL teachers should try to provide as much high quality L2 input as possible, and hold that it is not students but teachers who should, at first and continuously, use sufficient English in the classroom to transform classes “… into real communication scenes” (MEXT, 2011, p.7). The principles of contemporary language education require us to teach English classes pri-marily in English.

References Butzkamm, W. (2003). We only learn. The role of the

mother tongue in FL classrooms: Death of a dogma. Language Learning Journal, 28, 29-39.

Butzkamm, W, & Caldwell, J. (2009). The bilingual reform: A paradigm shift in foreign language teaching. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.

Cook, V. (2001). Using the first language in the classroom. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(3), 402-423.

Dörnyei, Z. (2005) The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Erikawa, H. (2009). Eigo kyoiku no politics [Politics in English education]. Tokyo: Sanyusha Shuppan

Erikawa, H. (2014). Eigo de jyugyo wa jidaiokure [Con-ducting English lessons in English is out of date] Kibou no eigo kyouiku e. Retrieved from http://blogs.yahoo.co.jp/gibson_erich_man/34086874.html



Hato, Y. (2013). Kyoiku no honndou de dilemma ni muki-au [Dealing with a dilemma following the right way in education]. Eigo kyoiku [English education], 62(11), 19.

He, A. E. (2012). Systematic use of mother tongue as learning/teaching resources in target language instruc-tion. Multilingual Education, 2(1), 1-15.

Koga, K., & Sato, R. (2013). Effects of a debate task on changes of communication variables. Annual Review of English Language Education in Japan (ARELE), 24, 295-306.

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second lan-guage acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.

Lee, E. P. (2001). The positive role of mother tongue as written form in English class. English Language & Litera-ture Teaching, 7(1), 21-34.

Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. Ritchie, & T. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp.413-468). San Diego: Academic Press.

Macaro, E. (2011). The teacher’s code switching and the learner’s strategic response: Towards a research agenda and implications for teacher education. Paper presented at the JACET 50th Commemorative International Conven-tion, Fukuoka.

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Tech-nology (MEXT). (2011). Kotogakko gakushu shido yoryo [The Course of Study for Foreign Languages—Upper secondary school]. Retrieved from <http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/ new-cs/youryou/eiyaku/__ics-Files/afieldfile/2011/04/11/1298353_9.pdf>

Narita, H. (2013). Nihonjin ni fusawasshii Eigoka kyoi-kuho [English education suitable for Japanese]. Tokyo: Shohakusha.

Polio, C. G., & Duff, P. A. (1994). Teachers’ language use in university foreign language classroom: A qualitative analysis of English and target language alternation. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 313-326.

Robinson, P. (1995). Attention, memory, and the “notic-ing” hypothesis. Language Learning, 45, 283-331.

Sato, R. (2009). Suggestions for creating a successful input-rich English class with a little code-switching” Journal of the Chubu English Language Education Society, 38, 371-378.

Sato, R., & Koga, K. (2012). Examining the effects of all English class on learners’ affective aspects. Journal of the Chubu English Language Education Society, 41, 183-190.

Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in sec-ond language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 129-158.

Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass, & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Terashima, T. (2009). Eigo de jugyo no ideorogi Eigokyoi-ku ga horobirutoki [The ideology of teaching English through English]. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten.

Tomita, Y., & Spada, N. (2013). Form-focused instruction and learner investment in L2 communication. The Modern Language Journal, 97(3), 591-610.

VanPatten, B (1996). Input processing and grammar instruc-tion in second language acquisition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Rintaro Sato is professor at Nara University of Education. He received a Master’s degree from Tsukuba University and earned his Ph.D. in Education at the Joint Graduate School in the Science of School Education, Hyogo University of Teacher Education. His research interest is in incorporating theories of second language acquisition into the Japanese EFL classroom. He can be con-tacted at <[email protected]>.

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英語教師の成長を促す自己評価チェックリストの提案

Suggestions on Self-Evaluation Checklists for EFL Teachers in Japan

三上明洋Akihiro Mikami近畿大学Kinki University

This paper aims to develop and suggest self-evaluation check-lists for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in Japan as a reflection tool for their professional development. The paper first reviews existing theoretical studies on EFL instruc-tors’ professional competencies for creating a fundamental framework for the checklists. This framework consists of four parts: content knowledge and skills, pedagogical knowledge and skills, classroom teaching skills, and professional devel-opment knowledge and skills. Based on this framework, this paper develops self-evaluation checklists. It also discusses how they can be used to support EFL teachers’ professional growth on the basis of the results of trial surveys with follow-up interviews. The checklists are expected to help the teachers periodically reflect on their overall professional competencies and thus stimulate their growth as EFL instructors. However, the efficacy of the checklists will need to be tested through nationwide surveys of EFL teachers in Japan.

本論では、現職英語教師が自分自身の成長を図るために使用できる自己評価のための簡便なチェックリストを提案する。まず、先行研究に基づき英語教師の専門能力を考察し、1. 教科の知識・技能、2. 教科を教えるための知識・技能、3. 教科指導技術、4. 教師の成長に関する知識・技能からなる枠組みをまとめている。さらに、この枠組みに基づく自己評価チェックリストを作成し、試験的にそれを活用した結果を基にその活用法を考察している。本チェックリストの活用により、英語教師が自分の専門能力を定期的・総合的により簡単に振り返ることができ、その向上にも役立てることができるであろう。今後の課題としては、本チェックリストの有効性を検証するための全国的な調査とその効果的な活用法に関する研究を重ねる必要があるであろう。

はじめに2012年8月、中央教育審議会による「教職生活の全体を

通じた教員の資質能力の総合的な向上方策について（答申）」では、21世紀を生き抜くための力を育成する教員の指導力が重要視され、日本の教員養成における改革の方向性が示され、教職生活全体を通じた「学び続ける教員像」の確立が提案されている。そこで本論では、日本の英語教師が成長を目指して自らの専門能力を自己評価するための簡便なチェックリストを作成し、その活用法を提案したい。

英語教師のための自己評価チェックリストの必要性

Wallace（1998)は、教師が成長を図るためには、専門的実践に対する振り返りを繰り返すことが重要であると述べている。ところが、酒井他(2011)が指摘する通り、日本における公立学校の英語教師には欧米にあるような専門能力基準は設定されておらず、何を目指して自分を成長させ、どのようにその成長を評価すればよいのかに関する有益な情報はほとんど与えられていない。そのため、日本の英語教師は多忙な日々に追われる中、どのように自分の指導実践を振り返ればよいかさえも明らかにできないでいるのが現状であろう。

一方、EUにおいては、言語教師の成長を促進するためにEuropean Portfolio for Student Teachers of Languages (EPOSTL)という言語教師教育用内省ツールが開発されている(Newby他 2007; 石田他 2011)。これは、言語教師を目指す学生が言語教育に求められる知識や技能を振り返るための項目を示したものであり、自己評価の核となる7領域193項目から成るcan-do descriptorsが含まれている。近年、日本でもこのEPOSTLを修正し「言語教育履修生のためのポートフォリオ(J-POSTL)」と「現職英語教員のためのポートフォリオ(J-POTL)」の開発が進められていることは望ましいことである(JACET教育問題研究会 2013)。ただし、EPOSTLには前述の通り200近い項目が含まれ、英語教師が定期的に自分の実践を振り返るツールとしては活用しにくいという問題点がある。J-POSTL/J-POTLにおいては、半数ほどに項目数が削減されてはいるが、やはり100項目のリストを使って短時間で繰り返し実践を振り返るのは難しい。Wallace（1998)が指摘する通り、英語教師の専門的成長には日常的・定期的な実践の振り返りが必要であるとすれば、それを可能とする簡便なチェックリストの開発が不可欠であろう。また、そのようなチェックリストがあれば、振り返りの内容や結果を他の教師などと共有しやすく、互いの成長を目指した協働関係の構築にも役立つに違いない。

英語教師の専門能力に関する枠組み前述のJ-POSTL/J-POTLは、日本の英語教師のための

内省ツールとして注目を集めていることは確かであるが、どちらも英語教師に必要な専門能力の考察からではなく、EPOSTLのcan-doリストをいかに日本に応用するかの検討からその開発が始められている点で注意が必要である。英語教師の専門能力に含まれる領域は非常に広く明確にその定義を示すことは容易ではないが、まずは英語教師が備えるべき核となる専門能力とはどのようなもの



なのかを検討する必要があろう。その上で、それらをチェックリストとして提示することができれば、英語教師自らがより具体的に専門能力を振り返るためのツールとして活用できるに違いない。

それでは、英語教師の専門能力とはどのようなものであろうか。まず、Freeman（1989)によれば、言語教育を教師の意思決定プロセスであると捉えた場合、その意思決定を構成する要素として、1. knowledge（教科の内容に加えて、教育が実践される社会文化的環境や生徒に関する知識）、2. skills（教材提示など教師が実践できなければならない技術）、3. attitude（教師が、自分自身、教育活動、学習者との間で採用する態度）、4. awareness（ある事柄に注意を向けたり、向けている注意をモニターしたりする能力であり、前述の3つの要素を統合するもの）の4つに分類できると提案されている。これは、英語教師に求められる専門性の全体像を把握するのに役立つが、各要素に含まれる下位能力を明確にしたい場合にはどうしても具体性に欠けてしまう。

また、文部科学省(2003)によれば、英語教師がコミュニケーション能力を育成するために必要とされる指導力とは、実際に英語授業を計画・実践・評価・改善する力からなる「英語授業力」であり、それは1. 「教職」として求められる資質能力、2. 英語運用能力、3. 英語教授力という3つの側面を持った統合的能力であると述べられている。

さらに、近年では授業実践能力に加え英語教師の成長という観点もその専門能力の要素として新たに取り入れられている。特にRoberts (1998)と八田(2000)の2つの研究は、英語教師の成長を考慮しその専門能力の全体像を提示するだけでなく、具体的な下位能力に関するリストも含んでいるため、本論ではこれらの2つの研究を基に英語教師の専門能力に関する枠組みを考察してみたい。

まず、Roberts (1998)は、言語教師に必要な知識・技術を、1. content knowledge（対象言語に関する知識や能力）、 2. pedagogic content knowledge（対象言語を教えるための知識）、3. general pedagogic knowledge（授業運営に関する知識や技術）、4. curricular knowledge（教材や試験に関する知識など）、5. contextual knowledge（学習者や学校などの特徴に関する知識など）、6. process knowledge

（教師の成長を可能にする技術や態度）に分類している。さらに、これを基に八田(2000)は、日本の教育環境を考慮し、外国語としての英語教育環境や学習指導要領に関する知識などを含めた上で、1. 教科の知識、2. 教科を教えるための知識、3. 外国語としての英語教育についての基礎的な知識、4. 英語教育のコンテクストの理解、5. 教科指導・指導技術という分類を提案している。したがって、日本の英語教師の専門能力の枠組みとしては、この八田(2000)の分類が参考になるが、改良の必要な点もある。まず、前述の2 と3 に関する知識の境界が曖昧である。また、4 については、日本の教育環境や学習者の動機づけなどに関する理解が含まれるが、これらは5 に含まれる教室での授業実践のための前提となる知識であるとも考えられ、これらの明確な区別も難しい。そこで、八田(2000)が提案する5分野のうち、2と3の知識を統合し「教科を教えるための知識・技能」とし、同じく4と5を統合し「教科指導技術」とすることにより、重複を少なくできると考えられる。さらに、八田(2000)では、Roberts (1998)によるProcess knowledgeと呼ばれる教師の成長につながる技術や態度があまり重要視されていない点も注意が必要であり、新たに「教師の成長に関する知識・技能」を追加する方が望ましいであろう。

したがって本論では、日本における英語教師の専門能力とは、1. 教科の知識・技能（英語に関する知識・技能）、 2. 教科を教えるための知識・技能（教職全般や英語教育に関する専門的知識・技能）、3. 教科指導技術（教室における指導技術）、4. 教師の成長に関する知識・技能（教師としての成長を図るために必要な知識・技能）という4分野から構成される総合的な能力と捉えることとする。なお、図1はこれらをまとめて表したものである。

英語教師のための自己評価チェックリストとその活用法

前述の英語教師の専門能力に関する枠組みに基づき自己評価チェックリストを作成し、その具体的な項目を示したものが表1である。ここに含まれるチェック項目は、八田(2000)とRoberts (1998)に加えて、EPOSTL (Newby他

図１: 英語教師の専門能力に関する本論で扱う枠組み

Roberts (1998) 八田(2000)

content knowledge 教科の知識

pedagogic content knowledge 教科を教えるための知識

curricular knowledge 外国語としての英語教育についての基礎的な知識

contextual knowledge 英語教育のコンテクストの理解

general pedagogic knowledge教科指導・指導技術

process knowledge

英語教師の専門能力（４分野）

教科の知識・技能

教科を教えるための知識・技能

教科指導技術

教師の成長に関する知識・技能

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Mikami: Suggestions on Self-Evaluation Checklists for EFL Teachers in Japan

2007)、J-POSTL/J-POTL (JACET教育問題研究会 2013)、 Mikami (2011)、西野(2011)を参考に作成された。本チェックリストの活用法はとても簡単であり、英語教師自身で4分野32項目のすべてについて振り返りを行い、それぞれ6段階（1＝全然、あるいはほとんどあてはまらないから6＝常に、あるいはかなりあてはまる）で自己評価を記入するだけである。

本チェックリストの有用性を確認するため、2名の公立中学校英語教師（教師A：教職経験2年目、男性；教師B：教職経験1年目、女性）から協力を得て、本チェックリストによる振り返りを約7か月間の間隔を置いて合計2回試行した（実施時期：第1回、2014年6月；第2回、翌年1月）。また、第2回目の試行後には、各教師の振り返りの内容と結果あるいは本チェックリストの有用性について、筆者が各教師に対して約10分間インタビュー調査を実施した。なお、2名の教師の勤務校は異なり、すべて別々に実施された。

その結果、このインタビュー調査を通じて本チェックリスト活用の利点（3点）と問題点（1点）が確認された。利点1　分野別能力の確認：本チェックリストの活用に

より、どちらの教師も個々の能力を具体的に振り返り、どの能力が高いあるいは低いかを把握できた。例えば、教師Bは、授業を実践する能力に比べ、英語4技能の能力不足を痛感し、TOEICスコアを高めたいという能力向上のための目標も設定できた。

利点2　能力の変化の確認：実施時期の異なる2回分の自己評価結果を比較することにより、どちらの教師も自らの能力の変化を確認できた。例えば、教師Bは英語の文法構造・語法に関する能力向上を発見できた。その理由として、英語が苦手な生徒にわかりやすく説明をするために日々勉強をしているからと振り返っていた。

利点3　振り返りの促進：各教師と筆者が振り返りの内容と結果を話し合う際に、本チェックリストを使用しない場合に比べそれを使用した場合には、各教師による振り返りを深めることができた。初めに本チェックリストなしで専門能力について話し合いをしたところ、教師Aはただ漠然とすべてにおいて自信がないと述べるにとどまったが、本チェックリストを参照しながら話し合いをすると、ペアワークやグループワークの活動はうまくできていると気づかせることができた。

問題点1　活用の難しさ：教師Aからは、チェックリストを渡されただけではその活用の仕方がわかりにくいという意見が寄せられた。したがって、単なる自己評価の実施だけでは十分に活用されないかもしれない。

このように、上記試行結果によれば、本チェックリストは英語教師がより具体的に自らの専門能力を振り返るための効果的なツールとなることが期待できる。ただし、その活用においては、教師を指導する立場の者（例えば指導主事、先輩・同僚教師など）が英語教師と連携して評価結果を共有し、専門能力の向上に向けた他者からのフィードバックを得られるようにすることが望ましいであろう。

終わりに本論では、英語教師の専門能力に関する枠組みに基

づき、英語教師が定期的・継続的に専門能力を自己評価

するための簡便なチェックリストを作成し、その活用法を提案した。今後は、英語教師を対象とする全国規模の調査を通して本チェックリストの有効性を検証し、自己評価の結果を効果的に成長につなげる方法についてもさらに研究を重ねていきたい。

表１:英語教師のための自己評価チェックリスト

Ⅰ. 教科の知識・技能（8項目）1. 英語教師として十分な英語の語彙力があると思う2. 英語教師として十分な英語の聞く力があると思う3. 英語教師として十分な英語の話す力があると思う4. 英語教師として十分な英語の読む力があると思う5. 英語教師として十分な英語の書く力があると思う6. 英語教師として英語の文法構造・語法などを十分に理解

している7. 英語教師として英語圏の文化について十分に理解している8. 生徒に対して英語学習の意味や利点を説明できる

Ⅱ. 教科を教えるための知識・技能（8項目）9. 生徒の意欲を高める学習目標を設定できる10. 生徒の興味に合わせた適切な教材を選択できる11. 生徒の英語力に合わせた適切な教材を選択できる12. 生徒のつまずきそうなところが予測できる13. 生徒の理解度を見ながら、いろいろな質問や例文を臨機

応変に準備できる14. 生徒の日本語の知識に配慮し、英語を指導する際にそれ

を活用できる15. 日本語と英語の言語習得の違いなどについて十分な知識

があると思う16. 主な教授法・教授理論に関する十分な知識があると思う

Ⅲ. 教科指導技術（8項目）17. 学習指導要領に基づいて、授業を計画・実践できる18. 生徒のニーズに基づいて、授業を計画・実践できる19. クラスの実態を踏まえて、授業を計画・実践できる20. 英語学習に効果的なクラスの雰囲気を作り出すことがで

きる21. 英語を使って授業を展開できる22. 生徒が授業活動において英語を使うように促すことがで

きる。23. 生徒の英語運用能力を適切な方法で評価できる24. クラス全体の授業、小グループによる授業、ペアによる授

業などを使い分けることができる

Ⅳ. 教師の成長に関する知識・技能（8項目）25. 自分の授業について、客観的に反省（リフレクション）を行

うことができる26. 計画・実行・反省の手順で、生徒や授業に関する課題に気

づくことができる。27. 生徒からのフィードバックや学習の成果に基づいて、自分

の授業を批判的に評価できる。28. 同僚や指導教諭等からのフィードバックを受け入れ、自分

の授業に取り入れることができる。29. 関連する理論や研究成果を取り入れて授業を改善できる30. 生徒の学習の伸びを適切な方法で評価できる。31. 他の教員と授業を計画することができる32. 同僚の授業を観察し、建設的にフィードバックできる



謝辞本研究は、日本学術振興会科研費基盤研究（C）(課題

番号26370753)の助成を得ている。また、数々の貴重なご指摘やご助言を査読委員の先生方よりいただいた。心より感謝申し上げる。

引用文献中央教育審議会.(2012).「教職生活の全体を通じた教員の資質

能力の総合的な向上方策について（答申）」. http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo0/toush-in/1325092.htm（2014年6月14日検索).

Freeman, D. (1989). Teacher training, development and decision-making. TESOL Quarterly, 23, 27-45.

八田玄二. (2000).『反省的授業実践　リフレクティブ・アプローチによる英語教師の養成』東京：金星堂.

石田雅近・神保尚武・久村研・酒井志延（編）. (2011) .『英語教師の成長―求められる専門性』東京：大修館書店.

JACET教育問題研究会. (2013).『英語教師の成長に関わる枠組みの総合的研究』（平成24年度科学研究費補助金基盤研究(B)研究成果報告書）.

Mikami, A. (2011). Changes experienced by teachers through action research projects in an in-service EFL teacher education program. JACET Journal, 53, 57-74.

文部科学省. (2003).『「英語が使える日本人」の育成のための英語教員研修ガイドブック』東京：開隆堂出版.

Newby, D., Allan, R., Fenner, A., Jones, B., Komorowska, H., & Soghikyan, K. (2007). European portfolio for stu-dent teachers of languages: A reflection tool for language teacher education. Graz: ECML, Council of Europe.

西野孝子. (2011).「コミュニカティブ・アプローチに関する日本人高校英語教師の信条と実践」JALT Journal, 33, 131–156.

Roberts, J. (1998). Language Teacher Education. London: Arnold.

酒井志延・神保尚武・高梨庸雄・久村研.(2011).「英語教師の成長」. 石田雅近・神保尚武・久村研・酒井志延（編）.『英語教師の成長―求められる専門性』 (pp.189-227). 東京：大修館書店.

Wallace. M. J. (1998). Action research for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

著者略歴三上明洋(Akihiro Mikami)は、千葉大学大学院修士課程修了後、私立高校教諭、高等専門学校講師を経て、現在近畿大学経営学部准教授。専門は、英語教育学であり、特に教師教育、アクション・リサーチ、授業改善などに関心がある。著書は、『ワークシートを活用した実践アクション・リサーチ―理想的な英語授業をめざして』（大修館書店 2010）。主な論文に、Changes experienced by teachers through action research projects in an in-service EFL teacher education program (JACET Journal, 53, 2011) などがある。

[RESOURCES] MY SHAREJonathan Reingold and Philip HeadWe welcome submissions for the My Share column. Submissions should be up to 700 words de-scribing a successful technique or lesson plan you have used that can be replicated by readers, and should conform to the My Share format (see the guidelines on our website below). Email: <[email protected]> Web: <http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/myshare>

Greetings, and welcome to another edition of My Share. We hope that during the long summer vacation readers have had the opportunity to take a break from the hustle and bustle of the average workday and ponder possible ways to innovate lessons and challenge students. We certainly have had those questions on our mind, and if you have too, why not make like the authors below and share your ideas by submitting to My Share?We start this issue with a submission by Charles McLarty, who introduces some intrigue into the classroom with a whodunnit mystery sure to capture the imagination of any student. Next up, Rachel Manley draws from real life and authentic entertain-ment materials to teach the absolutely essential skill of making requests. Then, James Jensen suggests a way to ease student concerns over pronunciation and simplify the regular past tense. Finally, we end with Annie Menard, who proves once more that Bingo is an inexhaustible source of educational fun. Enjoy!

The Whodunnit Mystery: A Game that Gets Students Listening Actively, Thinking Creatively, and CommunicatingCharles McLartyHokkaido University of Information Science<[email protected]>


The Language Teacher • Resources: My Share JA

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Quick guide » Keywords: Mystery, communication, cooperation » Learner English level: Elementary to advanced » Learner maturity: High school and above » Preparation time: 10-15 minutes » Activity time: 25-45 minutes, depending on class

size and level » Materials: Blackboard and chalk

This game, recommended by a former colleague, has gotten consistently favorable responses from students. It provides practice using simple ques-tions while getting students to listen carefully and communicate better with classmates.

PreparationStep 1: Tell students that a crime has happened on campus and that they must solve it. After students calm down, explain that this “crime” is a story you have created and that they must solve the mystery by asking you questions to determine what has happened.Step 2: Explain that students must find answers to the four items written on the blackboard. They are: (1) the criminal, (2) the victim, (3) the weapon, and (4) the place. For advanced classes, you can add a fifth item, the motive, but this is not necessary.Step 3: Check student comprehension by provid-ing definitions in their first language for criminal, victim, weapon, and place. Tell students that both the criminal and victim are in the classroom! When I first play this game in class, I usually play the crim-inal to see how soon students realize my chicanery. After all, the teacher is also in the classroom!Step 4: Tell students they must ask questions about the four written items in order, finding the answer to item 1 before asking about item 2 and the answer to item 3 before asking about item 4. Only ques-tions giving yes or no answers are allowed.Step 5: Give additional hints as necessary. Write suggestions on the board for ways students can ask about items. For example, for item 1 ask “Is the criminal wearing glasses, blue jeans, sports shoes?” or for item 2 ask “Does the victim have black/brown/blond hair?” and so on.

ProcedureStep 1: Write the four answers down on paper to avoid any temptation to change them during the game. Next, assign groups. I usually put students into groups of two or three. When students find all four answers, the game is over. Offer rewards

or bonus points to groups who announce answers correctly during the game if feasible.Step 2: Decide the order in which groups ask questions. In round one, each group decides (either by janken or coin toss) which member will ask the group’s question. After one round, go back to the first group. The member who did not ask a question in round one must do so now. For three-student groups, the two who have not asked a question can decide who will ask next.Step 3: Choose some common object as the weap-on (I usually choose an object in the classroom). Sometimes, I choose things that could not be real weapons, like my sunglasses.Step 4: By now, many classes will have found answers to items 1 and 2. When students have found answers 1-3, tell them to guess number 4 by gut instinct. I usually make number 4 a place everyone knows, such as the school library. If class time is waning, let groups guess number 4 by raising hands. When a group gets answer 4, give them a reward or prize.

ConclusionThis is a good game to play after lessons on de-scribing people. This game requires students to pay attention to other groups’ questions as well as teacher responses in order to gain hints about what to ask on their next turn. I have witnessed an increase in students talking to members of other groups, people they had seldom tried to communi-cate with previously. Also, students are motivated to communicate with their own group to help each other get bonus points or rewards. The atmosphere of tension and excitement slowly builds as students both compete with and cooperate with their class-mates to get the answers. For these reasons, I highly recommend teachers try this game.

A Pragmatic ActivityRachel A. ManleyKanda University of International Studies<[email protected]>

Quick Guide » Keywords: Pragmatics, requests, speech acts,

media, movies, TV Shows » Learner English Level: Intermediate » Learner Maturity: High school to adult » Preparation Time: 15 minutes


The Language Teacher • Resources: My Share

» Activity Time: 60 minutes » Materials: Copies of appendix worksheets.

Speech acts are an important concept for students to learn, because it is essential for them to under-stand and create language appropriate to different situations they might encounter. This paper deals with the speech act of requests. However, any speech act is teachable using the activities provided. Students might not know which requests are appro-priate for certain situations in the target language. Finding authentic language in an EFL setting is difficult. One way students can learn speech acts in an EFL setting is through media such as movies and TV shows.

PreparationPrint out appendices A, D, E, and F for each student and print one copy of appendices B and C for every two students. You can modify the documents to suit your needs.

ProcedureStep 1: Start the class with the warm-up question: “What is a request?” Students brainstorm what factors influence requests, why they occur, and why they are needed.Step 2: Pass out the dialogue worksheet (Appendix A) and two pair work activities (Appendices B & C). Students practice making requests orally to better understand requests. During the activity they will have a conversation with each other in order to practice speaking. You can have the students share their dialogue created with Appendix C.Step 3: Students get into groups of two or three and create a dialogue using one of the topics listed on their worksheet (see Appendix D). The scenarios are different from one another and feature request topics students might encounter. The topics are also vast and realistic, which helps with authentici-ty. Once students finish creating dialogues (usually ten lines per person) you can have them share their dialogue with the class.Step 4: Pass out the data collection worksheet (Appendix E). After you explain the different parts of the worksheet to the students, they will complete it with a recent request event that has happened to them, whether they did the requesting or someone requested something from them. This activity can also be done as homework. Teachers can adjust the worksheets according to the criteria they would like students to focus on.

Step 5: Next class or if time permits: Students are given another data collection worksheet. Play a movie or TV show and have students find the prag-matics (i.e. requests) in the media. Using media pro-vides examples of authentic conversations as well as violations of acceptable behavior, which is import-ant especially if students are in an EFL setting. A short but effective sitcom would be The Big Bang Theory. It is good to show students when violations occur and the reaction others have toward them. Also, students can be asked how they would rectify their mistake if they were to make this violation.

VariationFor Step 5, you can also use a modified data collec-tion worksheet (Appendix F). This can be used for a movie where one or more speech acts are used (or more than one request is made) for students to practice more.

ConclusionLearning pragmatics is essential for students, especially when they study abroad or come in contact with people from other countries. In order to avoid miscommunication, misunderstandings, and other problems, knowing the correct form of pragmatics is necessary. Students learn what their topic is (pragmatics), practice it, apply it to real-life, and then observe a situation where it occurs (using media).

Appendices The appendices are available from the online ver-sion of this article at <http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/myshare>.

The Regular Past: Teaching Only Two PronunciationsJames C. JensenAka-Kara English<[email protected]>

Quick guide » Key Words: Regular past tense » Learner English Level: Low » Learner Maturity: Junior high and above » Preparation Time: 5 minutes


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» Activity Time: 20 minutes » Materials: Chalk and blackboard

Say liked with the past tense phoneme d instead

of the proper t. The regular past tense t/d distinc-tion is inconsequential; it makes no difference in comprehensibility. I would venture that it is minor compared to other pronunciation problems your students have, so I suggest reducing the regular past tense to two pronunciations. Tell your students to consider t and d interchangeable as long as they do not add an extra syllable, the Id, which should only be used for verbs that end in t or d. And important-ly, students must not add o or u to the end of the word as is common with Japanese speakers.

ProcedureStep 1: Start with an explanation in simple English of the regular past tense. Teach or review the dif-ference between voiced and unvoiced consonants. This should be easy because Japanese signals voicing in its writing (e.g., とど). Tell the students the verb suffix -ed is pronounced t with verbs that end in voiceless sounds and as d in verbs ending in voiced sounds (including vowels).Step 2: Explain there is a natural reason for this and draw a chart of the consonants English has in common with Japanese on the board: P/B, T/D, S/Z, K/G. To show why the past tense has three pronun-ciations, and to explain that it is natural, demon-strate how the pronunciation works. That is, say a word such as tap, circle the P, and draw a line to the voiceless T. Say “tapped.” Repeat this with several examples and then do the same with words that end in voiced consonants. Circle G, a voiced consonant, and say “jogged” drawing a line to the voiced D. Step 3: Tell the students the t/d distinction is important, but that they need not worry about pronouncing it. As their English improves it will become natural. In the meantime, it does not mat-ter! Stress how the distinction between t and d is an inconsequential mistake as long as they do not add an extra syllable, saying “tap-ped”, or even worse, “tap-ped-do” for example.Step 4: Returning to the chart of consonants, show that the only verbs that add an extra syllable are those that end in t or d. Explain how a vowel is inserted between the last consonant and the final d, and, point out how Id is added to make a syllable. Land, for example, becomes lan-ded, and the two-syl-lable word vi-sit, becomes three syllables vi-si-ted.Step 5: To check whether the students understand and can hear the difference between the voiced,

unvoiced, and Id pronunciations, write some verbs on the board (Examples are given in the appen-dix). Write t, d, and Id on the board. Pronounce the words and have students put them into the correct column. Then have students pronounce them to each other and stress that t and d are interchange-able as long as the speaker does not add an unneces-sary syllable before the suffix or an o or u after it.

ConclusionThe greatest benefit of presenting the regular past tense in this way is the relief it affords beginner level students. If you tell your students not to worry about the t and d, that it makes little difference, and that the distinction will come naturally as their English improves, it will go a long way in easing their anxiety.The biggest concern a teacher might have is that mispronounced words may become fossilized. This should not be a concern. There is a phonetic reason for the different pronunciations and as the students improve those natural factors will come into play. AppendixThe appendix is available from the online version of this article at <http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/myshare>.

Educational BingoAnnie Menard Tokai University Foreign Language Center <[email protected]>

Quick Guide » Key Words: Methodology, speaking, vocabulary » Learner English Level: Beginner and above » Learner maturity level: Any » Preparation time: About an hour » Activity time: From 10 minutes to the whole class

period » Materials: The handouts you created

Every student, no matter how old, enjoys playing bingo. I have used bingo in my classes for years, but always with an educational twist to it. This version includes group work, a worksheet, a vocabulary list, and finally, the bingo sheet itself.


The Language Teacher • Resources: My Share

PreparationStep1: Decide on the theme of your bingo game: Summer, sports, adjectives, Halloween, etc.Step 2: Make a vocabulary handout with 25 pic-tures on it. Each picture has an empty line under it for the students to write the word for the picture. On the back of the handout, in alphabetical order, write all the answers that go with the pictures. This ensures that every student has the same answer for each picture. It also provides them with the cor-rect spelling and cuts down on time taken to use a dictionary.Step 3: Using the same pictures, create bingo sheets for your students. One bingo sheet per student; all bingo sheets should be different.

ProcedureStep 1: In class, put the students into groups of three or four, depending on your class size. This way, they can help each other match the pictures and vocabulary.Step 2: Distribute the vocabulary handouts. Tell the students they have all the answers on the back, and all they have to do is to write the correct word under the correct picture. Step 3: While the students are matching words and pictures on their handouts, take one extra bingo sheet, cut out all the pictures individually, and place all of them in a small bag. During the game you will draw the pictures from the bag to choose the next word to call out. Step 4: Go over the answers as a class to ensure every student has the correct word matched to the correct picture.Step 5: Distribute one bingo sheets to each student. Step 6: Give the students the bingo rules. Rule 1: They must memorize the words and not write them down on their bingo sheet. Rule 2: When students achieve a bingo they come to the teacher and say the words that form the bingo. Rule 3: They can get multiple bingos. The game does not end after the first student gets a bingo. It continues until there is no more time left or until there are only four pictures left in the bag.Step 7: After you have verified a student’s bingo, cross it out on their bingo sheet using a highlighter, as they will be back with other bingos later on.

VariationsAny vocabulary topic can be used for this game depending on your needs. You can either give the students color or black and white copies of the

handouts and bingo sheets. You can easily skip the preparation step 3 and have the students make their own bingo sheets, but it takes more class time and more supplies such as scissors and glue. Also, there is no need to use 25 pictures. The game can easily be reduced to 16 or 9 vocabulary items. Finally, you can provide the vocabulary again on the back of the bingo sheets for extra help.

ConclusionThis is one of my most successful games. I also noticed that the more useful the vocabulary, the easier it is for the students and the more effort the students put into it. By grouping the students, they help each other with the answers, looking for the pictures during the bingo game, and memorizing the vocabulary for their trip to the teacher’s desk. I also noticed that they repeat the words after I call them, again, in preparation for their trip to the teacher’s desk. Bingo can be so much more than just a time killer. Be creative!

Do not miss this!Other Language Educators

invite you to the

4th Annual JALT OLE SIG Conference LanguageS PLUS

Language learning and teaching beyond the first foreign language

（母国語である）日本語、あるいは第一外国語としての英語以外の外国語教育

Oct. 24 and 25, 2015 2015年10月24日(土)&25日(日)

Venue: Chukyo University, Nagoya, Aichi http://www.chukyo-u.ac.jp/index.html

主催：中京大学

〒466-8666 愛知県名古屋市昭和区八事本町１０１−２

Conference information: http://www.geocities.jp/dlinklist/ENG/2015OLE-Conference.html

Please inform teachers of languages other than English and Japanese of this opportunity. We look forward to meeting you, so you can

• tell us about the FL teaching situation at your school• network with colleagues, students, and others

英語及び日本語以外の教授に関わっている同僚の方にもご案内ください。この学会では次の点も歓迎します：

• あなたの学校及び大学での外国語教授の状況についての情報

• 同僚、教員、学習者、その他とのネットワーキング、意見および情報交換など


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[RESOURCES] BOOK REVIEWSRobert TafernerIf you are interested in writing a book review, please consult the list of materials available for review in the Recently Received column, or consider suggesting an alternative book that would be helpful to our membership.Email: <[email protected]> Web: <http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/book-reviews>

CNN Student News, Vol. 2 [Fuyuhiko Sekido, Masato Kogure, Jake Ar-nold, & Ken Ikeda. Tokyo: Asahi Press, 2014. (Included: Audio CDs) pp. iii + 87. ¥1,900. ISBN: 978-4-255-15545-6.]

Reviewed by Gary J. Wolff, Meiji University

CNN Student News, Vol. 2 is the second in a three-part textbook series

and is based on CNN Student News, a 10-minute, com-mercial-free, daily TV news program that presents current events and issues in a simpli-fied format, targeting middle and high school students. The show airs weekdays through-out the U.S. school year and is supplemented by the program’s website: <http://edition.cnn.com/studentnews>, both of which are accessible for free.

Each of the textbook’s 15 stand-alone, six-page units features a two-minute news story which has been previously broadcast and chosen by the authors to be of interest to young adult Japanese learners of English, complete with video, audio, and an array of discussion, vocabulary, and listening comprehension exercises. The DVD contains only two-minute videos for each unit and is furnished to teachers at no charge.

The main task of each unit is the Transcript Com-pletion section, which consists of a cloze (gap-fill) exercise based on the dialogue from the two-minute news story. Moreover, there are two sets of audio tracks for this section, one being the authentic native speed dialogue from the news story, and the other of the same transcript, but narrated at a slower rate of speed (~0.75x), excellent scaffolding for lower-level students.

The textbook is especially suitable for Japa-nese university students in view of the increasing populist trend for American TV news to be more

visual and varied, narrative-based, and dramatically framed as infotainment.

Also, the recent conversationalization and so-called dumbing down of American TV news dis-course has resulted in greater use of anchors and correspondents who are good sources of high-fre-quency idiomatic language. This has made it far more suitable as a pedagogical tool than other TV news sources and is likely to have beneficial effects for L2 processing (Bell, 2003), for example, by aiding listening comprehension and media literacy.

The infotainment value of the textbook was validated by the informal survey of 1st and 2nd-year non-English majors in my English Communication I classes. They felt that the news stories were of interest, particularly Unit 3 about eco-friendly card-board bicycles and Units 2 and 9 which are directly related to Japan, one on a famous Japanese chef in Tokyo and the other on the Yokohama Bay Stars baseball team.

The students rated the textbook as having average difficulty, and although they found the exercises to match key vocabulary words with their definitions (written in Japanese) a bit easy, in general they rated the listening exercises slightly difficult.

Although each unit has a variety of tasks includ-ing pre-viewing warm-up discussion, vocabulary, and pronunciation, my perception is that a minor shortcoming of the textbook is the somewhat over-reliance on teacher-fronted listening (cloze) tasks and true/false questions. Perhaps it might be better to incorporate some additional post-viewing activ-ity like a group discussion, an exercise on American idioms, multiple choice comprehension questions, or a follow-up homework writing assignment.

The teacher’s manual contains no teaching tips, but I found it to be accurate and useful, including answer keys to textbook questions and Japanese translations of the video transcripts. The Preface in both the teacher’s manual and textbook are written in Japanese, which may cause some minor incon-venience to teachers without a strong command of the language.

CNN Student News, Vol. 2 is a refreshing alterna-tive to the typical EFL textbook, as it not only ex-


The Language Teacher • Resources: Book Reviews & Recently Received

poses students to authentic materials with real-life relevancy, but also helps them become better global citizens by expanding their knowledge of world events of interest to young people (Hwang, 2005). Additionally, helping students become more media literate by developing the critical thinking skills to understand L2 English news will assist them in more fully participating in the global community (Isozaki, 2014).

The textbook is already being used extensively in Japanese universities, and each unit is designed for use in either one or two classroom sessions. An add-ed benefit of the textbook is that it is supported by fresh new content added daily to the CNN Student News website during the American school year, and is also available as a free podcast on the program’s website and at iTunes. In Japan, the program can also be viewed on NHK’s BS1 satellite TV station, as well as on the NHK website.

As ubiquitous as international news videos are these days, easily accessible from most mobile devices, exploiting this entertainment medium can prove to be the ideal teaching tool for our students. I can wholeheartedly recommend CNN Student News, Vol. 2 as either a core or supplementary text-book.

ReferencesBell, D. M. (2003). TV news in the EFL/ESL classroom:

Criteria for selection. TESL-EJ, 7(3), 1-17.Hwang, C. C. (2005). Effective EFL education through

popular authentic materials. Asian EFL Journal, 7(1), 1-12.

Isozaki, A.H. (2014). Critical media literacy for learn-er-empowering news media courses. The Language Teacher, 38(5), 6-9.

Recently ReceivedSteve Fukuda<[email protected]>

A list of texts and resource materials for lan-guage teachers available for book reviews in TLT and JALT Journal. Publishers are invited to submit complete sets of materials to Steve Fukuda at the Publishers’ Review Copies Liai-son address listed on the Staff page on the inside cover of TLT.

Recently Received OnlineAn up-to-date index of books available for review can be found at: <http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/ recently-received>

* = new listing; ! = final notice — Final notice items will be removed September 30. Please make queries by email to the appropriate JALT Publications contact.

Books for Students (reviewed in TLT)Contact: Steve Fukuda <[email protected]>* 21st Century Reading: Creative Thinking and Reading with

TED Talks — Blass, L., Vargo, M., & Yeates, E. Boston, MA: National Geographic Learning / Cengage Learning, 2015. [4-level reading course created through a partnership be-tween TED incl. Audio CD and DVD package, Teacher’s Guide, and Assessment CD-ROM with ExamView].

Collins Academic Skills Series — Various authors. London: HarperCollins Publishers, 2013. [6 courses titled: writing, group work, presenting, research, numbers, and lectures on academic skills for students preparing to study or are study-ing at an English-speaking institution].

! Compass Reading Series — Various Authors. Seoul: Com-pass Publishing, 2014. [6-level reading course for young learners incl. workbook, audio CD, downloadable supple-mentary material, and free vocabulary practice application].

* Conversations in Class (third edition) — Talandis, J & Van-nieu, B. Kyoto, Japan: Alma Publishing, 2015. [8-unit course in oral communication designed for low-intermediate Japa-nese university students incl. teacher’s book and audio CD].

! Conversation Master — Smiley, J., & Catanzariti, J. Nagoya, Japan: Perceptia Press, 2014. [12-unit speaking course based on developing conversation and discussion skills].

Four Corners — Richards, J. C., & Bohlke, D. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014. [4-level integrated skills course w/ online workbook, Classware, self-study CD incl. class DVD, teacher’s edition w/ assessment and audio CD and teacher resource worksheets].

* Healthtalk: Health Awareness & English Conversation (third edition) — McBean, B. Tokyo: Macmillan LanguageHouse, 2014. [13-unit content-based course on health themes for Japanese students at the intermediate level incl. extensive glossary, downloadable teacher’s manual and class audio].

! Inside Writing: The Academic Word List in Context — Var-ious authors. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2014. [5-level academic writing course teaching vocabulary from the Academic Word List incl. digital resources and interac-tive e-book].

Jetstream — Revell, J., Tomalin, M., Harmer, J., & Maris, A. Crawley, UK: Helbling Languages, 2015. [6-level integrated skills course incl. workbook w/ audio CD, teacher’s guide and access to e-zone resources].

Partners in the Classroom: Collaborative English Language Teaching and Learning Projects — Brown, C. J., & Brown, E. M. Akita, Japan: Akita International University Press, 2014. [Step-by-step guide to introducing more student-cen-tered learning and project-based learning into the class-room based on 7 levels of practice incl. lesson plans].

* Reaching Out — Long, R. Nagoya, Japan: Perceptia Press, 2014. [14-unit course to help students to become familiar with the basic words, expressions, and interactions of inter-cultural conversations incl. teacher’s guide and download-able tests for each chapter].

Read to Write (second edition) — Moore, D., & Barker, D. Na-goya, Japan: BTB Press, 2014. [Writing course using read-ings to train students to pick up chunks and make new sen-tences incl. English Writing Manual explaining basics and mechanics of layout].


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The Language Teacher • Resources: Recently Received

! Unlock — Ostrowska, S., O’Neill, R., Westbrook, C., Sowton, C., White, N. M., Dimond-Bayir, S., & Lansford, L. Cam-bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014. [4-level ac-ademic English course with Discovery EducationTM based on critical thinking, Cambridge English Corpus, and English Vocabulary profile incl. teacher’s edition, online workbook, and Cambridge LMS access].

Books for Teachers (reviewed in JALT Journal)Contact: Greg Rouault <[email protected]>! Contemporary Task-based Language Teaching in Asia

— Thomas, M., & Reinders, H. (Eds.). London: Bloomsbury, 2015.

Researching Intertextual Reading — Bax, S. Bern, Switzer-land: Peter Lang, 2013.

! Second Language Acquisition and Task-Based Language Teaching — Long, M. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell, 2015.

[RESOURCES] OUTSIDE THE BOXAdam Lebowitz“Outside the Box” is a column that not only challenges the community to address a problem, but proposes a creative solution without concerns of being unrealistic. The focus is on originality and creativity, not rigor. More information on submissions can be found online, or contact the editor. Email: <[email protected]> Web: <http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/outside-the-box>

EFL for Special Needs StudentsThis column starts with a mea culpa. Previously, I wrote disparagingly of the English Conversation School industry. Now, on a break after almost two decades in academia, I find myself working at one again. And it is extremely interesting: I teach children (including second-generation Peruvians, who are a real kick), salarymen facing mid-career and mid-life challenges, housewives facing mid-life challenges, mature and immature researchers, a jockey (horse, not disk), and a former documentary filmmaker now in the family chiropractic business. In other words, the world. Being face-to-face with it after years in classrooms filled with teenagers is a change of pace. And sometimes such changes are necessary.

One student, in particular, stands out. T-kun is 14 years old with a bag plastered with anime charac-ters and a mind constantly on his developing body. He is also autistic, roughly on the mid-functioning level of the spectrum. I have never taught a student like him. My former university has a very active disability studies department, and I have taught the hearing-impaired and some very heavily physically challenged students. They presented special chal-lenges for classroom management, from difficulties in writing or operating a computer mouse, to the placement of wheelchairs so they do not become covered in chalk dust. Their enthusiasm for educa-tion is humbling and has challenged me to become a more effective educator.

Now, T-kun is not my first student with a pre-ex-isting mental condition, but he has certainly caused me to stretch and adjust my technique. Of course, he has behavioral difficulties, including incessant humming and touching himself inappropriately. However, in other ways, he is savant and has the capability to learn fifteen new vocabulary words every week. He also has a wonderful sense of humor: he laughed out loud when I showed him a picture of a bathroom with a rubber ducky in the toilet (see if you get the same response from university students). The point is, now that English is becoming compulsory in primary school there needs to be more research, with a focus on applied pedagogies in second-language acquisition and EFL for special needs students. These students deserve to be afforded the same opportunities for language education as their peers.

JALT Apple Store

� Don’t forget, JALT membership brings added bonuses, such

as discounted Apple products through the JALT Apple Store.

<jalt.org/apple>


[RESOURCES] TLT WIREDEdo ForsytheIn this column, we explore the issue of teachers and technology—not just as it relates to CALL solutions, but also to Internet, software, and hardware concerns that all teachers face. We invite readers to submit articles on their areas of interest. Please contact the editor before submitting.Email: <[email protected]> Web: <http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/tlt-wired>

Editor’s Note: The previous issue’s Wired column gave you tips for bringing reluctant teachers into the world of educa-tional technology; this month we provide some helpful apps to make using tablets in the classroom simple and productive. To learn more about using technology in language learning, consider joining JALT’s CALL SIG and check out the DMLL blog. Thank you for reading and keep your classes Wired in the coming fall semester!

Practical Introduction of Tablets as Educational ToolsDavid TaquetNational Institute of Technology, Hakodate College<[email protected]>

In recent years, educational technologies have quickly evolved in innovative and exciting direc-tions, allowing for greater flexibility and enthusi-

asm from educators. However, many are left bedaz-zled by the seemingly infinite possibilities of a tablet device, which may appear complicated at first glance. Within information and communication technol-ogies (ICT), tablets offer greater portability and autonomy, which, along with proper hardware and software, make them the ideal multipurpose tool. Furthermore, students benefit from using tablets and other integrated technologies as it gives them access to digital content suitable to their needs and interests (Sekiguchi, 2011). As such, this article gives some practical tools for educators who wish to use iOS and Android tablets in the classroom and in their everyday duties as administrators.

PurposesAlthough Japan has a tech savvy reputation world-wide, schools and universities equipped with Wi-Fi and multimedia equipment are few and far between. For the purpose of this article and to de-scribe the full educational potential of tablets, it is assumed that classrooms are equipped with audio-visual equipment and access to wireless Internet,

however, the focus of the article will mostly remain on the features available without any connections.

Equipment and PreparationIn order to use the tablet as a classroom tool, it is important to connect the device to a projector. A speaker is also important, and a Bluetooth model allows for freedom of mobility around the class-room. Finally, when displaying tablet content on a projector, it is wise to close any applications which contain students’ private information or test mate-rial, as it may appear on the multitask bar.

Typical Integrated Use Based on 2 years of experimenting with different set-ups, applications, and interactions, the follow-ing applications were found to be the most effec-tive. Also, since most of the apps discussed below are free, they rely on advertisements for revenues. Turning off the Wi-Fi connection before opening the application may prevent ads from unexpectedly popping-up and distracting the students. Unless otherwise specified, all mentioned applications are available on iOS and Android devices.

Using the tablet as a whiteboard or document reader is by far the most frequent and simple use of the device. The teacher can write notes, show test corrections, and edit tables and graphs. When projected, the students will be able to clearly see the lesson notes as using the tablet removes hand-writing confusion such as problems with legibility. Also, even while looking down at the device the teacher can still face the class, thus offering optimal discipline management. Applications such as iWork (iOS), Foxit MobilePDF and Microsoft 365 offer cloud-based file saving, and enhanced PC-to-tablets file compatibility.

Tablets truly shine as multimedia centers, rendering moot the use of CD and DVD players, but not all media players are equal. The media player VLC can read most audio-video formats, but most importantly, it allows the user to change the playback speed. This tool makes somewhat difficult activities more accessible to lower-level students, as listening comprehension and authentic materials


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The Language Teacher • Resources: TLT Wired

become less daunting. Furthermore, VLC includes built-in video settings to improve visibility even in poor conditions such as a mediocre projector or strong backlight.

As most Japanese learners lack either the will or confidence to participate in class (Doyon, 2000), en-gaging them is often a challenge that EFL teachers have to deal with. In such cases, using the Random Number app along with student numbers is an effective way to ensure that students are engaged in an unpredictable pattern. However, as some may wait to be called upon instead of volunteering to answer, this can render the process counterpro-ductive. In order to reinforce students’ motivation, combining the tablet’s camera and photo appli-cations, educators may use the tablet as a porta-ble overhead projector. Provided students agree, their work can be displayed, commented upon, and praised by other students. As a peer-tutoring technique, this kind of positive reinforcement should boost learners’ confidence (Bradford-Watts, 2011) and make students more willing to share their work.

Bridging the gap between one’s PC and tablet are file management applications, acting as file hubs to open, edit, and manage files. Most importantly, they allow the user to copy and open the files with other compatible applications, not unlike the Windows “open with” function. File managers such as Micro-soft’s OneDrive and Google Drive offer convenient, unified file storage and management systems pro-vided a wireless connection is available.

Lastly, iTeacherbook (iOS) is a classroom man-agement app with multiple options and tools. It does seem imposing at first and may require some fiddling to import student’s lists from Excel files due to compatibility issues with the Japanese Unicode. In such a case, creating a .csv file using Google Docs will insure proper compatibility. Once mastered, the application is extremely useful as it combines a regular calendar (with Google Calendar syncing)

along with all student rosters, grades, attendance, and lesson notes. Moreover, being able to add students’ pictures to their names greatly helps with memorizing them. Other applications, such as TeacherKit and Teacher Aide 2 (Android), offer simi-lar functions and offer free versions.

ConclusionWith proper use, tablets can be powerful and ver-satile educational devices that successfully emu-late many traditional classroom tools. Benefits for teachers and students alike are various. They allow users to centralize data such as documents, media files, schedules, and attendance. The useful applica-tions mentioned above have proven to be true assets in the classroom. Finally, systematic training of all relevant teaching and technical staff is recommend-ed to promote integrated technologies, fulfilling the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication’s (2007) hope that: “ICT will also transform society from one of uniformity and standardization to one that is creative and vigorous” (para. 4).

ReferencesBradford-Watts, K. (2011). Students teaching students?

Peer teaching in the EFL classroom in Japan. The Lan-guage Teacher, 35(5), 31-35.

Doyon, P. (2000). Shyness in the Japanese EFL class: Why it is a problem, what it is, what causes it, and what to do about it? The Language Teacher, 24(1), 11.

Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication. (2007). The U-Japan Concept. Retrieved from <http://www.soumu.go.jp/menu_seisaku/ict/u-japan_en/new_out-line03.html>

Sekiguchi, S. (2011). Investigating effects of the iPad on Japanese EFL students’ self-regulated study. In Pixel (Eds.), ICT for Language Learning Conference Proceed-ings 2011: Vol. 4. Retrieved from < http://conference.pixel-online.net/ICT4LL2011/common/download/Pa-per_pdf/IBL33-246-FP-Sekiguchi-ICT4LL.pdf>


[JALT FOCUS] NOTICESMalcolm SwansonThis column serves to provide our membership with important information and notices regarding the organ-isation. It also offers our national directors a means to communicate with all JALT members. Contributors are requested to submit notices and announcements for JALT Notices by the 15th of the month, one and a half months prior to publication.Email: <[email protected]> Web: <http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/jalt-focus>

Report on Membership Fees from the June Ordinary General MeetingFred Carruth, Director of MembershipKevin Ryan, Director of Treasury

JALT voted to increase its fees, and this takes effect September 1, 2015. As Directors of Mem-bership and Treasury, Fred and I are especially

keen on informing you of your options. While trimming expenses and looking for new

avenues of revenue generation have been on the plate for years, we see that as an organization, we need to provide the services members expect, and have come to the conclusion that a rise in fees is the only option available. The EBM (Executive Board Meeting) agreed, and the OGM (Ordinary General Meeting) did too.

Regular members will see their annual fees rise from ¥10,000 to ¥13,000, but this will also include options to join both a SIG (Special Interest Group) and a chapter. Taking this option shows your support for the parts of JALT you find important, and will have a direct economic effect on those parts. With the option of including a SIG as well as a chapter as part of your annual membership, we are looking to restructure JALT to cater to both interests and geographic location in an effort to bring SIGs and chapters into parity over the next few years.

Of course, membership includes subscriptions to our two main print publications, The Language Teacher and JALT Journal, as well as access to online resources at <jalt.org> and <jalt-publications.org>.

Joint, Group, Senior, Student, and Overseas membership fees also will see about a 30% increase. If you choose to join more than one SIG, that too is increasing by about 30%.

This is our first increase since 1998, and we think that, along with your increased choice options, JALT will continue to grow and serve its members in the most effective way possible.

Since our last fee rise, we have seen JALT grow in many different dimensions, increasing the number

and importance of SIGs, moving parts of publica-tions online, and our new status as an official NPO in Japan. The best way to sign up or renew is on-line, but a postal furikae form at the back of every TLT is also available.

New JALT Associate MemberSpringer Science+Business Media, or Springer,

founded in 1842 in Germany, is a global publish-ing company that publish-

es books, e-books and peer-reviewed journals in science, technical, and medical (STM) publishing. Springer also hosts a number of scientific databas-es, including SpringerLink, Springer Protocols, and SpringerImages. Springer published roughly 2,400 English-language journals and more than 9,000 new books in 2014, and the group is home to the world’s largest STM e-Book collection, as well as the most comprehensive portfolio of open access journals. Book publications include major reference works, textbooks, monographs and book series, with more than 168,000 titles available as e-books in 24 subject collections. Springer has major offices in Berlin, Hei-delberg, Dordrecht, and New York City.

At Springer, we recognize that our authors are the heart of what we do and we are committed to providing the resources, support, and advice you need to help you succeed. Those interested in obtaining more information about book and journal publishing are welcome to contact our publishing editor for Education and Language, Lawrence Liu at <[email protected]>.

Position AvailableTLT Associate EditorThe Language Teacher is seeking a qualified can-didate for the position of Associate Editor, with future advancement to the position of Coeditor. Applicants must be JALT members and must have the knowledge, skills, and leadership qualities to oversee the production of a regularly published


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academic publication. Previous experience in pub-lications, especially at an editorial level, is an asset. Knowledge of JALT publications is desirable. Appli-cants must also have regular access to a computer with email and word processing capabilities.

This post requires several hours of concentrat-ed work every week editing articles, scheduling and overseeing production, and liaising with the Publications Board. Applicants should be prepared to make a minimum three-year commitment with

an extension possible. The assumption of duties is tentatively scheduled for early Autumn 2015. Appli-cants should submit a curriculum vitae (including details of publication background and published works), a cover letter, and a statement of purpose indicating why they would like to become Associ-ate Editor (and later advance to Coeditor) of The Language Teacher, to: Jerry Talandis Jr., JALT Pub-lications Board Chair <[email protected]>. This position will remain open until filled.

[JALT FOCUS] SHOWCASEMitchell FryerShowcase is a column where members are invited to introduce themselves to TLT’s readership in 750 words or less. Research interests, professional affiliations, current projects, and personal professional development are all appropriate content. Please address inquiries to the editor.Email: <[email protected]> Web: <http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/showcase-members-profile>

In this edition of Showcase, Mitchell Fryer introduces the Ja-pan Overseas Education Services’ (JOES) Nagoya school and the language retention programs that they offer returnee learners.

Japan Overseas Education Services (JOES)Recent figures provided by JOES (2015) indicate that the number of Japanese working overseas has been rising rapidly. As a result, there are now over 76,000 Japanese children of school age now living outside Japan with their parents on overseas assignment. This has also contributed to the rising figure of re-turnee students that are coming back to Japan once their parents have completed their overseas tenure. Through the Ministry of Education, JOES offers educational and orientation services to sojourning and returning families. In addition, language reten-tion and guidance programs are offered to families and students returning to Japan. These services are offered at the many schools JOES has throughout the Kanto, Tokai, and Kansai regions. JOES’ school in Nagoya is located in the YWCA in Sakae and offers English language retention programs and regular seminars for both parents and students.

Foreign language retention programs at the Nagoya schoolJOES’ Nagoya school offers English as a second language (ESL) programs for students from elemen-

tary to high school. English and science classes are available and these classes focus on second language (L2) development and retention to augment L2 competence. These programs also offer formative assessment in the form of ongoing feedback for parents and students as well as online diagnostic testing to promote further development of the stu-dents’ language skills (Baker, 2011). Regular classes are held on Saturdays and special summer programs and events are also held.

JOES recognises the importance of biliteracy for its language learners with all classes focusing on lit-eracy and the four basic language skills of speaking, listening, reading, and writing with particular atten-tion being paid to the latter two. The general classes all use a novel each semester in addition to litera-cy-based activities that promote reading compre-hension and writing skills. Class discussions, short performances, small projects, and student created quizzes are also used to promote learner-centered language learning and target language (TL) commu-nication among the students.

We are very fortunate to have a group of dedicat-ed, well-qualified and experienced teachers at the Nagoya school. In addition, we have motivated and helpful Japanese staff that provide wonderful sup-port to the teachers and to the students and their parents. Various nationalities are represented at our school, and you get a real sense of English as a glob-al language roaming the hallways and classrooms as you hear British, North American, and Antipodean accents. All of our current teachers have been living in Japan for 10 years or more and have experience


The Language Teacher • JALT Focus: Showcase

teaching at elementary, secondary, and tertiary educational institutions and hold undergraduate and/or postgraduate degrees in the fields of arts, education, linguistics, or language.

My experience at JOESI began teaching at JOES in Nagoya back in 2010. During my time at JOES, I have been fortunate to teach a variety of classes that have included elemen-tary and junior high regular classes, grade three and four science as well as junior high composition. I am constantly amazed by the students’ and parents’ dedication to their language learning as well as being interested in hearing about their experiences abroad. With English now a global language, it is both interesting and exciting to meet students and hear their distinct accents that now form part of their L2 identity, such as Kaho with her “Aussie” accent, Hayato sounding very “Californian”, Soto speaking like a real “Mancunian” or Rina, so proud of her South African accent.

In all of my classes, I incorporate a highly learn-er-centered environment that focuses on the pro-motion of metalinguistic awareness through pair and group work that focuses on vocabulary use in context for various purposes. To raise metalinguis-tic awareness, I employ various teaching strategies that encourage students to predict the content of news stories based on a headline, paraphrasing of other students spoken and/or written discourse as well as summarising the novels that they are read-ing. Students enjoy learning and talking about how language is used as well as the challenges that they face back here in Japan.

JOES offers an important service to Japanese families returning to Japan, especially to their children. JOES was officially established in 1971 as a non-profit foundation with the approval of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Educa-tion. In its 44 year history, JOES has made signifi-cant contributions to promoting the education of Japanese children both overseas and here in Japan. JOES’ Nagoya school aims to continue striving to meet the ongoing language needs for children and their families now and into the future.

References Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of bilingual education and

bilingualism (5th ed.). Tonawanda, NY: Multilingual Matters.

Japan Overseas Education Services. (2015). Introduction to Japan Overseas Education Services. Viewed at <http://www.joes.or.jp/info/introduction.html>

Mitchell Fryer has been involved in lan-guage teaching in Japan for 15 years. At the JOES Nagoya school, he has been teaching science to elementa-ry school students, English composition to junior high and high school students as well as literacy based learning to students in the general classes. He holds an MA in Applied Linguistics and an MA in Education.

[JALT FOCUS] SIG FOCUSJoël Laurier & Robert MorelJALT currently has 26 Special Interest Groups (SIGs) available for members to join. This column pub-lishes an in-depth view of one SIG each issue, providing readers with a more complete picture of the different SIGs within JALT. For information about SIG events, publications, and calls for papers, please visit <http://jalt.org main/groups>.Email: <[email protected]> Web: <http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/sig-news>

Teaching Younger Learners (TYL) SIGWe are very excited to announce the formation of the new Teaching Younger Learners (TYL) SIG. TYL was formed by combining the Teaching Children SIG and the Junior and Senior High School SIG. Although the research and practical teaching inter-

ests vary greatly among teachers of these different age groups, many teachers regularly teach a variety of age groups or move around among the different age groups from year to year. As teachers of primary and secondary school children in Japan, we need to be aware of the changing English education policies put forth by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Science, Sports and Technology and the issues re-lating to their implementation in schools. For these


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reasons we decided that the two SIGs could better serve the teaching community by combining forces. This also saves JALT members from having to pay two SIG fees.

Our main event every year is the 2-day JALT Junior conference held within the JALT interna-tional conference. This specialized international conference features presenters from all over the world and a variety of presentations and topics. All presentations related to teaching children, junior, and senior high school students are put together in one location inside the main JALT conference venue. Teachers in these settings have a place to network and focus on issues and topics relevant to their profession. There are presentations on research, practical teaching ideas, business devel-opment ideas for school owners and ELT materials entrepreneurs and forums on current EFL topics. With over 60 presentations to choose from over two days, both new and experienced teachers will leave the conference with new information, ideas and inspiration. JALT conference attendees can attend JALT Junior presentations as part of their conference registration fee. Teachers only interest-

ed in teaching younger learners can join the JALT Junior conference at a discounted price.

Our new SIG will continue publishing The School House, which was the Junior and Senior High School SIG publication. From now on it will reflect the new constituency of the SIG and include articles for teachers of young children as well. In the past we have teamed up with iTDi.pro to provide free webinars to our members. We have a new website at www.jalt-tyl.org where we have a blog and links to our publications and recorded presentations and webinars.

The focus of our SIG is teacher development and support for both new teachers just starting out and for more experienced teachers who are looking to expand their careers. Our SIG is a great place for teachers to share their wisdom and ideas by writing for our publication, The School House, presenting at JALT Junior, or contributing to our blog and Facebook page. The combined experience, wisdom and innovation of our members have created a community of inspiration, education and support for teachers of younger learners in Japan.

[JALT PRAXIS] THE WRITERS’ WORKSHOPDefining the Argument: Developing Thesis Statements Loran EdwardsKansai Gaidai University

Charles MooreConcordia University

The definition of a thesis is a “statement that someone wants to discuss or prove” (Merri-am-Webster). In academic writing, the purpose

of most papers is to convince the reader on a partic-ular point derived from research by the author. The thesis statement is particularly important because it defines the argument for the rest of the paper. An imprecise thesis statement, or one that tries to include too many arguments, can fail to leave an impression on the reader and result in your paper’s argument re-maining unclear. On the other hand, a clear-cut thesis statement prepares the reader to be able to accurately understand the arguments laid out in your paper.

A PSG Coordinator’s ExperienceLoran Edwards, coordinator for the JALT Writers’ Peer Support Group (PSG), often reads many papers that are still works-in-progress and has assisted a variety of authors with refining their academic pa-pers. When reviewing a paper, questions she com-monly asks herself regarding the writing are “What and where is the thesis statement?” and “Where is that central message that acts as the paper’s focal point and guides me through the rest of the paper?”

In her experience, problems with thesis statements usually arise in either one of two forms. The first is that a paper will contain several different potential thesis ideas, thus leaving the writing without a main focal point on which to hinge. In this case, it is best if the author instead chooses to focus on only one of the ideas to develop into the dominant point in the paper. Also in these cases, all is not lost with the re-maining thesis ideas; instead of being discarded, they can be further developed and turned into several different legitimate publications.

The second thesis statement problem that Loran encounters is that a paper has not yet developed a clear central theme. In this case the writer needs to read, research, write, and brainstorm more until a clear thesis idea emerges.


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So How Do I Develop My Thesis Statement?Deciding on your final thesis statement will most likely be a result of the lengthy process of genuinely coming to know what your paper is about (Univer-sity of North Carolina, 2009). Because of this, you should not be too worried about settling on a final statement at the beginning of your writing. With enough research and thought, you should eventual-ly find that one central idea that defines your paper.

The statement itself is usually one or two sen-tences. In some papers it may be longer, but the rule of thumb is that usually the shorter and more pre-cise a statement is, the better. It could be said that thesis statements are like a door hinge. The door is all of your cumulative ideas and research related to your paper. The wall the door is connected to is the previously established ideas about the topic you are writing about (i.e., background research or information). Your thesis statement, then, is the hinge that solidly connects the two together. Just like a real door and hinge, if your thesis statement is too loosely constructed, then the two parts of the paper (previous background research and your own ideas and research) will not hold together. Another apt analogy is an hour-glass. As in the image below, all of the components in the top half of the glass should flow through the thesis statement in the middle and come out into the bottom half of the glass.

Questions to Ask Yourself During the Writing Process Here are some questions to ask yourself during the writing process that can help you refine your thesis statement:1. Where is my thesis statement?The thesis statement should as much as possible come early in the paper; preferably within the first third of the writing. This will help keep the reader

Figure 1: Hour-glass figure demonstrating the central role of the thesis statement idea in a paper.

focused and give the paper a sense of direction from the beginning of the read.2. Is my thesis statement focused on one idea?Many writers try to work too much into a single thesis statement. Make sure that your proposed argument can be adequately analyzed and discussed within the allotment of the paper. Put another way, do not try to cram a book’s worth of material into a 3,000 word paper.3. Is my thesis statement clear?You ultimately want your paper to be available to the widest audience possible. Therefore, try to avoid using technical jargon where possible, and keep your words and the meaning easily compre-hensible.4. Does my thesis statement state my personal solution to a problem?Does your statement reflect your true feelings about the topic you are writing about? Does it specifically express your solution to a problem? The statement should reflect your own viewpoints and solutions, and this ingenuity can translate into a very persua-sive argument.

Example Statements to Help You Find Your WayHere are a few published thesis statements that provide an illustration of what an easy-to-grasp statement looks like. The statements by Krash-en and Farrell & Renandya are great examples of statements that are clear, to the point, and allow the reader to know exactly what the paper is about. The fourth thesis statement, by Lapkin & Swain, gives an example of a statement that goes beyond one or two sentences, but still directly communicates one idea: “What goes on between the original output and its reprocessed form...is part of the process of second language learning.” (Lapkin & Swain, 1995, p. 371).

“The fundamental claim of Monitor Theory is that conscious learning is available to the performer only as a Monitor.” (Krashen, 1981, p. 2)

“However, in this article, we maintain that given the lack of evidence of success with this approach to teaching lower proficiency EFL learners and the fact that strategy training places a heavy burden on teachers, an extensive listening approach in the same vain as an extensive reading approach should be adopted.” (Farrell & Renandya, 2011, p. 1)

“With the aim of taking into consideration the in-terests of all concerned parties, this paper will review relevant research and offer some practical advice on planning and executing a balanced and effective TOEIC preparation course.” (Sarich, 2014, p. 17)

Materials/Methods Description of Current Study

Results and Analysis Discussion

Ideas for Future Research

Introduction and Background Introducing a Problem

Literature Review Hypothesis/Prediction

Thesis Statement


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“This paper argues, and provides data to support the argument, that in producing an L2, learners will on occasion become aware of (i.e. notice) a linguistic problem. Noticing a problem can ‘push’ learners to modify their output. In doing so, learn-ers may sometimes be forced into a more syntactic processing mode than might occur in comprehen-sion. Thus, output sets ‘noticing’ in train, trigger-ing mental processes that lead to modified output. What goes on between the original output and its reprocessed form, it is suggested, is part of the process of second language learning.” (Lapkin & Swain, 1995, p. 371)

Sites for Further InformationIf you are in need of more information concerning developing and writing thesis statements, you may find the websites below useful.• Center for Writing Studies at the University of

Illinois at Urbana-Champaign <http://www.cws.illinois.edu/workshop/writ-ers/tips/thesis/>

• Harvard College Writing Center <http://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/developing-thesis>

• Indiana University Bloomington Writing Tuto-rial Services <http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/the-sis_statement.shtml>

ReferencesFarrell, T.S.C. & Renandya, W.A. (2011). ‘Teacher, the tape

is too fast!’ Extensive listening in ELT. ELT Journal, 65(1), 52-59.

Krashen, S. D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Pergamon Press Inc. Retrieved from <http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/sl_acquisition_and_learning.pdf>

Lapkin, S. & Swain, M. (1995). Problems in output and the cognitive processes they generate. A step towards second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 16(3), 371-391.

Sarich, E. (2014). A guide to planning and executing a TOEIC preparation course. The Language Teacher, 38(1), 17-21.

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill “The Writing Center”. (2009). Thesis Statements. Retrieved from <http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/thesis-state-ments/>

[JALT PRAXIS] TEACHING ASSISTANCEDavid McMurrayGraduate students and teaching assistants are invited to submit compositions in the form of a speech, appeal, memoir, essay, conference review, or interview on the policy and practice of language education. Master’s and doctoral thesis supervisors are also welcome to contribute or encourage their students to join this vibrant de-bate. Grounded in the author’s reading, practicum, or empirical research, contributions are expected to share an impassioned presentation of opinions in 1,000 words or less. Teaching Assistance is not a peer-reviewed column.Email: <[email protected]>

F or this issue’s Teaching Assistance, the author reflects on what she learned from her Ja-pan-based practicum advisor while enrolled in

an education program at Winchester University in the UK. Her essay is based on notes she took for her TEFL Methods coursework. By sharing perceptions of what she observed going on in language classrooms taught by a teacher whom she respected, Le Mare-chal hopes to help readers and herself come to grips with how pedagogical theories and approaches such as Counselling-Learning (Curran, 1977) and Commu-nity Language Learning (Larsen-Freeman & Ander-son, 2011) can be acted out in the real world. Now in her first-year of teaching kindergarten, her vivid account adds to the memoirs Dennis Woolbright is writing about his 34 years of teaching English. Starting his career in 1982 as a teacher at Waseda Honjo High School, today he remembers (personal

interview, 2015) how “Several of my students won first place in national speech contests” adding, “to see your student win a contest is even better than win-ning it yourself.” After moving to Seinan Jo Gakuin in Kitakyushu in 1990, he set up an exchange program with Winchester University, reminiscing, “Counsel-ing the Winchester University students has been one of the most rewarding experiences of my life.” He believes building a relationship with and among his students was very important, noting “Being respon-sible for these young women for four months was often challenging but I have learned as much from them as they have learned from me.” In addition to being invited to live in his or other teachers’ homes, students were encouraged to express openly how they felt. They were given security and the oppor-tunity to become a valued member of a community. According to Woolbright “Initially the learners were


The Language Teacher • JALT Praxis: Teaching Assistance

very dependent, but I found it was so much better to let the Winchester students discover Japanese culture by themselves rather than to teach them about it.”

Reflections on L. Dennis Woolbright’s ClassesStephanie Le MarechalCalifornia Language Institute KindergartenAs a student there were a few teachers that I considered to have been good, but only one that I consider as having been great. He made such an impact on my life that I was able to realise what I wanted to do with it. I’m now an En-glish teacher in Japan. While studying at the University of Winchester, I signed up for a Japanese exchange pro-gramme at Seinan Jo Gakuin University in Kitaky-ushu. The programme was organised by Lawrence Dennis Woolbright, who I had the privilege of encountering in April, 2013. For four months, I in-teracted, observed, and learnt a great deal from him.

As an observer of lessons for his Japanese students, what struck me most was how comfortable his stu-dents were to speak openly about themselves. From previous encounters with some Japanese students in the UK, I had the assumption that most were hesitant to talk in English for fear of being grammat-ically incorrect or because they lacked the confidence to try. Having this image in mind, I was pleasantly surprised when many of the students in his public speaking classes not only generated lengthy pieces of scripted speech, but had the confidence to share with classmates. His students knew that he was their teacher, but they also knew he was their friend. In his classes, students were asked to reflect in a group on their active experiences. Proficient in Japanese, Woolbright was sensitive to nuance in both L1 and L2. In groups, students began to feel a sense of com-munity and could learn from each other as well as the teacher. Cooperation, not competition, prevailed in his classes that encouraged learner independence and developed them in a whole-person way (Lars-en-Freeman & Anderson, 2011).

During coursework for a TEFL Methods class, I noted that by adding humour to his lecture, Wool-bright made the students feel relaxed and his use of meta-language over formal language input allowed

students to learn through self-reflection and use their own abilities, instead of relying on the teacher. His patience, reassurance, encouragement and en-ergy were infectious, and I believe that the students thrived on this and gained the belief that they could achieve what they wanted. I also noted that when mistakes were made, students were guided through the process of correcting them. When the stu-dents physically corrected their own mistakes they demonstrated their knowing. It was not the case where he switched between the roles of an author-itative lecturer to becoming an encouraging friend; it was simply that these two characters were rolled into one. He was not only respected for his occupa-tion, but for his dedication to make anyone be the best that they could be.

His commitment to teaching extended fur-ther than his classrooms. Inside the classroom he had the ability to initiate a debate so effortlessly, that we often forgot how long a class was and even continued the debates further, outside of the classroom. He took some Winchester students to Kagoshima to enter debating contests. The workshops that he created in exchange centres in Kitakyushu, not just for students, for anyone who wanted to practice speaking English, continue to thrive, welcoming new people to engage with oth-ers using English. As a student in his Comparative Culture class, I experienced ample doses of comfort and confidence in lessons that were informative, insightful, and above all, fun! Instead of simply lec-turing his students in a classroom about aspects of Japanese culture, he took us to experience ikebana, kabuki, tanabata festivals and tea ceremonies first hand. We were able to be a part of such activities ourselves, which enabled us to compare our own culture to Japan’s.

Woolbright, above all else, had the ability to find the potential in every individual student, discover their strengths, and give them the support and confidence they needed to believe in themselves. During the semester I studied at Seinan Jo Gakuin, I achieved my highest grades even after they were converted to British marking standards.

His reputation over the years has developed and grown so much that now that I am a teacher in Japan, I often meet new people who, when I say the name Woolbright, instantly shout back “Wool-bright-sensei!” I think that, without realising it, he has had a huge impact on all of his students; none are likely to forget about him, nor will they likely


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forget what he has done for them. If I am able to be, even a little bit, the kind of teacher that he was, then I will be happy in the knowledge that my stu-dents will be able to reach their full potential and enjoy doing so. Even after retirement, my teacher’s hard work over the decades will likely never be for-gotten and will hopefully be forever appreciated by his colleagues and, of course, his students.

ReferencesCurran, C. (1977). Counselling-Learning: A Whole-person

Approach for Education. Cliffside Park, NJ: Counsel-ling-Learning Institute.

Larsen-Freeman, D. & Anderson, M. (2011). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[JALT PRAXIS] YOUNG LEARNERSMari NakamuraThe Young Learners column provides language teachers of children and teenagers with advice and guidance for making the most of their classes. Teachers with an interest in this field are also encouraged to submit articles and ideas to the editor at the address below. We also welcome questions about teaching, and will endeavour to answer them in this column.Email: <[email protected]>

The Three-Stage Literacy Program – Stage 1 OverviewMari Nakamura

H ello, colleagues! It is said that “autumn is the best season for reading” (dokusho no aki) in Japan. Are you having fun reading books with

your students and family? I sure hope so. In the previous issue, I introduced the Three-

Stage Literacy Program that I have developed for my students in the hope of fostering their literacy independence. I hope some of you have found it informative - or at least interesting. Here’s the over-view of the program.

The Three-Stage Literacy Program

In this small article I will describe Stage 1 of the program with some theoretical information and practical tips.

Stage 1 (K–G1)

Develop oral language

Foster love of literature

Stage 3 (G4–G6) Promote

comprehensionDevelop learning

skills

Stage 2 (G2–G4)

Promote reading fluency

Build phonics knowledge

Stage 1: The Theoretical Background and PracticeI regard this stage to be a pre-literacy phase in which children prepare themselves for literacy skills development in later years. Stage 1 specifically aims to develop their oral language and also to nurture their love of literature. I use picture books as the core learning material to serve these purposes.

The value of picture books as a learning tool in language classrooms has been discussed extensively in literature, (for example, Bourke, 2006; Cameron, 2001; Ellis and Brewster, 2002; Linse, 2007; Loukia, 2006; McKay, 2006). To provide some fresh per-spectives, I will now discuss why picture books can constitute a major element of classroom practice referring to some findings in neuroscience.

Neuroscience research indicates that learning is enhanced when a learner is in the state of “relaxed alertness”. Relaxed alertness is defined as an optimal state of mind that “combines the moderate to high challenge that is built into intrinsic motivation with low threat and a pervasive sense of well-being” (Caine & Caine, 1994, p. 134). Learning under such a condition “allows all students ongoing opportu-nities to experience competence and confidence accompanied by motivation linked to personal goals and interests.” (Caine, Caine, McClintic & Klimek. 2009, p. 7).

When children and their teacher gather around a well-chosen picture book and share the story, it naturally brings about a relaxed atmosphere. At the same time, encountering new language items em-bedded in a fun and imaginative context, children become motivated to make sense of the story and predict how the story unfolds by connecting what


The Language Teacher • JALT Praxis: Teaching Assistance

they hear and see with their own prior experienc-es and knowledge. Having witnessed how well children stay focused and how quickly they acquire oral language during shared literacy experiences, I consider picture books to be one of the most ideal tools to bring children’s brains into the state of relaxed alertness.

Brain science also informs us that our brain pro-cesses whole and parts simultaneously and we learn more effectively when our experience gives us a sense of the whole that links the details. Two hemi-spheres of the brain, the left one that deals with details and the right one that deals with the whole, work simultaneously and inextricably, interacting with each other. Regarding the power of story in presenting information as a whole, Caine, et.al. (2009, p.137) state that “there is a sense of whole-ness, connectedness and meaning that is conveyed in a story that would otherwise be only irrelevant fragments of experience”.

By using a developmentally appropriate picture book as a teaching tool, we can introduce new lin-guistic items as a whole in a context that is engag-ing and meaningful for children. Furthermore, we can provide children with opportunities to exper-iment with newly learned language in a holistic atmosphere through story-based activities such as miming, role plays, and creative plays.

These are two of the theoretical reasons, among many others, which I believe justify the use of pic-ture books as a core material at Stage 1.

The following is a brief description of the Stage 1 curriculum: 1. The curriculum aims to foster children’s in-

terests in literature and to develop their oral language through shared and interactive reading experiences.

2. It consists of several units of study that typically last for 4 to 6 weeks.

3. In each unit, one picture book and several sup-plementary materials such as flashcards, songs, videos and toys are used to enrich children’s pre-literacy experience.

4. Each unit covers several topic areas which are related to a picture book, and linguistic mate-rials under the target topics are presented and practiced in an integrated manner.

5. Children learn age-appropriate contents and subject matters, such as hygiene, geography and science, as well as language, by actively par-ticipating in interactive activities in a safe and facilitating classroom environment.

6. They have opportunities to express their own ideas and imagination using newly learned language.

At the workshops where I introduced this curric-ulum, some teachers raised concerns in selecting appropriate materials for their students. A rule of thumb is to start small. Do small experiments with books that you think may appeal to the students in your class. Then observe your students’ responses to the story and activities carefully, make necessary changes to the way you introduce the story and adapt activities. Once you feel confident in using the picture book as a main tool of the lesson, you can start designing a unit of study around it.

Some of you may find it helpful to refer to the checklist below that focuses on the linguistic, psy-chological, cognitive and social aspects of learning and teaching experience. 1. Is the story engaging? 2. Is the language appropriate for students’ linguis-

tic level? 3. Do the illustrations support comprehension? 4. Does the book allow you to teach several topic

areas? 5. Does it provide opportunities for interaction

and self-expression? 6. Do you like the story?

In the next issue, I will share one of my favorite picture book based units from this stage. Stay tuned for a fun and adventurous literacy experience!

ReferencesBourke, J. (2006). Designing a Topic-Based Syllabus for

Young Learners. ELT Journal, 60/3: 279-286.Caine, R.N., & Caine, G. (1994). Making Connections:

Teaching and the Human Brain. Menlo Park, CA: Addi-son-Wesley

Caine, R.N., Caine, G., McLintic, C., and Klimek, K.J. (2009). 12 Brain/Mind Learning Principles in Action (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press

Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, G., & Brewster, J. (2002). Tell It Again! The Storytell-ing Handbook for Primary Teachers. Harlow. Pearson Education.

Linse, C. (2007). Predictable Books in the Children’s EFL Classroom. ELT Journal, 61/1: 46-54.

Loukia, N. (2006). Teaching Young Learners Through Stories: The Development of a Handy Parallel Syllabus. The Reading Matrix, 6/1: 25-40.

McKay, P. (2006). Assessing Young Language learners. Cam-bridge. Cambridge University Press.


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[JALT PRAXIS] DEAR TLTTiernan L. TensaiGot a teaching problem you can’t solve? Need some advice about classroom practice? Stressed out from living in a different country? Then Dear TLT is the column for you. Be it serious or comical, our panel of experts will endeavour to answer all your queries. Send your questions to the email address below.Email: <[email protected]>

Dear TLT,I’ve been trying to be social and encourage my students to use English outside of class, but whenever I see them around school, the conver-sation invariably goes like this: Me: Hello!Student: Hello.Me: So, how are you?Student: I’m tired.Me: (sigh)That’s how things usually end. It’s very difficult to get beyond this point, to know what to say next. I always have the feeling that students just do not want to talk. What shall I do?

Flummoxed in Fukushima

Dear Flummoxed,Thanks so much for your letter. Good on you for at least trying to engage your students outside of class! This desire on your part for connecting with them is a wonderful thing. Anything you end up doing with your students will rely upon this foundational inter-est in connecting with them in a more real way. With that said, here are some of our thoughts on how you can improve communication with your students.

Take into account differing cultural codesFirst, one thing to keep in mind is that just because some students interact with little enthusiasm doesn’t mean they don’t want to talk with you. Beyond issues of ability, shyness, or interest are differing cultural codes for communication. As you know, in Japanese culture, this sort of question-short reply, question-short reply structure is quite common when sempais talk with kohais. While we may take it as a sign of disin-terest, it may be just a case of the students following their cultural conditioning by showing deference and humility and all those good things to you, the sensei. Remembering to take different cultural patterns of communication into consideration can give you some perspective as you go about your efforts to improve the quality of your interaction.

Putting your effort into giving your students the tools and confidence to communicate more effec-tively can pay great dividends. Here are two activi-ties you can do in the first semester of school to get them started.

Get to know the staffThe first one is a simple “getting to know the staff” activity. With the consent of those involved, make a list of all the English-speaking staff. In class, make a list of things the students are curious about regarding their teachers, such as where they are from, what they studied, their favorite this or that, or what countries they’ve been to. Next, give each student or pair of students one question. After they think up a few follow-up questions, have them do the interviews over a one-month period, by a specified date. Then, spend an entire class talking over the results. If possible, encourage them to take photos, too. This can help break the ice.

Let’s do lunch!The second activity you can try at the beginning of the school year is to simply have lunch together with your students. At some time in the first month or two, have your students make small groups and negotiate with you a time and place to have lunch together. You could meet at the cafeteria, or they could bring their lunch to your office. If you spring for drinks and snacks, that might help! The students must also bring some prepared topics to talk about. Then just sit and chat. With luck, you may find that these small groups in comfortable surroundings makes them much more open to real conversations. And then, when you meet your students outside class, you will have something to actually talk about!

Tips for taking the initiativeAnother basic thing you can do to improve com-munication with your students is to make yourself more available around school and to employ various strategies for initiating conversations. For stu-dents you teach, look for something appropriate to


The Language Teacher • JALT Praxis: Dear TLT

compliment them on: Hi, nice to see you. Oh, I really like your (new hat). You can also teach this strategy in class. It’s important for students to remember that when you compliment someone, they generally smile, you smile, and then the whole world starts smiling, too. For students you do not teach, you can ask general questions about what they study, if they enjoy the school, things they might recommend for you to do, or really any question that gets them talking. In either case, the point is to be ready with something to talk about and go from there.

Another tip is to avoid the typical How are you? opening because it’s really a non-starter, as you’ve experienced. A better way of opening a conversation is to frame your questions in such a way that the students come away with the feeling that they are helping you in some way. For example, you could ask: • Where is a good (hot spring) around this area?• I really like (udon)! Do you know where I can get

some good (udon) around here?• I bought this new (notepad holder), but I don’t

know how to use it. Could you help me?• I need to buy a (hanko). Is there a shop near

here?These sorts of questions can be effective openers

because they place the student in a favorable “help-er” position. Hopefully this can bring up topics that lead to more extended conversations. For example, if you ask about good places to eat udon, you could extend the conversation to other types of favorite food. The key is being available outside of class by going to the cafeteria, the coffee shop, or just sitting outside reading a book. This will give students am-ple opportunities to approach you. And when they do, be ready to engage them in skillful ways.

Technology can helpTechnological gadgets such as smartphones and tablets can also help you interact with students, and you do not need any fancy software. One excellent app for breaking the ice is Google Maps, believe it or not. If you ask a student where they are from, look it up on your device and have fun going over the map. You can explore neighborhoods, talk about where they went to school, where they hung out, tourist spots in their town, or anything else. Like-wise, you can do the same for where you grew up. In addition, YouTube can be explored if you want to talk about music or other forms of entertainment. Have students introduce their favorite bands or the various sub-genres of J-pop. They will love that. Likewise, you can share with them some of your favorites. This will give you a chance to show off your knowledge of Japanese pop culture. There are a lot of movie clips on YouTube as well, so another idea is to show scenes from films and TV shows of people meeting and greeting each other. Students could take note of what questions get asked, how many turns were taken, or any set expressions. For fun you could throw in some extreme examples. For instance, old Seinfeld shows can give you situations where Jerry really enjoys—or not—bumping into people and talking to them.

So there you go, Flummoxed. We hope these ideas have given you some food for thought. If you make yourself available, get a bit organized, and put some energy and thought into it, there is a lot you can do to improve the way you communicate with students outside of class, both in organized or spontaneous ways. Good luck, and happy chatting!

T. L. Tensai

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[JALT PRAXIS] OLD GRAMMARIANSScott Gardner <[email protected]>

Have Button, Will Push

When I first came to Japan I didn’t imagine being capable of doing anything to earn money apart from teaching English. I

was slow to notice all the side-job opportunities for foreigners that were out there: wedding priest, videogame voice, Santa Claus, political campaign white-glove waver, walking dictionary, the list goes on. These exotic “gaijin gigs” weren’t always easy to get, but all my expat friends seemed to be working weekends while I was home making lesson plans. To try and catch up I approached a few coworkers about forming a manzai duo called “Ben P. and Gary”, but no one took me up on it. To be honest, I had no ma-terial to work with beyond the crass bilingual potty joke moldering in our would-be stage names.

I managed to get a two-day stint as a movie extra, and for a while after that I had the proverbial stars in my eyes, but nothing else came along for me except a random street invitation by a local TV crew to try some 地ビール (microbrew beer) on camera. I heaved an affected “Aaah!” and let the suds dribble down onto my shirt. My scene didn’t make the cut.

Probably my best chance as an actor would be to play the shill in psychological experiments. Studies often require someone to work in collaboration with the researchers and act like a participant, while the researchers secretly study the real subjects’ re-sponses to the fake one. The best example of this is the guy who screams in the other room while sub-jects think they are administering electric shocks to him. I think I could do that.

Ethics rules in most countries no longer allow traumatizing research subjects with simulated pain-inflicting devices, but psychologists are still keen to try any way they can to measure how crappily humans will treat each other. And I think there’s still a need for undercover confederates to get in there and mess up some heads.

Take the Ultimatum Game for example. You put two subjects in a room and give the first one a stack of money. That player must share some of the cash with the second player, but she gets to decide how much to offer. If the second player accepts the offer, both of them keep their share of the money. If the

second player refuses the offer (probably because it’s not “fair”) then neither player gets any money at all. Player One has to find the sweet spot that keeps Player Two happy while capitalizing on her control of the cash.

In real life we test each other’s tolerances like this all the time, and not just with money. How far forward can I take my car toward that “Lane Closed” sign and still expect someone to let me merge over? How many times can I use the call button on a flight before the attendants start squirting wasabi into my bloody marys?

The Ultimatum Game is usually for two bona fide research subjects. The acting bit comes in when you play the iterated version. This means the subjects play the game again and again, alternating who de-cides the payout. Logic says that after two or three times the players would figure out that splitting 50/50 each time will maximize both their profits. Boring! That’s why you have to send in the shill. Put me in there as an agitated, clueless subject, and you’d really learn something about other people’s behavior.

I’d start by offering Player Two a reasonable 48%, and maybe collect 52% myself. In the next game I’d reject the offer no matter how large it was. Then somewhere down the line I’d offer the whole wad to my partner and laugh mischievously when he takes it. These seemingly absurd maneuvers would make him think there’s more to the experiment than everyone’s letting on, and as the game wore on he’d go crazy trying to figure out what it is.

As for me, at the end of the day I’d be supplement-ing my lowly teacher’s income with a stipend check, essentially getting paid to perfect my skills at aggra-vating people with flighty decisions and irrational demands. Watch out, students!

THE LEARNER

FOCUS ON

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