IN DEGREE PROJECT ARCHITECTURE,SECOND CYCLE, 15 CREDITS

, STOCKHOLM SWEDEN 2020

The Light-Play-Ground InstallationA design proposal for a stimulating outdoor environment for preschool aged children

PETRA KOZA

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGYSCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

“Gyerekszemmel a világ sokkal érdekesebb, mulatságosabb, groteszkebb. Például bele lehet

látni a felnőttek orrlyukába.”

Csukás István

“The world is a much more interesting, funny, and grotesque place if you look at it with a

child’s eye. For instance, you can see up grownups’ noses.”

István Csukás

The Light-Play-Ground Installation

A design proposal for a stimulating outdoor environment

for preschool aged children

Petra Koza, 2020 TRITA-ABE-MBT-20160

KTH Royal Institute of Technology

School of Architecture and Built Environment Master of Science in Architectural Lighting Design Course code: AF270X 2019/2020

PROLOGUE | 3

PROLOGUE

“Play can build the foundation of a more humane society”

Kathy Hirsh-Pasek

As the main topic of my thesis I chose a concept that has a most crucial role in growing up,

and yet its influence remains with us much longer, affecting to various extents all aspects of

our life: play.

As social creatures, numerous problems and challenges we face every day, as well as the

way we cope with them, can be traced back to the various aspects of human nature. All our

thoughts and acts are the products of incredibly complex emotional and mental processes,

and early childhood education plays an integral role in becoming intelligent, open, and

healthy adults.

The development of a child cannot be measured only in school grades but in every aspects

of social, mental, and emotional life that are hardly measurable. Many of the skills that en-

able us to live healthy, productive lives within society are acquired at an early age. We need

to experience certain emotions, recognize certain situations, learn to make decisions, and

deal with our peers. The more we “practice”, the better we get at all these activities.

At the time we had to pick a topic for our thesis, we were asked what we wanted to achieve

through our work. I feel like this master’s programme provided me with the foundations of

a certain sensitivity towards dealing with light. Still, I have a long road ahead of me to be-

come an accomplished lighting designer. One thing I know for certain is that for a long time

I have been gravitating towards the design of educational tools and buildings centred around

the joy and development of children. I strongly believe that our future lies in the hands of

children and the way we foster their development.

CONTENTS | 4

CONTENTS

Prologue 3

Contents 4

Abstract 5

Introduction 6

Background 8

About children 9

Visual perception in childhood 9

Colours 11

Learning through playing 19

Darkness and children 21

Experience of spatial perception 23

Space and shadows 23

Light qualities 25

Texture and material 27

Inspiration - Moodboard 29

Methodology 30

Results 31

Concept and Vision 32

Design proposal – The Light-Play-Ground Installation 35

Conclusion 37

Outlook 38

References 39

Figures 41

Appendix 42

ABSTRACT | 5

ABSTRACT

This thesis aims to introduce a design proposal providing a special light-colour-space expe-

rience for preschool aged children

At this age, the basic aspects of visual perception are well-developed. However, unlike

adults, children do not possess the experience and memories that enable complete visual

perception. My goal was to create a space where children can play and, in the meantime,

meet various stimuli that they are not used to, broadening their visual sensitivity by utilizing

the rhythm of light and colour combinations.

Based on earlier studies, I investigate three main areas: children’s perspective, their rela-

tionship with colours, and the learning process itself that takes place in their brain while

embracing knew knowledge. Conclusions drawn from the literature review are comple-

mented by studies of forms, shadows, and materials. The design of the installation itself is

presented through conceptual sketches and models.

As the main motive of the installation I chose a circular labyrinth where, during wandering,

new experiences, colours, forms, atmospheres, and emotions reveal themselves as one pro-

gresses towards the centre. Darkness too plays an important role in the design.

The changes in light level follow the steps of this external and internal journey, until in the

last layer of the labyrinth children can experience almost complete darkness in a relatively

safe environment.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION | 6

“Learning begins with creative play.” [1] A novel challenge of this era is our greatly accelerated rhythm of life. Due to rapid technological development, our environment is changing day by day to a large extent. The negative effects of this process can already be observed in children at an early age. The spread of electronic devices and the huge number of screen-based stimuli (television, computer games, smartphones) overshadow classic non-digital games and crafts. There-fore, several basic skills that children used to acquire by classic children’s activities do not develop to a desirable degree.

In my thesis, I aim to design a Light-Play-Ground installation that pro-motes the development of children by traditional methods, while at the same time, by utilizing light, it makes the learning process an exciting experience. My principle design tool is using daylight and all the possibil-ities it offers.

The location of the project is Stockholm, Sweden. Stockholm is peculiar due to the significant differences in its daylight hours between summer and wintertime. The installation is based on daylight, but for dramatic effects direct sunlight is vital. As an outlook, I suggest the application of artificial light sources in the future, in order to extend the hours of usage and create a new, reversed meaning to the structure.

Why a playground?

The role of playgrounds in children’s development is significant. Besides their own home and preschool, a playground visited on a regular basis can also be part of the educational environment for a child. As the name itself suggests, it is a space dedicated to play.

The most crucial difference between the quality offered by playground activities and play at home or at school is that at the playground there are no preconceived ideas and strict rules about playing. For instance, in a home environment, furniture and other objects provide a confined space, limiting children’s creativity and their ability to create new “worlds” or “rules” for playing.

Another great benefit of playgrounds is that these safe spaces allow kids to learn how to interact with other children (strangers), how to make new friends and how to play together with the friends they made. They gain independence and build their confidence whether they are playing with others or play alone on their own [2].

The physical benefits provided by playgrounds are also important: closed, indoor spaces can create anxiety and frustration in children. But they can move around freely within the boundaries of a playground. Kids who spend a significant amount of time playing outdoors tend to sleep better, go to bed earlier and wake up more refreshed than children who spend most of their time indoors [2].

INTRODUCTION | 7

Visual culture starts in childhood

The aim of any learning is to acquire important knowledge and skills that greatly influence our quality of life later on.

As children, we are more susceptible to acquire new knowledge, and also learn much quicker. Through the development of creativity and a sensi-tivity to aesthetics, already in childhood we develop a sense of beauty, a preference towards certain colours and shapes. The more stimuli we re-ceive at an early age, the better our visual sensitivity develops; thus, we can better interpret our artificial surroundings later.

This affects several aspects of our life. As the quality of the end result of any design process, be it a building, a design object or lighting design, depends mostly on the opinions of the recipients, visual sensitivity has considerable significance.

Therefore, to begin developing these skills at an early age is particularly important. The installation creates an opportunity for children to explore unfamiliar stimuli, such as weird shadows, special light features, and ef-fects of colour combinations.

Light from a child’s view

Light and its properties present a subject that strongly attracts children already at a very early age [3]. Nevertheless, natural light and its changes with the time of the day, besides providing much new knowledge, is self-evident in the eyes of children. The repetitive daily routines, the cycles in which the individual activities are combined with a certain light level and quality, provide stability and safety. A good example is the start of the day in the sunny yard in a kindergarten, while at the end of the day, around bedtime, the lack of natural light feels self-evident, and stories are being read and listened to at the light of a familiar artificial light source. The change of the seasons makes this cycle shift to some extent, but this change develops over a longer period of time, slowly enough not to induce a sense of uncertainty in a child. By using natural light, the installation provides children with an inde-pendent and recurring light-related memory. Through play, children of different age can acquire the specific knowledge of light appropriate for their age group.

“We are hunched beneath a table: my

parents, my toddler sister and me. It is

night. All the lights are out. There is a

blackout in the city. The air raid

sounded earlier to warn us: enemy

planes are flying overhead. The city’s is

swathed in a blanket of darkness. Anxi-

ety rises; my first thoughts are of my

tricycle; it is out on the balcony just

waiting to be obliterated. I chastise my

6-year-old self for not having brought it

in. Then I see them—fireflies—the dark-

ness lifted by pinpoints of light.”

First Memories [4]

BACKGROUND | 8

BACKGROUND RESEARCH

In order to create a well-designed and attractive but at the same time reasonable space for

children, several factors were taken into consideration. By studying children’s visual percep-

tion, we can get a picture of how much of the world around us can a child see. Observing

their relationship with colours and the impact that a certain colour can cause helps to trans-

mit emotions, moods and provides the space a base atmosphere.

The aim of the installation is to encourage children to explore, play regularly and thereby

acquire new information through the variable (and non-digital) stimuli they get. Therefore,

it is also important to investigate how playing improves different skills and what are the main

benefits of playing in general. By defining the meaning of play for children we can under-

stand better their impulses.

It is also vital to study children’s relationship with darkness – the lack of light – and their

interpretations of dark.

Fig. 1 Methodology

VISUAL PERCEPTION IN CHILDHOOD

ABOUT CHILDREN | 9

“Vision plays an important role in physical, cognitive, and social develop-ment.” [5]

The human visual perception is based on the eyes, which are responsible for four-fifths of all the information our brain receives [6]. Although this seems obvious, many animals have different main sensory organs. For instance, the vision of most bat species is undeveloped because they use an echo location system to orient themselves.

Even though there are significant differences in the quality of vision in early childhood, the way of human visual perception is the same at every age. The image we see is created from the light reflected by the environ-ment. During the process of vision [7], the light steps into the eye through the cornea, it passes through the pupil, then the lens. The pupil is basically an opening that can control the amount of light entering the eye by changing its size. The surrounding coloured muscle called iris is responsible for the shrinking and stretching of the pupil. The lens is re-sponsible for focusing the view, its shape can change according how far the object is that we are observing. Since the surface of the lens is curved, it bends the passing light and creates an upside-down image on the retina. The retina is the back side of the eye where light-sensitive cells are located. These cells convert the arriving electromagnetic stimu-lus into electric signals and transmit the information to the brain.

The brain has two main ways of responding (such as following movement with the eye or changing the shape of the lens) to the received infor-mation. Reactions through the subcortical pathway are unconscious, therefore they happen fast; such are light-induced pupillary and blink re-flexes. These reflexes are already apparent in 30-weeks old premature babies. On the other hand, responses through the cortical pathway are basically the behavioural aspects of the visual performance. They are the results of conscious decisions of the brain and develop by learning, to-gether with the anatomically and physiologically maturing visual system [8].

At birth, the human visual system is quite rudimentary, but functional. Its performance improves continuously after, especially during the first few months, but only fully develops in a matter of years [8]. New-borns already have anatomically the same number of cells in their visual sys-tem as in adulthood, but the size and development of the individual cells are not complete. They reach their final extents at the age of six months. But what is most important, the connections between cells, which are responsible for the child’s learning process, develop during infancy and childhood.

ABOUT CHILDREN | 10

During the anatomical development of the eyes we can distinguish cer-tain milestones. At birth, visual fixation, in other words the capability to maintain the vis-ual gaze at a certain location is already present. It becomes fully and well-developed only at the age of 6-9 weeks. Until the age of 2-3 months, ba-bies can follow movements only with a serial of saccades. (Saccades or jerks are quick, simultaneous movements between two phases of fixa-tion.) Later, babies become able to follow movements smoothly and move their eyes efficiently. Accommodation, which in optics means the ability of changing the shape of the lens and by this changing focus, evolves after the third month [9]. Another important stepstone is when the three-dimensional view called stereopsis develops [10]. Since each eye see the viewed object from a slightly different angle, the brain com-bines the two images into one. Six months after birth the cells responsi-ble for colour perception and acuity reach their final size. The cells ac-countable for low contrast sensitivity reach adult size at the age of two years. The longest process in the development of vision takes place at the foveal area of the retina, which is responsible for high-grade resolu-tion. It becomes fully mature only about four years after birth [11].

Children’s visual perception correlates with their brain development [12].

Early experiences shape the development of the brain through vision, hearing, smell, touch, and taste. The connections (so called synapses) be-tween brain cells are fixated by repeated stimuli [12]. The brain first be-comes capable of recognising an already experienced stimulus, then set-tles the familiar stimuli into patterns. For example, if the parent repeat-edly calls a child by their name, the connection formed in their brain al-lows them to recognise this name and over time identify themself with it and respond [12]. This is the process of learning.

In childhood the brain can learn faster and more effectively than later. The reason behind this lies in our anatomy. The number of synapses is continuously increasing from birth to the age of about 10 years. At that time, children have about twice as many synapses as adults have. After the first decade of life, synaptic density starts to decrease, the brain starts to prioritise information and gets rid of several “old” connections. Although the number of synapses becomes less than it was earlier, the remaining connections are stronger and transfer information at a faster rate than before.

The most important difference between the visual perception of adults and children is the lack of experience. Although children have less expe-rience and acquired stimuli than adults, their brain makes it possible to gain more. Throughout various experiences they acquire more and more knowledge, shaping their interpretation of the world and bringing it closer to that of adults.

VISUAL FIXATION

ACCOMODATION

VISUAL FOLLOWING

HIGH RESOLUTION

LOW CONTRAST

SENSITIVIY

COLOUR PERCEPTION

STEREOPSIS

6-9 weeks

2-3 months

3 months

6 months

3 months

2 years

4 years

Table 1 Human visual development [8,13]

FUNCTION AGE

COLOURS

ABOUT CHILDREN | 11

Colour vision

Colour vision is part of the complex system of visual perception and

occurs at an early developmental level within it [14]. Perceiving colours

is so fundamental that it is present, at least in rudimentary form, in all

animate life [15].

The fact that children learn to communicate with colours before they

begin to speak demonstrates well the importance of colour perception.

Colours are the interpretation of different sections of the

electromagnetic spectrum within the wavelength-range of visible light

[16]. If light, that contains the entirety of different wavelengths, interacts

with a certain surface, various phenomena can arise, such as

transmittance, absorption, reflection, refraction. The human eyes

perceive the reflected radiation with light-sensitive cells of the retina.

These cells transmit information to the brain according to their

wavelengths. When the electromagnetic impulses caused by the

photons of light reach the brain, a connection between the image and

the learned concept of colour is made, resulting in the perception of

colour.

Several things influence us humans during colour perception, but we

mostly rely on our learned associations (concepts, meanings,

experiences). However, there are certain biological proclivities, results of

the evolution process, that influence our decisions according to colours.

Colour perception is an early step during visual perception; therefore,

the mere experience of colour is unconscious. It influences the behaviour

and shifts the response positively towards approach or negatively

towards avoidance [17].

Physiological and psychological responses for colours

“Colour is not just about aesthetics— it also communicates specific information.” [18]

The human body can respond to visual stimuli in several ways. One part of these reactions are conscious actions or thoughts, while the other part of them takes place in the form of unconscious processes and emotions. The relationship between emotions and thoughts is extraordinarily com-plex. They cannot be distinguished sharply from each other because they overlap [19]. Therefore, there are reactions where conscious and uncon-scious processes also affect the response, but we can observe certain thoughts without emotional connection and there are feelings without logic or explanation. However, both feelings and thoughts require a cer-tain level of attention by the observer into the direction of the “object of observation”. Most reactions to colour, however, are subliminal, i.e. unconscious [20]. We are generally unaware of the pervasive and persuasive effects of col-our, although its effects are based on our memories and early experi-ences. The psychological effect caused by a certain colour or colour com-bination is instantaneous. The reason behind it can be found in our anat-omy [21].

ABOUT CHILDREN | 12

During visual perception, the retina forwards the perceived stimuli to the brain by the optic nerves. One optic nerve belongs to each eyeball. The two incoming optic nerves cross each other directly next to the hypothal-amus in the brain (optic chiasm). Since transmitted stimuli pass through this close to the hypothalamus, they have an impact on its function.

The most important function of the hypothalamus is to link the nerve sys-tem to the endocrine system. The latter is responsible for hormone output, thereby evoking emotional and psychological responses. Colour psychology works on two levels, where the first one is based on our fundamental instincts in connection with basic colours, regardless of shade, tone, or tint. Each colour can have a positive or negative psycho-logical effect that depends on the relationship with a certain colour. The second level of colour psychology is based on learned associations and experiences [22]. Besides the psychological responses to colour, we can also observe physi-ological reactions in the human body for the same reason. Optic nerves pass through the centre of our nervous system, therefore light impulses affect motor behaviour such as heart rate and respiration.

ABOUT CHILDREN | 13

Colour theories

The complex science of colours has fascinated people since antiquity. In

the interpretations of various cultures, besides the scientific study of

colours a more sensitive, artistic approach appears as well. The Chinese

canon defines five, while the Aristotelian system four basic colours,

according to the five or four basic elements, respectively.

The study of colours as an independent field of science only emerged in

the middle ages when the study of nature was divided into separate

disciplines. The strong influence of religion in all these sciences only

began to ease with the arrival of the renaissance and weakened further

in the 18th century.

Significant findings about colours were achieved by Leonardo da Vinci

[23], who as a scholar as well as an artist performed an integrated study

of the nature of colours. In his colour system, he defines six basic colours

and two modifying ones, i.e. eight elements altogether.

The two significant figures who laid the foundation of modern colour

paradigms were Sir Isaac Newton and Wolfgang Amadeus Goethe.

Newton synthetized the earlier findings and made physical conclusions

related to colours based on the behaviour of light. He discovered that

the light passing through a prism is divided into its components and

made further conclusions regarding the characteristics of light of

different wavelengths. Newton developed a circular diagram of colours

based on three main colours: red, yellow, and blue [24].

In the XIX century Goethe based his assumptions about colours on the emotions and psychological responses that a certain colour can cause [25]. He categorized colours also and determined “plus” and “minus col-ours.” Plus colours (yellow, red-yellow, and yellow-red) were thought to induce positive feelings such as liveliness, aspiration, and warmth, whereas minus colours (blue, red-blue, and blue-red) were said to induce negative feelings such as restless, anxiety, and cold.

Kurt Goldstein integrated Goethe’s ideas with his own clinical observa-tions [18] in proposing that colour perception produces physiological re-actions in the body that are overtly manifest in people’s emotions, cog-nitive focus, and motor behaviour.

Johannes Itten, an expressionist painter and theorist thought that the

key to a successful composition is the interaction between the

similarities and contrasts of colours. With the help of his colour wheel he

distinguished four ways of creating harmonies and seven to achieve

contrast between certain colours.

In summary, Leonardo did draw a line between artistic and scientific questions. This unity, however, disappears over the following centuries. Newton considered optics and optical experiments as the basis of investigating colours sci-entifically; on the contrary, one could say that Goethe made general conclusions based on artistic experience as well as chemical, physiological and psychological observations [26]. Goldstein studied human reactions and emotional responses to colours, while Itten’s theories were based on his experiences with the perception of different colour combinations.

ABOUT CHILDREN | 14

Findings regarding colours

When we speak about different colours, they vary in three main

attributes: the wavelengths of the reflected light (hue), the vividness or

intensity of the specific colour (chroma), and lightness of the colour,

which basically means its black-white proportion [27].

Colour is context-specific [28].

The physical and psychological circumstances which frame the colour

also give a meaning to it and modify its affects. Therefore, creating as-sumptions by perceiving single colours seems bold. When we think there are no special circumstances to observe colours, then our state itself counts as a circumstance: our brain provides the frame of perception (such as our mood, stress level, etc).

Hence, colours do not have single, universal meanings. However, there are certain colour pairs and combinations which are framing each other and usually create the same effect during perception [22].

Colour harmony

The word “harmony” describes a well-balanced state between specific things based on the various interactions between them. Colour harmony is based on the fine connection between different colours and shades.

“It’s the balance of similarity and contrast that creates a unified composition – a certain rightness when viewed.” [29]

Although colour harmony depends on individual taste and preference there are certain colour combinations which most of the times “work” together better than others. According to “The Art of Color” by Johannes Itten, we can define four different ways of how colour harmony can be created. Harmonious colours mixed together create a grey colour.

Colour contrast

Monotonous similarity can be boring for the eyes; therefore, to balance the connection between colours, contrast can be applied. Colour con-trast acts as a focal point or interest, drawing attention to certain ele-ments while diverting it from others. According to Itten, contrast can be created in seven ways in a composition: contrast of hue, contrast of dark and light, contrast of warm and cold, the contrast of extension, contrast of complements, contrast of saturation and simultaneous contrast.

ANALOGOUS HARMONY

MONOCHROMATIC

HARMONY

SPLIT COMPLEMENTARY

COLOUR HARMONY

MIXED COMPLEMENTARY

COLOUR HARMONY

Fig. 2 Colour harmonies defined by Itten

ABOUT CHILDREN | 15

Children’s interpretations of colours

Colour plays an important role in children’s development. At the age of six months, their colour vision becomes fully developed so they become able to distinguish colours.

There is limited research investigating the connection between young children’s emotions and certain colours. The existing studies are some-times even contradictory.

Although colours help children to express themselves, children have dif-ficulties to understand certain emotions at such a young age.

Studies point out that very young children, due to their lack of emotional intensity, use more likely preferred colours independently from the na-ture of the emotion and express both positive and negative feelings as-sociated with them [30].

As they grow older and more mature, children’s associations of colours and emotions tend to become more differentiated and complex [31]. This increasing sophistication might arise from greater social experience over time, creating more opportunities for different associations with a particular colour.

Whether these colour-related images are positive or negative depends on personal experiences and early childhood memories [31].

Children learn earlier to match basic colours with certain objects than the names of each colour. At an early age it is easier to recognise shapes and forms and connect them to the with the visual stimuli provided by the colour. Children say their first words much later, around the age of 12 months.

Children have a tendency to express more positive responses for bright colours than dark ones, and with age this preference increases.

The reason behind this can be their familiarity with brighter colours. Ob-jects, toys, home accessories, school equipment designed for children usually have brighter colours and children find these colourful objects more attractive.

The scientific explanation of this phenomenon is the correlation of wave-length and evolved emotions. For instance, red light has the longest wavelengths on the visible scale of electromagnetic radiation, therefore it is no surprise that studies find red the most stimulating colour [32]. Dark colours absorb more radiation; therefore, the evolved stimuli affect the brain differently than a bright colours.

Another aspect to observe is the preconceived gender-related images, which influence boys’ and girls’ responds to colours. Boys are more likely to have positive emotional reactions to dark colours, while girls’ emo-tional responses to them tend to be negative [31].

In summary, gender socialisation, idiosyncratic experiences, and culture are the most significant influencing sources in a child’s life in connection with colours [31].

Cartoon creators often use colour-psy-chology to express certain traits in their characters. Stories written for children tend to have happy endings, where he-roes always win.

Heroes represent positive human at-tributes as an example for children, thus the dominant colour of their ap-pearance also has to enhance the same attributes.

For instance, dominant colours on Walt Disney heroes mostly are blue, yellow, and green. Villains, on the other hand tend to be represented by red, purple, black and white colours.

ABOUT CHILDREN | 16

Colour associations

“Colours, like features, follow the changes of the emotions”

Pablo Picasso

According to several studies, researchers confirmed that children show strong associations between colours and traits, just like adults. Although there are differences between children’s and adults’ associations, the nature of the effect (positive or negative) is similar in most of the cases.

The following associations are based on three studies. The first one

examines only children’s emotional responses to colours [33]. The

second study involves a broader experiment with 232 participants from

22 countries [34]. It observes response to colours regardless of age,

although only 10 participants are under eighteen. The last study

compares children’s and adults’ emotional responses [35].

Red

Red is the most specific primary colour: it even appears in human bodily reactions over and over with various mean-ings. It is the colour of the blood. In connection with the human body, red can have both positive and negative asso-ciations. Works as a warning signal, such as red rash, or a sign of fever. But red skin can also express excitement, attraction, or dominance. Shades of red can increase heart rate, so overly usage of it can have a negative effect and lead to distraction. There are several associations in connection to the colour red, but speed, aggression, and domi-nance are the most frequent ones independently of age.

Green

Green has a strong association with natural elements and vegetation, such as trees, leaves, grass etc. Therefore, shades of green have a pleasing effect on most people. After all, we humans were originally surrounded by vegetation in our natural habitat. By adults, green is considered as the colour of calmness and success [38,39]. It is often associ-ated with fertility, including "fertile thinking," as in creativity. Usage of green colour has a positive impact on chil-dren’s learning skills in educational buildings.

SAFE

PLEASANT SECURE

ANGRY

FAST

AGRESSIVE

DOMINANT

ANGRY

ATTRACTIVE

FAST

Fig. 3a Colour associations - red

Fig. 3b Colour associations - green

ABOUT CHILDREN | 17

Blue

Just like the colour green; blue is connected to the natural realm such as water and the sky. Blue is often associated with openness and peace by adults [40,41]. In general, cool hues tend to be relaxing [42]. Blue paint is often used to help slow down one's heart rate, hence people tend to paint the walls blue in hospitals. Blue evokes feelings of con-tentment, spaciousness and comfort in both adults and children [43].

Orange / Pink / Purple

"Small children have a natural preference for 'luminous' colours such as red, orange, yellow and pink." [15] These bold colours demand attention; therefore, careful use of orange or pink can alert to a specific information. Both adults and children connect the colour pink to love, but in children this feeling is related to affection to parents, while adults associate it with romantic love. Orange is the colour of “something new”. It excites the viewer; both children and adults connect orange with surprises and fun. Purple is an odd one out in this group. Associations to purple colour prominently depend on former experiences: children appear to connect purple with proud behaviour, while adults associate it with wealth, prosperity and royalty.

HAPPY

EXCITNG TRUSTED

CALM

SECURE

FUN

SURPRISING EXCITING

AFFECTIONATE LOVE

LOVE

PROUD WEALTHY

Fig. 3c Colour associations – blue

Fig. 3d Colour associations – orange, pink, purple

FUN

ABOUT CHILDREN | 18

Yellow

Yellow, like red, is commonly used to indicate caution in signage. Cars use red and yellow lights for indication (tail, break and signal lights) in order to attract one’s eyesight. Yellow appears also in human body reactions, but in contrast with red, it has mostly negative meanings. For example, pale yellowish skin indicates sickness and nothing else. Ac-cording to studies, both children and adults associate yellow with positive emotions, although common associations differ. Children are naturally attracted to yellow as infants but seem to grow less and less fond of it as they mature. There is no consensus on the nature of responses in adulthood. According to international ratings, yellow is one of the least preferred colours [31].

Black and White

Achromatic black and white tend to carry in general negative and positive connotations, respectively [44]. They are the complete opposite of each other.

In most cases children’ associations are similar to that of adults but in the case of white colour the nature of responses differs in the two groups. For children, white represents the lack of colour, just like black, and they describe it with the word “sadness”. Here, again, appear the influence of the environment and culture. The usage of white colour, which is nowadays mostly associated with purity and cleanliness used to be the colour of mourning and in several cultures its usage still represents grief. Children more likely associate black colour with negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, or dishonesty. For adults black mostly represents power and strength. Studies show that both children and adults connect negative emotions to dark colours. For instance, brown, black, and grey are seldom used by children in drawing, except for outlines. The excessive use of these colours, therefore, has become an indicator of fear or defiance in children’s emotional lives.

PLEASANT

HAPPY LEAST

SCARY

NOT

DOMINANT

FUN

SAD

PRETTY

SLOW

INNOCENT

TRUSTED

DOMINANt

FEARFUL STRONG

DOMINANT

CLEVER DISHONEST

Fig. 3e Colour associations – yellow

Fig. 3f Colour associations – white

Fig. 3g Colour associations – black

LEARNING THROUGH PLAY

ABOUT CHILDREN | 19

“Play is one of the secrets to success in school and in life in general.”

Kathy Hirsh-Pasek [45]

As mentioned earlier, the base of any learning process in the brain is re-peated stimuli creating connections between brain cells (synapses), and the brain storing them. The brain essentially stores as much new infor-mation as much stimuli we meet during our childhood. Of course, later our brain in order to “make space” gets rid of all unused data, and or-ganises better the patterns related to the remaining, more essential in-formation.

But how is this all connected to playing?

Playing is an amazing and complex tool. It helps children gain more and more knowledge through an enjoyable activity.

Experts define play as “any spontaneous or organized activity that

provides enjoyment, entertainment, amusement or diversion.” [2]

I also put emphasis on the word “enjoyment”. This is what allows

children keep themselves busy for long hours and repeat the same

activity several times. Without entertainment the learning process

becomes too boring for them and children just abandon the activity in a

truly short time.

However, playing is also a very serious business for a child. Many times, in order to achieve something, kids must work harder then we think. As an example, let us consider children learning about the different forms and shapes. How many times do they have to try to fit the wrong shape into the wrong opening? Probably many. But all the disappointment and frustration caused by the failures makes them keep working on it, and at the end, when they manage to pass the challenge the joy compensates them for all the effort.

An interesting fact is that playing has an important role in all animal spe-cies’ life, just like in the case of humans. Cubs acquire the basic skills of hunting, chasing, and fleeing through playful activities with their mother and siblings.

Gordon Burghardt reptile expert observed five different criteria which help to identify if an animal’s activity can be considered as playing [45]. Most importantly, there must not be an apparent reason for doing the activity. It has to be done repeatedly, sometimes exaggeratedly. While playing, the animals cannot be under stress. It has to occur spontane-ously, without reason. Similar qualities can describe children’s playing.

Playing is a complex tool, and for that very reason it provides numerous benefits that help a child become a well-rounded person [2]. There are several different areas which can be developed by playing, such as emo-tional and social skills, mental and creative advancement, and physical progress.

ABOUT CHILDREN | 20

What is risky play?

Nowadays, playgrounds became overly safe environments for children [45]. It means that according to statistics the chance for a child getting injured for real during outdoor playing is extremely low. However, the process of learning requires children to meet risky situations when the stakes are real. The chance of getting hurt makes the experience more exciting, and more memorable. Not to mention that the achievement seems much bigger if it takes a bigger effort to reach it.

Engaging naturally with scary situations influences fundamentally a child’s development. Interviews with children showed that activities like climbing up to a high tree, cycling fast, using dangerous tools such as knives and scissors, sitting next to the fire, or getting lost between bushes can cause an interesting mixture of fear and excitement. Children described these experiences with bodily reactions (“bum-bum heart-beat”) and referred them as “scary funny” activities [45].

Risky play situations provide a great opportunity to children to challenge themselves, testing their limits and achieve new levels.

Meeting negative experiences such as fear, injury, fighting, etc. in a rela-tively safe, friendly environment induces confidence and children no longer will consider these so scary. They will learn how to react in scary situations later and how to face their fears. It plays an important role in preventing the development of phobias and anxiety.

“It’s about helping give children the space to play and engage with their environment how they choose, whether risky or not, because that’s going to be an incredible opportunity to grow.” [46]

From exploration to playing

Playing always starts with exploration. But while playing repeats certain activities and movements for enjoyment, during exploration the excite-ment caused by the new information effects children only for the first few occasions they meet them. After a while, elements, colours, spaces, odours, in brief, the different stimuli become familiar.

Learning about light

In the first few years of their life, children learn the difference between opaque and transparent materials.

After the age of three, they first explore shadows and learn how they are formed. Children also learn about the danger of looking directly at the Sun.

Later, at the age of six, they begin to comprehend how light travels, un-derstand correlations between the shape of objects and their shadows, and explore reflections [47].

DARKNESS AND CHILDREN

ABOUT CHILDREN | 21

“Just because something is unfamiliar, it doesn’t mean it’s bad by default. In the end, everything has an important purpose. Even the dark.” [48]

In childhood, night-time fear is a common experience [49].

In a recent study, researchers observed children and adolescents be-tween the age of 8-16 years to identify the source of children’s night-time fears. The results indicated that approximately two-thirds of the in-terviewed children suffer night-time fear at some level.

Night-time fear means more than simply a fear of darkness. It includes fears of nightmares, nocturnal animals and monsters, scary noises, shad-ows, different shapes and forms in dark, other persons such as intruders, and being left alone too [49].

The study distinguishes eight categories/sources of night-time fears: “environmental threats”, “personal security”, “frightening dreams”, “darkness”, “imaginary creatures”, “security of family and friends”, “noc-turnal animals and insects” and finally “worries about the day”.

According to the study, children reported most frequently the fear of a harmful intruder during night-time.

29% of the children related darkness to their night-time fears. Although darkness as an independent category does not represent a frequent fear for children, many categories above intricately connect to the dark or can derive from darkness.

We can define darkness as the lack of light, which creates visual uncer-tainty in the viewer. The most frequent source of night-time fears is more likely this visual uncertainty independently of age. Our brain in childhood does not support its assumptions with real bases. As an impact of the tremendous stimuli that a child’s brain can receive, children’s imagination is more vivid. For instance, when they wake up in the middle of the night, darkness easily fools them. While an adult’s brain can quickly recognise the familiar shapes in the room, and recall the circumstances of going to bed, for a child this process is not so easy. Their imagination and the lack of learned patterns lead them astray. They have to wake up several times, get scared and cope with that fear in order to learn to recognise their room even in darkness.

Every kid knows that darkness is sneaky. He lives in the basement, under the bed, sometimes in the wardrobe and comes forward every evening be-fore bedtime. He surrounds everything, nothing can escape. There are no col-ours anymore, nothing is sure, nothing is certain.

Light and darkness goes in pari-passu: we cannot interpret one without the other. Darkness is relative, depends on its context just like brightness or colours. We can experience different kinds of darkness according to the space and light level. Children can suffer fear from a certain level of darkness, while they can feel comfort and joy in a different context.

ABOUT CHILDREN | 22

The phenomenon of darkness can be interpreted in different ways even in childhood. I studied two different approaches through two children’s books.

The first book called Love is written by Matt de La Pena. He describes darkness in a figurative sense for negative emotions. The book intro-duces both positive and negative emotions to children in an understand-able way. Through short stories, descriptions of bodily reactions, colours, etc. they can recognise feelings and interpret them during reading.

De la Pena says responsibility of parenthood does not lie in protecting children from all sadness and heartaches in the word but more likely to prepare them for these negative experiences.

“And for those who’ve yet to experience that kind of sadness, I can’t think of a safer place to explore complex emotions for the first time than inside the pages of a book.” [50]

Lemony Snicket's book, The Dark introduces in the strict sense of the word the lack of light itself and the spooky feeling it can create. The aim of this book is the same as de la Pena’s: to let children meet darkness in a safe environment during reading about it together with their parents. During its storyline, children can experience emotions and cope with them through the main character’s feelings.

“By providing a mirror of your feelings – your feelings are normalized. It’s remarkably comforting. It’s a very human instinct to want to know that others are going through the same thing.” [48]

Both negative and positive experiences are part of children’s healthy de-velopment, they provide the same chance for learning. Childhood mem-ories of darkness have a mostly negative nature and they can leave a deeper imprint behind.

Fear of the dark at an early age specifically can be predictive of future risks for major depression [49]. Therefore, it is important to assist chil-dren while they meet darkness and help them if they need special cir-cumstances to cope with the fear of darkness.

SPACE AND SHADOWS

EXPERIENCE OF SPATIAL PERCEPTION | 23

In perception of the surrounding space, contrast plays a crucial role. Con-trast is the proportion of dark and bright areas and surfaces. The foun-dation of any kind of darkness is shadows. The darkness of the night arises from Earth blocking the light of the Sun. In a windowless room, darkness is created by the shadow of surrounding walls.

Sharp or soft shadows can determine the atmosphere of the space.

There are three basic types of contrast between surfaces: sharp edges, diffused borders, and gradient transition.

Former studies [51] suggest that more people connect the feeling of comfort to diffused contrast and gradient transition than to a sharp contrast between areas.

Experiments on the intensity of shadows

The distance between surfaces deter-mines the type of shadows: sharp con-trasts or soft transition between light and dark areas.

Beside playing with distance, contrast can also be adjusted by the combination of different materials.

Fig. 5a Cast shadows

„THE EYE IS ALWAYS CAUGHT BY LIGHT, BUT

SHADOWS HAVE MORE TO SAY.”

GREGORY MAGUIRE

Fig. 4 Contrast

EXPERIENCE OF SPATIAL PERCEPTION | 24

Beside their role in spatial perception, shadows can also create new elements, patterns, shades, and colours in space.

Shadows are deformed projections of other elements, and with the change of light conditions they also represent the process of change.

Although natural light varies even in a

short period of time, location (angle of

the Sun) can determine certain

attributes in the sense of shadows.

The figure represents how shadows are

cast by the Sun at a certain location but

at different times of the day

independently of weather conditions.

The shapes (in this case the angles of

wall elements) suggest contrast and

light levels.

Fig. 5b Cast shadows

Fig. 6 Shadows cast by different elements

LIGHT QUALITIES

EXPERIENCE OF SPATIAL PERCEPTION | 25

The installation aims to provide a stimulating outdoor environment for children with the help of daylight. In this process it is vital to define day-light and its changes by time and weather.

Daylight is the union of sunlight and skylight. Direct sunlight can provide the space with high light level and creates dramatic effects with sharp shadows. Skylight creates a uniform space with much softer shadows and forms.

Yearly Sun graph for Stockholm* [51,52]

The diagram shows typical light condi-tions affecting Stockholm: during sum-mer months the sun barely sinks under the horizon, therefore sunlight hours are particularly long, ca. 18 hours in the mid-dle of summer. On the contrary, in mid-winter there is only 6 hours of sunlight, creating another type of particular light experience.

Fig. 7 Yearly Sun graph of Stockholm

EXPERIENCE OF SPATIAL PERCEPTION | 26

The quality of sunlight also changes continuously during the day. These changes affect how we perceive the space around us.

Moring light feels more bluish and colder, while evening light appears as warmer and more red in tone.

Not only the change of seasons creates changes in light conditions but also the various weather phenomena occurring during the day. Clouds influence the perception of space. They can act like an obstacle and cast shadows, patterns on a surface. They also can simply create a smooth semi-transparent layer between the Sun and the viewer and reduce light levels.

The change of weather creates dynamic effects that we cannot control or influence.

„LIKE A SHADOW,

I AM AND I AM NOT.”

RUMI

Fig. 9 Shadows change with the coming and going of clouds

Fig. 8 Different sky and light qualities during the day

7:00 10:00 12:00

15:00 20:00 22:00

TEXTURE AND MATERIAL

EXPERIENCE OF SPATIAL PERCEPTION | 27

Material choices affect how a space is perceived. Textures help to evalu-ate surfaces without a tactile connection with them.

Textures are directly derived from contrast casted by light [51]. Without touching, the “depth” of surfaces can be deduced from their roughness and the shadows cast by certain features.

The more and sharper contrast we see, the rougher and more uneven we perceive that surface. Uniform surfaces with low contrast invoke the idea of smoothness and materials that are pleasant to touch.

These outdoor surfaces are illuminated by the Sun as a direct light source, therefore there is a high chance for the formation of shadows and contrast. If the surface is affected by multiple light sources and dis-perse light, however, contrast decreases, and the surface appears “smoother”.

Fig. 10 Contrast in texture

Fig. 11 Reduced contrast in texture

EXPERIENCE OF SPATIAL PERCEPTION | 28

Transparent and solid surfaces are simple and less variable, but semi-transparent surfaces are challenging to design with.

Semi-transparent elements, as their name suggests, have a combination of transparent and non-transparent attrib-utes. Semi-transparent surfaces allow some visibility, but the view is clouded, not sharp.

Surfaces can achieve semi transparency through their materials they are made of. In this case, the proportion of transparent and solid components create the special state of the material.

Solid surfaces can behave as semi-trans-parent ones if the surface is perforated. The chambered surfaces let through enough light to perceive both side of the material.

Certain materials, under normal light cir-cumstances, behave as non-transparent surfaces, but they are thin enough to let through strong, direct light, allowing some visibility.

Fig. 12 Semi-transparency

INSPIRATION – MOODBOARD

MOODBOARD | 29

Fig. 13a-f Moodboard

a)

b) c)

d)

e)

f)

METHOD

METHOD | 30

This thesis studies the following aspects in order to create guidelines for the design proposal.

About children. To understand children’s world better, it was investigated through literature reviews, focusing on the follow-ing questions:

• Visual perception in childhood Do kids see the same way as adults?

• Colours

How do children see colours?

What factors influence the impacts of colour per-

ception in childhood?

Which colours can be matched with what impacts?

• Learning through playing

Why is playing important in childhood?

How does a child’s brain learn?

What factors influence the learning process in

childhood?

• Children and darkness

Why is darkness scary for kids?

The experience of spatial perception part includes form stud-ies, sketches, study models to investigate different effects in space

• Space and form

• Light qualities

• Texture and material

The results of the investigations are presented as guidelines to the design proposal.

RESULTS | 31

RESULTS

“Find beauty not only in the thing itself but in the pattern of the shadows, the light and dark which that thing provides.”

Junichiro Tanizaki

The aim of the installation is to provide an interesting environment for children and en-

courage them to explore, play and learn.

Children’s visual perception at the age of 3-6 years are anatomically at the same level as

adults. The significant difference between their perceptions is children’s lack of experi-

ence which can be developed by various stimuli.

At this age, children’s brain is more receptive than adults’, which makes it possible to

recognise more stimuli and also less significant stimuli in their environment.

Every child is different; therefore, their needs are also various. The installation should

provide different levels of stimuli for each of them.

Colours have significant impacts on children’s emotions. Whether these are positive or

negative depend on personal experience with that colour [31].

Play is a complex tool that helps children to develop but provides enjoyment also. Every

play starts with exploration and gathering of new information.

Risky play provides special experiences to children when they can face unusual and a bit

scary situations. Most of the kids find these plays exciting and enjoy the opportunity to

cope with them.

One of the most common childhood fears is night-time fear, which closely is connected

with the fear of darkness. Early experiences with darkness are mostly negative in nature.

Darkness creates visual uncertainty and to learn how to cope with this feeling is a longer

incessive process for children.

Shadows and contrast determine greatly the perception of space.

Light conditions influence the casted contrast and shadows, therefore play a big role in

spatial perception.

Achieving various stimuli in space does not mean piling materials and colours next to

each other. The key is to create unfamiliar effects that can evolve new emotions, feelings

in children.

CONCEPT AND VISION

RESULTS | 32

After defining the guidelines, I decided to create a space with a starting point and an end point. Between these two, I create an incessive change in light levels, the nature of the elements, casted shadows, and colours.

Children can explore the space step by step. While wandering around, they meet exciting and stimulating situations at every turn.

As the base of the installation I chose concentric circles. As a layout, a circle is defined as the sum of points that lie at the same distance from a given point. It symbolises unity and cyclicality. Cyclicality correlates with the process of learning, in which it plays a significant role.

Although children can enter the installation at several different points on the external ring, I consider them all as starting points to their exploration and wandering.

The end point is the common center of the circles.

„ ”

. . . .

RESULTS | 33

Through the creation of four basic circles, three + one different “levels” appear. Each level or layer aims to evoke emotions of different nature, beginning with positive ones and ending with the most negative one: the fear of darkness. The borders between different layers are made of a combination of transparent, translucent, and solid materials according to the light level desired. The three outer layers are complicated by the random placement of var-ious elements, creating a sort of labyrinth. This circular labyrinth pro-vides excellent opportunity for experimenting with risky play and build-ing confidence. Walking towards the centre, as they progress from layer to layer, children become increasingly isolated from their parents and discover more and more of the installation by themselves, for them-selves. This gradual change is present not only in the layout of the installation but also in the height and density of its elements. Height keeps increasing towards the centre. The design of the space aims to trigger playing games such as tag or hide and seek (i.e. physical movement).

Children can learn about light: they meet with transparent, opaque and solid surfaces, shadows, reflected light, as well as almost complete darkness.

Dollhouse Little Universe Alone Dark

RESULTS | 34

Dollhouse The first level is located in the most ex-ternal ring where elements are low and formed smoothly. Children and parents can see and interact with each other. Colours suggest a safe and welcoming environment, while transparent ele-ments provide children with the discov-ery of light transmission.

Little Universe On the next level, the height of the ele-ments increases and distinct forms, sharp shadows break the uniformity of soft surfaces. The heights make it possi-ble for parents to see the child while the sight of children is more obstructed. Children can explore the space without assistance, but the parents can control the situation in case they get scared.

Alone (A “parent-free” zone) Sharp and distinct forms dominate the space. Children cannot see their par-ents, and parents cannot see the child. Colours and shadows trigger dramatic effects and create an exciting and scary atmosphere. Risky play takes place in this space. To offset the negative ef-fects, small “windows” connect children to the outer layers where familiar col-ours and forms can be peeked at.

Dark Dark is the last level, where children are completely alone in a partially closed “tent”. The only light in this place is pro-vided by the little holes on the top of the walls, creating a mysterious effect with the softly shaped walls. In the middle of the labyrinth, children meet darkness and build up their confidence by facing it.

DESIGN PROPOSAL

RESULTS | 35

Dollhouse

External level

Little Universe

Second level

RESULTS | 36

Alone

Third level

Dark

Last level

CONCLUSIONS | 37

CONCLUSIONS

The spaces designed around a common metaphor provide a varied environment and exciting

visual stimuli for preschool aged children. The aim of the circular labyrinth is to enable chil-

dren to step out of the safety provided by the vicinity of their parents, and explore the space

on their own, finally reaching the centre. The shapes, materials and colours continuously

transition from warm and safe outer ring towards the more enclosed and darker inner world.

The developing tension and fear are dissolved by familiar colours and shapes that help get-

ting used to new and foreign spaces.

The innermost part of the labyrinth the bravest are able to meet darkness.

Advantages

The installation has the same advantages as any conventional playground: fresh air, room to

play, and social connections with other children.

Abstract forms help the development of imagination and enable a wide range of stories and

games to play out. As mentioned earlier, there are no preconceived ideas, children can

mould the space to their current activity. The “blobs”, for instance, may function as grazing

sheep in a meadow just as well as plush furniture in a castle.

At different times of the day or under different weather and light conditions, the installation

offers different looks of the same familiar spaces.

Disadvantages

The joy and excitement of exploration does not last forever; once a child gets familiar with

the spaces of the labyrinth, their brain gets used to the stimuli it offers. The role of this gets

important in relation with risky play: the initially scary experience of darkness and the feeling

being alone in time becomes familiar and the fear dissipates.

Although the changes of light conditions give different interpretations to the various spaces

of the labyrinth, this variability is not very extensive, and in time might lack excitement for

children.

The installation in its present state cannot be classified as “playground”, as its design might

not meet relevant standards and regulations regarding accessibility and utilities for children.

CONCLUSIONS | 38

Outlook

Due to the location, the hours of sunlight differ greatly according to season. In winter, the

installation loses usability due to the lack of direct sunlight, as shadows and contrast disap-

pear or is considerably reduced during most of the day.

As a future development, the installation could be equipped with artificial light sources, en-

abling it to have a function during winter months. In such a setup, the fundamental aspects

of the installation get reversed: it is surrounded by natural darkness, while the inner corners

provide safe shelter and warm, light spaces.

For safe usage, multiple dimmable light sources would need to be installed over the entire

area of the labyrinth in order to ensure appropriate light levels. Central controls would ena-

ble that the lighting always matches outside light conditions, thereby facilitating sustainable

operation.

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FIGURES

FIGURES | 41

Fig. 1-6 – Own

Fig. 7 – https://www.timeanddate.com/sun/sweden/stockholm

Fig. 8-12 – Own

Fig. 13a – http://www.louisapenfold.com/ipswich-art-gallery-australia/

Fig. 13b – Own

Fig. 13c – Staircase in a museum // Photo by Ágnes Dudás

Fig. 13d – https://www.brisbanekids.com.au/playing-with-light-ipswich-art-gallery/

Fig. 13e – Own

Fig. 13f – https://www.ipswichfirst.com.au/playground-made-of-sticky-tape-takes-shape/

APPENDIX

APPENDIX | 42

Yearly Sun graph for Stockholm [51,52]

TRITA TRITA-ABE-MBT-20160

www.kth.se