Maya civilization 1

Maya civilizationThis article is about the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. For a discussion of the modern Maya, see Maya peoples.For other meanings of the word Maya, see Maya.

Maya civilization•• People•• Society•• Languages•• Writing•• Religion•• Mythology•• Sacrifice•• Cities•• Architecture•• Calendar•• Stelae•• Art•• Textiles•• Trade•• Music•• Dance•• Medicine•• Cuisine

History

Preclassic Maya

Classic Maya collapse

Spanish conquest of Yucatán

Spanish conquest of Guatemala

Spanish conquest of Petén

•• v•• t• e [1]

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Uxmal, Nunnery Quadrangle

Bonampak Painting, Mexico, 700 B.C.

Throne 1 of Piedras Negras

The Maya is a Mesoamerican civilization, noted for the only knownfully developed written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, aswell as for its art, architecture, and mathematical and astronomicalsystems. Initially established during the Pre-Classic period (c. 2000 BCto AD 250), according to the Mesoamerican chronology, many Mayacities reached their highest state of development during the Classicperiod (c. AD 250 to 900), and continued throughout the Post-Classicperiod until the arrival of the Spanish.

The Maya civilization shares many features with other Mesoamericancivilizations due to the high degree of interaction and cultural diffusionthat characterized the region. Advances such as writing, epigraphy, andthe calendar did not originate with the Maya; however, theircivilization fully developed them. Maya influence can be detected inHonduras, Belize, Guatemala, and western El Salvador to as far awayas central Mexico, more than 1,000 km (620 mi) from the central Mayaarea. The many outside influences found in Maya art and architectureare thought to have resulted from trade and cultural exchange ratherthan direct external conquest.

The Maya peoples survived the Classic period collapse and the arrivalof the Spanish conquistadores and sixteenth-century Spanishcolonization of the Americas. Today, the Maya and their descendantsform sizable populations throughout the Maya area; they maintain adistinctive set of traditions and beliefs resulting from the merger ofpre-Columbian and post-Conquest ideas and cultures. Millions ofpeople speak Mayan languages today. In 2005 the Rabinal Achí, a playwritten in the Achi language, was declared a Masterpiece of the Oraland Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.

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Geographical extent

Extent of Classic and Post-Classic Mayacivilization

The Maya civilization extended throughout the present-day southernMexican states of Chiapas, Tabasco, and the Yucatán Peninsula statesof Quintana Roo, Campeche and Yucatán. The Maya area alsoextended throughout the northern Central American region, includingthe present-day nations of Guatemala, Belize, western Honduras andextreme northern El Salvador.

The Maya area is generally divided into three loosely defined zones:the southern Pacific lowlands, the highlands, and the northernlowlands. The Maya highlands include all of elevated terrain inGuatemala and the Chiapas highlands of Mexico. The southernlowlands lie just south of the highlands, and incorporate a part of theMexican state of Chiapas, the south coast of Guatemala, Belize andnorthern El Salvador. The northern lowlands cover all of the Yucatán Peninsula, including the Mexican states ofYucatán, Campeche and Quintana Roo, the Petén Department of Guatemala, and all of Belize. Parts of the Mexicanstates of Tabasco and Chiapas are also included in the northern lowlands.

HistorySee also: Women in Maya society and Gender in Maya society

Preclassic periodMain article: Preclassic MayaScholars continue to discuss when this era of Maya civilization began. Discoveries of Maya occupation at Cuello,Belize have been carbon dated to around 2600 BCE. The people built monumental structures. The Maya calendar,which is based on the so-called Mesoamerican Long Count calendar, begins on a date equivalent to 11 August 3114BC.The most widely accepted view, as of 2010[2], is that the first clearly Maya settlements were established around1800 BCE in the Soconusco region of the Pacific Coast[citation needed]. This period, known as the Early Preclassic,[3]

was characterized by sedentary communities and the introduction of pottery and fired clay figurines.Important sites in the southern Maya lowlands include Nakbe, El Mirador, Cival, and San Bartolo. In theGuatemalan Highlands, Kaminaljuyu emerged around 800 BC. For many centuries it controlled the jade andobsidian sources for the Petén and Pacific Lowlands. The important early sites of Izapa, Takalik Abaj, and Chocoláat around 600 BCE were the main producers of Cacao. Mid-sized Maya communities also began to develop in thenorthern Maya lowlands during the Middle and Late Preclassic, though these lacked the size, scale, and influence ofthe large centers of the southern lowlands. Two important Preclassic northern sites include Komchen andDzibilchaltun. The first written inscription in Maya hieroglyphics also dates to this period (c. 250 BCE).Scholars disagree about the boundaries that define the physical and cultural extent of the early Maya and neighboringPreclassic Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec culture of the Tabasco lowlands and the Mixe–Zoque- andZapotec-speaking peoples of Chiapas and southern Oaxaca, respectively. Many of the earliest significant inscriptionsand buildings appeared in this overlapping zone, and evidence suggests that these cultures and the formative Mayainfluenced one another. Takalik Abaj, in the Pacific slopes of Guatemala, is the only site where Olmec features havebeen clearly succeeded by Mayan ones.Around 100 AD, a widespread decline and abandonment of Maya cities occurred – called the Preclassic Collapse.This marked the end of the Preclassic era.

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Classic period

"Caana" at Caracol. It stands at 42 meters (140feet) high.

Altar 13 at Caracol. AD 830

The Classic period (c. AD 250–900) was one of the peak of large-scaleconstruction and urbanism, the recording of monumental inscriptions,and significant intellectual and artistic development, particularly in thesouthern lowland regions.

The people developed an agriculturally intensive, city-centeredcivilization consisting of numerous independent city-states – somesubservient to others. This includes the well-known cities of Caracol,Tikal, Palenque, Copán, Xunantunich and Calakmul, but also the lesserknown Lamanai, Dos Pilas, Cahal Pech, Uaxactun, Altun Ha, andBonampak, among others. The Early Classic settlement distribution inthe northern Maya lowlands is not as clearly known as the southernzone, but does include a number of population centers, such asOxkintok, Chunchucmil, and the early occupation of Uxmal.

During this period the Maya population numbered in the millions.They created a multitude of kingdoms and small empires, builtmonumental palaces and temples, engaged in highly developedceremonies, and developed an elaborate hieroglyphic writing system.[4]

The social basis of this exuberant civilization was a large political andeconomic intersocietal network (world system) extending throughoutthe Maya region and beyond to the wider Mesoamerican world. Thepolitical, economic, and culturally dominant ‘core’ Maya units of theClassic Maya world system were located in the central lowlands, while its corresponding dependent or ‘peripheral’Maya units were found along the margins of the southern highland and northern lowland areas. But as in all worldsystems, the Maya core centers shifted through time, starting out during Preclassic times in the southern highlands,moving to the central lowlands during the Classic period, and finally shifting to the northern peninsula during thePostclassic period. In this Maya world system, the semi-peripheral (mediational) units generally took the form oftrade and commercial centers.[5]

The most notable monuments are the stepped pyramids they built in their religious centers and the accompanyingpalaces of their rulers. The palace at Cancuén is the largest in the Maya area, but the site has no pyramids. Otherimportant archaeological remains include the carved stone slabs usually called stelae (the Maya called them tetun, or"tree-stones"), which depict rulers along with hieroglyphic texts describing their genealogy, military victories, andother accomplishments.The Maya civilization participated in long distance trade with many of the other Mesoamerican cultures, includingTeotihuacan, the Zapotec, and other groups in central and gulf-coast Mexico. In addition, they had trade andexchanges with more distant, non-Mesoamerican groups, for example the Taínos of the Caribbean islands.Archeologists have found gold from Panama in the Sacred Cenote of Chichen Itza.[6] Important trade goods includedcacao, salt, seashells, jade, and obsidian.

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The Maya collapseMain article: Classic Maya collapse

Presentation of captives to a Maya ruler, c. AD785

The Maya centers of the southern lowlands went into decline duringthe 8th and 9th centuries and were abandoned shortly thereafter. Thisdecline was coupled with a cessation of monumental inscriptions andlarge-scale architectural construction. No universally accepted theoryexplains this collapse.Non-ecological theories of Maya decline are divided into severalsubcategories, such as overpopulation, foreign invasion, peasant revolt,and the collapse of key trade routes. Ecological hypotheses includeenvironmental disaster, epidemic disease, and climate change. There isevidence that the Maya population exceeded the carrying capacity ofthe environment including exhaustion of agricultural potential andoverhunting of megafauna. Some scholars have recently theorized that an intense 200-year drought led to thecollapse of Maya civilization. The drought theory originated from research performed by physical scientists studyinglake beds, ancient pollen, and other data, not from the archaeological community. Newer research from 2011, withuse of high-resolution climate models and new reconstructions of past landscapes, suggests that converting much oftheir forest land into cropland may have led to reduced evapotranspiration and thus rainfall, magnifying naturaldrought. A study published in Science in 2012 found that modest rainfall reductions, amounting to only 25 to 40% inannual rainfall, may have been the tipping point to the Maya collapse. Based on samples of lake and cave sedimentsin the areas surrounding major Maya cities, the researchers were able to determine the amount of annual rainfall inthe region. The mild droughts that took place between AD 800 and 950 were enough to rapidly reduce open wateravailability.[7] A further paper in the same journal supports and extends this conclusion based on isotope analysis ofminerals in a stalagmite. It argues that high rainfall between 440 and 660 CE allowed the Maya to flourish in the firstinstance, and that while mild droughts in the following years led to extensive warfare and the decline of Mayancivilization, it was a prolonged period of drought between 1020 and 1100 CE that was ultimately fatal.[8]

Postclassic periodDuring the succeeding Postclassic period (from the 10th to the early 16th century), development in the northerncenters persisted, characterized by an increasing diversity of external influences. The Maya cities of the northernlowlands in Yucatán continued to flourish for centuries more; some of the important sites in this era were ChichenItza, Uxmal, Edzná, and Coba. After the decline of the ruling dynasties of Chichen and Uxmal, Mayapan ruled all ofYucatán until a revolt in 1450. (This city's name may be the source of the word "Maya", which had a moregeographically restricted meaning in Yucatec and colonial Spanish and only grew to its current meaning in the 19thand 20th centuries). The area then degenerated into competing city-states until Yucatán was conquered by theSpanish.The Itza Maya, Ko'woj, and Yalain groups of Central Peten survived the "Classic Period Collapse" in small numbersand by 1250 reconstituted themselves to form competing city-states. The Itza maintained their capital at Tayasal(also known as Noh Petén), an archaeological site thought to underlay the modern city of Flores, Guatemala on LakePetén Itzá. It ruled over an area extending across the Peten Lakes region, encompassing the community of Eckixil [9]

on Lake Quexil. The Ko'woj had their capital at Zacpeten. Postclassic Maya states also continued to survive in thesouthern highlands. One of the Maya nations in this area, the K'iche' Kingdom of Q'umarkaj, is responsible for thebest-known Maya work of historiography and mythology, the Popol Vuh. Other highland kingdoms included theMam based at Huehuetenango, the Kaqchikels based at Iximche, the Chajoma based at Mixco Viejo[10] and the Chuj,based at San Mateo Ixtatán.

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Colonial periodMain articles: Spanish conquest of Yucatán, Spanish conquest of Guatemala and Spanish conquest of PeténSee also: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and Spanish colonization of the AmericasShortly after their first expeditions to the region, the Spanish initiated a number of attempts to subjugate the Mayawho were hostile towards the Spanish crown and establish a colonial presence in the Maya territories of the YucatánPeninsula and the Guatemalan highlands. This campaign, sometimes termed "The Spanish Conquest of Yucatán",would prove to be a lengthy and dangerous exercise for the conquistadores from the outset, and it would take some170 years and tens of thousands of Indian auxiliaries before the Spanish established substantive control over allMaya lands.Unlike the Aztec and Inca Empires, there was no single Maya political center that, once overthrown, would hastenthe end of collective resistance from the indigenous peoples. Instead, the conquistador forces needed to subdue thenumerous independent Maya polities almost one by one, many of which kept up a fierce resistance. Most of theconquistadors were motivated by the prospects of the great wealth to be had from the seizure of precious metalresources such as gold or silver; however, the Maya lands themselves were poor in these resources. This wouldbecome another factor in forestalling Spanish designs of conquest, as they instead were initially attracted to thereports of great riches in central Mexico or Peru.The Spanish Church and government officials destroyed Maya texts and with them the knowledge of Maya writing,but by chance three of the pre-Columbian books dated to the post classic period have been preserved.[11] These areknown as the Madrid Codex, The Dresden Codex and the Paris Codex.[12] The last Maya states, the Itza polity ofTayasal and the Ko'woj city of Zacpeten, were continuously occupied and remained independent of the Spanish untillate in the 17th century. They were finally subdued by the Spanish in 1697.

King and court

Lady Xoc, aunt-wife of king Shield Jaguar II,drawing a barbed rope through her tongue. AD 709

A typical Classic Maya polity was a small hierarchical state (ajawil,ajawlel, or ajawlil) headed by a hereditary ruler known as an ajaw(later k’uhul ajaw).[13] Such kingdoms were usually no more than acapital city with its neighborhood and several lesser towns, althoughthere were greater kingdoms, which controlled larger territories andextended patronage over smaller polities.[citation needed] Eachkingdom had a name that did not necessarily correspond to anylocality within its territory. Its identity was that of a political unitassociated with a particular ruling dynasty. For instance, thearchaeological site of Naranjo was the capital of the kingdom ofSaal. The land (chan ch’e’n) of the kingdom and its capital werecalled Wakab’nal or Maxam and were part of a larger geographicalentity known as Huk Tsuk. Interestingly, despite constant warfareand eventual shifts in regional power, most kingdoms neverdisappeared from the political landscape until the collapse of thewhole system in the 9th century AD. In this respect, Classic Mayakingdoms are highly similar to late Post Classic polities encounteredby the Spaniards in Yucatán and Central Mexico: some politiescould be subordinated to hegemonic rulers through conquests ordynastic unions and yet even then they persisted as distinct entities.[citation needed]

Mayanists have been increasingly accepting a "court paradigm" of Classic Maya societies which puts the emphasison the centrality of the royal household and especially the person of the king. This approach focuses on Maya

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monumental spaces as the embodiment of the diverse activities of the royal household. It considers the role of placesand spaces (including dwellings of royalty and nobles, throne rooms, temples, halls and plazas for publicceremonies) in establishing power and social hierarchy, and also in projecting aesthetic and moral values to definethe wider social realm.Spanish sources invariably describe even the largest Maya settlements as dispersed collections of dwellings groupedaround the temples and palaces of the ruling dynasty and lesser nobles. None of the Classic Maya cities showsevidence of economic specialization and commerce of the scale of Mexican Tenochtitlan. Instead, Maya cities couldbe seen as enormous royal households, the locales of the administrative and ritual activities of the royal court. Theywere the places where privileged nobles could approach the holy ruler, where aesthetic values of the high culturewere formulated and disseminated and where aesthetic items were consumed. They were the self-proclaimed centersand the sources of social, moral, and cosmic order. The fall of a royal court as in the well-documented cases ofPiedras Negras or Copan would cause the inevitable "death" of the associated settlement.

ArtMain article: Maya artMaya art of the Classic era (c. 250 to 900 CE) is of a high level of aesthetic and artisanal sophistication, from thelay-out and architecture of court towns down to the decorative arts. The stucco and stone reliefs of Palenque and thestatuary of Copán, particularly its impressive stelas, show a grace and accurate observation of the human form thatreminded early archaeologists of Classical civilizations of the Old World[citation needed], hence the name bestowed onthis era. We have a considerable number of examples of the advanced mural painting of the Classic Maya, mostcompletely preserved in a building at Bonampak; Late Preclassic murals of great artistic and iconographic perfectionhave been recently discovered at San Bartolo. A rich blue color ('Maya Blue') survived through the centuries due toits unique chemical characteristics. Painted, carved, and molded Maya ceramics were ubiquitous; often found ingraves, and showing a vast array of subjects, they constitute an important source of information. Of the manyfolding-books, only three survive, all from the Post-Classic period, of which the Dresden Codex is artisticallysuperior. With the progressive decipherment of the Maya script, it was also discovered that the Maya were one of thefew civilizations where artists attached their name to their work.

King Ahkal Mo' Naab III of Palenque, stone,8th Century

Jaina Island figurine, AD 650–800 Illustration of a stucco relief at Palenque,dating to c. AD 670

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ArchitectureMain article: Maya architecture

El Castillo, the most iconic Mayan pyramid

Maya architecture spans many thousands of years; yet, often the mostdramatic and easily recognizable as Maya are the stepped pyramidsfrom the Terminal Pre-classic period and beyond. There are also cavesites that are important to the Maya. These cave sites include JoljaCave, the cave site at Naj Tunich, the Candelaria Caves, and the Caveof the Witch. There are also cave-origin myths among the Maya. Somecave sites are still used by the modern Maya in the Chiapas highlands.

It has been suggestedWikipedia:Avoid weasel words that temples andpyramids were remodeled and rebuilt every fifty-two years in synchrony with the Maya Long Count Calendar. Itappears now that the rebuilding process was often instigated by a new ruler or for political matters, as opposed tomatching the calendar cycle. However, the process of rebuilding on top of old structures is indeed a common one.Most notably, the North Acropolis at Tikal seems to be the sum total of 1,500 years of architectural modifications. InTikal, Yaxha and Ixlu there were twin pyramid complexes. There were nine in Tikal and one each in Yaxha and Ixlu;at Tikal they were used to commemorate the end of a 20-year k'atun cycle. Through observation of the numerousconsistent elements and stylistic distinctions, remnants of Maya architecture have become an important key tounderstanding the evolution of their ancient civilization.

Urban design

North Acropolis, Tikal, Guatemala

As Maya cities spread throughout the varied geography ofMesoamerica, site planning appears to have been minimal. Mayaarchitecture tended to integrate a great degree of natural features[citation

needed], and their cities were built somewhat haphazardly as dictated bythe topography of each independent location. For instance, some citieson the flat limestone plains of the northern Yucatán grew into greatsprawling municipalities, while others built in the hills of Usumacintautilized the natural loft of the topography to raise their towers andtemples to impressive heights. However, some degree of order, asrequired in any large city, still prevailed.

Classic Era Maya urban design could easily be described as the division of space by great monuments andcauseways. Open public plazas were the gathering places for people and the focus of urban design, while interiorspace was entirely secondary. Only in the Late Post-Classic era did the great Maya cities develop into morefortress-like defensive structures that lacked, for the most part, the large and numerous plazas of the Classic.At the onset of large-scale construction during the Classic Era, a predetermined axis was typically established in acardinal direction. Depending on the location of natural resources such as fresh-water wells, or cenotes, the city grewby using sacbeob (limed causeways or "white roads") to connect great plazas with the numerous platforms thatcreated the sub-structure for nearly all Maya buildings. As more structures were added and existing structuresre-built or remodeled, the great Maya cities seemed to take on an almost random identity that contrasted sharply withother great Mesoamerican cities such as Teotihuacan and its rigid grid-like construction.

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Ballcourt at Tikal, Guatemala

At the heart of the Maya city were large plazas surrounded by the mostimportant governmental and religious buildings, such as the royalacropolis, great pyramid temples and occasionally ball-courts. Thoughcity layouts evolved as nature dictated, careful attention was placed onthe directional orientation of temples and observatories so that theywere constructed in accordance with Maya interpretation of the orbitsof the heavenly bodies. Immediately outside of this ritual center werethe structures of lesser nobles, smaller temples, and individual shrines;the less sacred and less important structures had a greater degree ofprivacy. Outside of the constantly evolving urban core were the lesspermanent and more modest homes of the common people.

Building materialsA surprising aspect of the great Maya structures is their lack of many advanced technologies seemingly necessary forsuch constructions. Lacking draft animals necessary for wheel-based modes of transportation, metal tools and evenpulleys, Maya architecture required abundant manpower. Yet, beyond this enormous requirement, the remainingmaterials seem to have been readily available. All stone for Maya structures appears to have been taken from localquarries. They most often used limestone which remained pliable enough to be worked with stone tools while beingquarried and only hardened once removed from its bed. In addition to the structural use of limestone, much of theirmortar consisted of crushed, burnt and mixed limestone that mimicked the properties of cement and was used aswidely for stucco finishing as it was for mortar.Later improvements in quarrying techniques reduced the necessity for this limestone-stucco as the stones began to fitquite perfectly, yet it remained a crucial element in some post and lintel roofs. In the case of the common Mayahouses, wooden poles, adobe and thatch were the primary materials; however, instances of what appear to becommon houses of limestone have been discovered as well. Also notable throughout Maya architecture is the corbelarch (also known as a "false arch"), which allowed for more open-aired entrances. The corbelled arch improved uponpier/post and lintel doorways by directing the weight off of the lintel and onto the supporting posts.

Notable constructions• Ceremonial platforms were commonly limestone platforms of typically less than four meters in height where

public ceremonies and religious rites were performed. Constructed in the fashion of a typical foundation platform,these were often accented by carved figures, altars and perhaps tzompantli, a stake used to display the heads ofvictims or defeated Mesoamerican ballgame opponents.

• Palaces were large and often highly decorated, and usually sat close to the center of a city and housed thepopulation's elite. Any exceedingly large royal palace, or one consisting of many chambers on different levelsmight be referred to as an acropolis. However, often these were one-story and consisted of many small chambersand typically at least one interior courtyard; these structures appear to take into account the needed functionalityrequired of a residence, as well as the decoration required for their inhabitants stature.

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Detail of carving onright-hand (facing temple)wall of Mask Temple at

Lamanai

"El Castillo" at Xunantunich. Itstands at . high

Frieze of "El Castillo" atXunantunich

Main palace of Palenque, 7thCentury AD

Governor's Palace rear view anddetails,10th Century AD Uxmal

Codz Poop, 7th–10th CenturiesAD Kabah

• E-Groups are specific structural configurations present at a number of centers in the Maya area. These complexesare oriented and aligned according to specific astronomical events (primarily the sun's solstices and equinoxes)and are thought to have been observatories. These structures are usually accompanied by iconographic reliefs thattie astronomical observation into general Maya mythology. The structural complex is named for Group E atUaxactun, the first documented in Mesoamerica.

Temple of the Cross at Palenque;there is an intricate roof comb and

corbeled arch

• Pyramids and temples. Often the most important religious temples sat atopthe towering Maya pyramids, presumably as the closest place to the heavens.While recent discoveries point toward the extensive use of pyramids as tombs,the temples themselves seem to rarely, if ever, contain burials. Residing atopthe pyramids, some of over two-hundred feet, such as that at El Mirador, thetemples were impressive and decorated structures themselves. Commonlytopped with a roof comb, or superficial grandiose wall, these temples mighthave served as a type of propaganda. As they were often the only structure ina Maya city to exceed the height of the surrounding jungle, the roof combsatop the temples were often carved with representations of rulers that could beseen from vast distances.

• Observatories. The Maya were keen astronomers and had mapped out thephases of celestial objects, especially the Moon and Venus. Many templeshave doorways and other features aligning to celestial events. Round temples,often dedicated to Kukulcan, are perhaps those most often described as"observatories" by modern ruin tour-guides, but there is no evidence that they were so used exclusively, andtemple pyramids of other shapes may well have been used for observation as well.

• Ballcourts. As an integral aspect of the Mesoamerican lifestyle, the courts for their ritual ball-game wereconstructed throughout the Maya realm and often on a grand scale. Enclosed on two sides by stepped ramps thatled to ceremonial platforms or small temples, the ballcourt itself was of a capital "I" shape and could be found inall but the smallest of Maya cities.

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Writing and literacy

Writing systemMain article: Maya script

A page from the Paris Codex, one of the fewknown surviving Mayan books in existence,

shows the Mayan writing system in use.

The Maya writing system (often called hieroglyphs from a superficialresemblance to the Ancient Egyptian writing) was a combination ofphonetic symbols and logograms. It is most often classified as alogographic or (more properly) a logosyllabic writing system, inwhich syllabic signs play a significant role. It is the only writingsystem of the Pre-Columbian New World which is known to representthe spoken language of its community. In total, the script has morethan a thousand different glyphs, although a few are variations of thesame sign or meaning, and many appear only rarely or are confined toparticular localities. At any one time, no more than around 500 glyphswere in use, some 200 of which (including variations) had a phoneticor syllabic interpretation.

The earliest inscriptions in an identifiably Maya script date back to200–300 BC. However, this is preceded by several other writingsystems which had developed in Mesoamerica, most notably that of theZapotecs, and (following the 2006 publication of research on therecently discovered Cascajal Block), the Olmecs.[14] There is apre-Maya writing known as "Epi-Olmec script" (post Olmec) whichsome researchers believe may represent a transitional script betweenOlmec and Maya writing, but the relationships between these remainunclear and the matter is unsettled. On January 5, 2006, NationalGeographic published the findings of Maya writings that could be asold as 400 BC, suggesting that the Maya writing system is nearly asold as the oldest Mesoamerican writing known at that time, Zapotec.[15] In the succeeding centuries the Mayadeveloped their script into a form which was far more complete and complex than any other that has yet been foundin the Americas.

Since its inception, the Maya script was in use up to the arrival of the Europeans, peaking during the Maya ClassicalPeriod (c. 200 to 900). Although many Maya centers went into decline (or were completely abandoned) during orafter this period, the skill and knowledge of Maya writing persisted among segments of the population, and the earlySpanish conquistadors knew of individuals who could still read and write the script. Unfortunately, the Spanishdisplayed little interest in it, and as a result of the dire impacts the conquest had on Maya societies, the knowledgewas subsequently lost, probably within only a few generations.At a rough estimate, in excess of 10,000 individual texts have so far been recovered, mostly inscribed on stonemonuments, lintels, stelae

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This small lidded vessel features a dedicatoryinscription, demonstrating an intersection

between text and art. Walters Art Museum,Baltimore.

and ceramic pottery. The Maya also produced texts painted on a formof paper manufactured from processed tree-bark, in particular fromseveral species of strangler fig trees such as Ficus cotinifolia and Ficuspadifolia.[16] This paper, common throughout Mesoamerica andgenerally now known by its Nahuatl-language name amatl, wastypically bound as a single continuous sheet that was folded into pagesof equal width, concertina-style, to produce a codex that could bewritten on both sides. Shortly after the conquest, all of the codiceswhich could be found were ordered to be burnt and destroyed byzealous Spanish priests, notably Bishop Diego de Landa. Only a fewreasonably intact examples of Maya codices are known to havesurvived through to the present day, including the Madrid, Dresden,and Paris codices.[17] A few pages survive from a fourth, the GrolierCodex, whose authenticity is disputed. Further archaeology conductedat Maya sites often reveals other fragments, rectangular lumps ofplaster and paint chips which formerly were codices; these tantalizingremains are, however, too severely damaged for any inscriptions tohave survived, most of the organic material having decayed.

Maya script on a Kankuen panel depicting KingT'ah 'Ak' Cha'an (Dah 'Ag Txhaun)

The decipherment and recovery of the now-lost knowledge of Mayawriting has been a long and laborious process. Some elements werefirst deciphered in the late 19th and early 20th century, mostly the partshaving to do with numbers, the Maya calendar, and astronomy. Majorbreakthroughs came starting in the 1950s to 1970s, and acceleratedrapidly thereafter. By the end of the 20th century, scholars were able toread the majority of Maya texts to a large extent, and recent field workcontinues to further illuminate the content.

In reference to the few extant Maya writings, Michael D. Coe, aprominent archaeologist at Yale University, stated:

"[O]ur knowledge of ancient Maya thought must represent onlya tiny fraction of the whole picture, for of the thousands of books in which the full extent of their learning andritual was recorded, only four have survived to modern times (as though all that posterity knew of ourselveswere to be based upon three prayer books and 'Pilgrim's Progress')." (Michael D. Coe, The Maya, London:Thames and Hudson, 4th ed., 1987, p. 161.)

Most surviving pre-Columbian Maya writing is from stelae and other stone inscriptions from Maya sites, many ofwhich were already abandoned before the Spanish arrived. The inscriptions on the stelae mainly record the dynastiesand wars of the sites' rulers. Also of note are the inscriptions that reveal information about the lives of ancient Mayawomen. Much of the remainder of Maya hieroglyphics has been found on funeral pottery, most of which describesthe afterlife.

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Writing toolsAlthough the archaeological record does not provide examples, Maya art shows that writing was done with brushesmade with animal hair and quills. Codex-style writing was usually done in black ink with red highlights, giving riseto the Aztec name for the Maya territory as the "land of red and black".

Scribes and literacyScribes held a prominent position in Maya courts. Maya art often depicts rulers with trappings indicating they werescribes or at least able to write, such as having pen bundles in their headdresses. Additionally, many rulers have beenfound in conjunction with writing tools such as shell or clay inkpots. Although the number of logograms and syllabicsymbols required to fully write the language numbered in the hundreds, literacy was not necessarily widespreadbeyond the elite classes. Graffiti uncovered in various contexts, including on fired bricks, shows nonsensicalattempts to imitate the writing system.

Mathematics

Maya numerals

In common with the other Mesoamerican civilizations, the Maya useda base 20 (vigesimal) and base 5 numbering system (see Mayanumerals). Also, the preclassic Maya and their neighbors hadindependently developed the concept of zero by 36 BC. Inscriptionsshow them on occasion working with sums up to the hundreds ofmillions and dates so large it would take several lines just to representit. There were three symbols that formed the numerals: a shell glyph(zero), a dot (one) and a bar (five).

Astronomy

They produced extremely accurate astronomical observations; theircharts of the movements of the moon and planets were used to predicteclipses and other celestial events such the time between conjunctionsof Venus.[18] The accuracy of their astronomy and the "theoretical"calendar derived from it was superior to any other known from seventeen hundred years ago.[19]

Uniquely, there is some evidence to suggest the Maya appear to be the only pre-telescopic civilization todemonstrate knowledge of the Orion Nebula as being fuzzy, i.e. not a stellar pin-point. The information whichsupports this theory comes from a folk tale that deals with the Orion constellation's area of the sky. Their traditionalhearths include in their middle a smudge of glowing fire that corresponds with the Orion Nebula. This is a significantclue to support the idea that the Maya detected a diffuse area of the sky contrary to the pin points of stars before thetelescope was invented.[20] Many preclassic sites are oriented with the Pleiades and Eta Draconis, as seen in LaBlanca, Ujuxte, Monte Alto, and Takalik Abaj.The Maya were very interested in zenial passages, the time when the sun passes directly overhead. The latitude ofmost of their cities being below the Tropic of Cancer, these zenial passages would occur twice a year equidistantfrom the solstice. To represent this position of the sun overhead, the Maya had a god named Diving God.[citation

needed]

The Dresden Codex contains the highest concentration of astronomical phenomena observations and calculations ofany of the surviving texts (it appears that the data in this codex is primarily or exclusively of an astronomical nature).Examination and analysis of this codex reveals that Venus was the most important astronomical object to the Maya,even more important to them than the sun.

Maya civilization 14

CalendarMain article: Maya calendarIn common with the other Mesoamerican civilizations, the Maya had measured the length of the solar year to a highdegree of accuracy, far more accurately than that used in Europe as the basis of the Gregorian calendar. They did notuse this figure for the length of year in their calendars, however; the calendars they used were crude, being based ona year length of exactly 365 days, which means that the calendar falls out of step with the seasons by one day everyfour years. By comparison, the Julian calendar, used in Europe from Roman times until about the 16th Century,accumulated an error of only one day every 128 years. The modern Gregorian calendar is even more accurate,accumulating only a day's error in approximately 3257 years.

Religion and mythologyMain articles: Maya religion and Maya mythology

Figure of a Maya priest.

Like the Aztec and Inca who came to power later, the Maya believedin a cyclical nature of time. The rituals and ceremonies were veryclosely associated with celestial and terrestrial cycles which theyobserved and inscribed as separate calendars.[citation needed] TheMaya priest had the job of interpreting these cycles and giving aprophetic outlook on the future or past based on the number relationsof all their calendars. They also had to determine if the heavens werepropitious for performing certain religious ceremonies.

Although it was not quite as prominent in Mayan culture as theAztecs, the Maya practiced human sacrifice to an extent. In someMaya rituals people were killed by having their arms and legs heldwhile a priest cut the person's chest open and tore out his heart as anoffering. This is depicted on ancient objects such as pictorial texts,known as codices.

Much of the Maya religious tradition is still not understood byscholars, but it is known that the Maya believed that the cosmos hadthree major planes, the Earth, the underworld beneath and theheavens above.

The Maya underworld, called Xibalba (it means "place of fear"), is reached through caves and deep tunnels. It wasthought to be dominated by the aged Maya gods of death and putrefaction. The Sun (Kinich Ahau) and Itzamna, anaged god, dominated the Maya idea of the sky. Another aged man, God L, was one of the major deities of theunderworld.

The night sky was considered a window showing all supernatural doings. The Maya configured constellations ofgods and places, saw the unfolding of narratives in their seasonal movements, and believed that the intersection of allpossible worlds was in the night sky[citation needed].Maya gods had affinities and aspects that caused them to merge with one another in ways that seem unbounded.There is a massive array of supernatural characters in the Maya religious tradition, only some of which recur withregularity. Good and evil traits are not permanent characteristics of Maya gods, nor is only "good" admirable. Whatis inappropriate during one season might come to pass in another since much of the Maya religious tradition is basedon cycles and not permanence.The life-cycle of maize lies at the heart of Maya belief. This philosophy is demonstrated on the belief in the Maya maize god as a central religious figure. The Maya bodily ideal is also based on the form of this young deity, which is

Maya civilization 15

demonstrated in their artwork. The Maize God was also a model of courtly life for the Classical Maya.In the 19th century, Maya culture influenced the local forms of Christianity followed in Chan Santa Cruz.Among the K'iche' in the western highlands of Guatemala the same traditions are used to this day, in the training ofthe ajk'ij, the keeper of the 260-day-calendar called ch'olk'ij.

Kukulkan

Main gods

•• Hunab Ku•• Ixchel•• Kinich Ahau•• Kukulkan•• Chaac•• Yum Kaax•• Akhushtal•• Ah Puch•• Itzamna

Agriculture

Main article: Maya cuisineSee also: Agriculture in MesoamericaThe ancient Maya had diverse and sophisticated methods of foodproduction. It was formerly believed that shifting cultivation (swidden)agriculture provided most of their food but it is now thought thatpermanent raised fields, terracing, forest gardens, managed fallows, and wild harvesting were also crucial tosupporting the large populations of the Classic period in some areas. Indeed, evidence of these different agriculturalsystems persist today: raised fields connected by canals can be seen on aerial photographs, contemporary rainforestspecies composition has significantly higher abundance of species of economic value to ancient Maya, and pollenrecords in lake sediments suggest that corn, manioc, sunflower seeds, cotton, and other crops have been cultivated inassociation with the deforestation in Mesoamerica since at least 2500 BC.

Maya civilization 16

False-color IKONOS image of a bajo(lowland area) in Guatemala. Theforest covering sites of Maya ruins

appears yellowish, as opposed to thered color of surrounding forest. The

more sparsely vegetated bajos appearblue-green.

Contemporary Maya peoples still practice many of these traditional forms ofagriculture, although they are dynamic systems and change with changingpopulation pressures, cultures, economic systems, climate change, and theavailability of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.

Rediscovery of the Pre-Columbian Maya

A Middle Preclassic palace structure at Nakbe,the Mirador Basin.

Spanish clergy and administrators dating to the 16th century werelargely familiar with ancient Maya sites, writing and calendar systems.Published writings of 16th-century Bishop Diego de Landa andwritings of 18th-century Spanish officials spurred seriousinvestigations of Maya sites by the late 18th century. In 1839 UnitedStates traveler and writer John Lloyd Stephens, familiar with earlierSpanish investigations, visited Copán, Palenque, and other sites withEnglish architect and draftsman Frederick Catherwood. Theirillustrated accounts of the ruins sparked strong popular interest in theregion and the people, and they have once again regained their positionas a vital link in Mesoamerican heritage.

However, in many locations, Maya ruins have been overgrown by the jungle, becoming dense enough to hidestructures just a few meters away. To help find ruins, researchers have turned to satellite imagery. The best way tofind them is to look at the visible and near-infrared spectra. Due to their limestone construction, the monumentsaffected the chemical makeup of the soil as they deteriorated. Some moisture-loving plants stayed away, while otherswere killed off or discolored. The effects of the limestone ruins are still apparent today to some satellite sensors.

Maya civilization 17

Maya sitesSee also: List of Maya sitesThere are hundreds of significant Maya sites, and thousands of smaller ones. The largest and most historicallyimportant include:•• Altun Ha•• Cahal Pech•• Calakmul•• Cancuén•• Chichen Itza•• Coba•• Comalcalco•• Copán•• Caracol•• Dos Pilas•• Kaminaljuyu•• El Mirador•• Lamanai•• Nakbe•• Naranjo•• Palenque•• Piedras Negras•• Quiriguá•• Q'umarkaj•• Seibal•• Tikal•• Tulum•• Uaxactun•• Uxmal•• Xunantunich•• Yaxha

Footnotes[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Maya_civilization& action=edit[2] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Maya_civilization& action=edit[3][3] See, for example, Drew (2004), p.6.[4] Sharer, R. 1994. The Ancient Maya. 5th ed. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press[5] Carmack, Robert M. А. Historical Perspective on the Maya Civilization. Social Evolution & History. Volume 2, Number 1 / March 2003.

pp.71–115 (http:/ / www. socionauki. ru/ journal/ articles/ 130151/ )[6][6] See Coggins (1992).[7][7] See full Science article citation at the end of the article.[8] http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 338/ 6108/ 788. full[9] http:/ / www. famsi. org/ reports/ 02007/ index. html[10][10] Love 2007, p.305. Sharer 2006, pp.621, 625.[11][11] "The Ancient Maya", Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler Contributor Loa P. Traxler, p126, Stanford University Press, 2006, ISBN

0-8047-4817-9[12][12] Sharer and Traxler 2006, p. 126.[13] Both terms appear in early Colonial texts (including Papeles de Paxbolón) where they are used as synonymous to Aztec and Spanish terms

for supreme rulers and their domains – tlahtoani (Tlatoani) and tlahtocayotl, rey or magestad and reino, señor and señorío or dominio.[14][14] Skidmore (2006).

Maya civilization 18

[15] The following year saw the publication of research on a tablet containing some 62 glyphs that had been found near the Olmec center of SanLorenzo Tenochtitlán, which was dated by association to approximately 900 BCE. This would make this putative Olmec script (see CascajalBlock) the oldest known for Mesoamerica; see Skidmore (2006, passim)

[16][16] Miller and Taube (1993, p.131)[17] http:/ / digital. library. northwestern. edu/ codex/ background. html#copyright. Accessed 17 May 2013[18] Thompson, J. Eric S., 1974 "Maya Astronomy" recoverable at: http:/ / www. jstor. org/ discover/ 10. 2307/ 74276?uid=3738584& uid=2&

uid=4& sid=21101585154047, accessed 2012.12.22[19] Smiley, C. H., 1960, "The Antiquity and Precision of Mayan Astronomy" viewable at 222–223 and 226 http:/ / articles. adsabs. harvard.

edu/ / full/ 1960JRASC. . 54. . 222S/ 0000226. 000. html, accessed 2012.12.22[20][20] As interpreted by .

References• Coe, Michael D. (1999). The Maya (Sixth ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28066-5.• Coggins, Clemency (Ed.) (1992). Artifacts from the Cenote of Sacrifice Chichen Itza, Yucatán: Textiles, Basketry,

Stone, Shell, Ceramics, Wood, Copal, Rubber (Memoirs of the Peabody Museum). Harvard University Press.ISBN 0-87365-694-6.

• Culbert, T.Patrick (Ed.) (1977). Classic Maya Collapse. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-0463-X.• Drew, David (2004). The Lost Chronicles of the Maya Kings (New ed.). London: Phoenix Press.

ISBN 0-7538-0989-3.• Krupp, Edward C. (1999). "Igniting the Hearth" (http:/ / pqasb. pqarchiver. com/ skyandtelescope/ access/

886319051. html?dids=886319051:886319051& FMT=CITE& FMTS=CITE:PAGE& date=Feb+ 1999&author=E+ C+ Krupp& desc=Igniting+ the+ Hearth). Sky & Telescope (February). p. 94. Retrieved 2006-10-19.Wikipedia:Link rot

• Love, Michael (December 2007). "Recent Research in the Southern Highlands and Pacific Coast ofMesoamerica". Journal of Archaeological Research (Springer Netherlands) 15 (4): 275–328. doi:10.1007/s10814-007-9014-y (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s10814-007-9014-y). ISSN  1573-7756 (http:/ / www.worldcat. org/ issn/ 1573-7756).

• "Maya Ruins" (http:/ / earthobservatory. nasa. gov/ Newsroom/ NewImages/ images. php3?img_id=17188).NASA Earth Observatory. Retrieved 2006-04-28.

• Miller, Mary; Simon Martin (2004). Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya. London: Thames & Hudson.ISBN 0-500-05129-1.

• Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. London: Thames andHudson. ISBN 0-500-05068-6.

• Reyes-Valerio, Constantino (1993). De Bonampak al Templo Mayor: Historical del Azul Maya en Mesoamerica.Siglo XXI editores. ISBN 968-23-1893-9.

• Sharer, Robert J.; Loa P. Traxler (2006). The Ancient Maya (6th, fully revised ed.). Stanford, California: StanfordUniversity Press. ISBN 0-8047-4817-9. OCLC  57577446 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 57577446).

• Skidmore, Joel (2006). "The Cascajal Block: The Earliest Precolumbian Writing" (http:/ / www. mesoweb. com/reports/ cascajal. html) (PDF). Mesoweb Reports & News. Mesoweb.

• Webster, David L. (2002). The Fall of the Ancient Maya. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05113-5.

Maya civilization 19

Further reading• Braswell, Geoffrey E. (2003). The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction. Austin,

Texas: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70914-5. OCLC  49936017 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/49936017).

• Christie, Jessica Joyce (2003). Maya Palaces and Elite Residences: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Austin,Texas: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-71244-8. OCLC  50630511 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/50630511).

• Demarest, Arthur Andrew (2004). Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization. Cambridge,England; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-59224-0. OCLC  51438896 (http:/ / www.worldcat. org/ oclc/ 51438896).

• Demarest, Arthur Andrew, Prudence M. Rice, and Don Stephen Rice (2004). The Terminal Classic in the MayaLowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation. Boulder, Colorado: University Press of Colorado.ISBN 0-87081-739-6. OCLC  52311867 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 52311867).

• Garber, James (2004). The Ancient Maya of the Belize Valley: Half a Century of Archaeological Research.Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2685-7. OCLC  52334723 (http:/ / www.worldcat. org/ oclc/ 52334723).

• William F. Hanks, Converting Words: Maya in the Age of the Cross (Berkeley, University of California Press,2010) (The Anthropology of Christianity).

• Herring, Adam (2005). Art and Writing in the Maya cities, AD 600–800: A Poetics of Line. Cambridge, England;New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84246-8. OCLC  56834579 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/oclc/ 56834579).

• Lohse, Jon C. and Fred Valdez (2004). Ancient Maya Commoners. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press.ISBN 0-292-70571-9. OCLC  54529926 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 54529926).

• Lucero, Lisa Joyce (2006). Water and Ritual: The Rise and Fall of Classic Maya Rulers. Austin, Texas:University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70999-4. OCLC  61731425 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 61731425).

• Malstroem, Vincent (1997). Cycles of the Sun, Mysteries of the Moon: The Calendar in MesoamericanCivilization. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292751966.

• McKillop, Heather Irene (2005). In Search of Maya Sea Traders. College Station, Texas: Texas A & MUniversity Press. ISBN 1-58544-389-1. OCLC  55145823 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 55145823).

• McKillop, Heather Irene (2002). Salt: White Gold of the Ancient Maya. Gainesville, Florida: University Press ofFlorida. ISBN 0-8130-2511-7. OCLC  48893025 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 48893025).

• McNeil, Cameron L. (2006). Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A Cultural History of Cacao. Gainesville, Florida:University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2953-8. OCLC  63245604 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/63245604).

• Rice, Prudence M. (2004). Maya Political Science: Time, Astronomy, and the Cosmos (1st ed.). Austin, Texas:University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70261-2. OCLC  54753496 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 54753496).

• Sharer, Robert J. and Loa P. Traxler (2006). The ancient Maya (6th ed.). Stanford, California: Stanford UniversityPress. ISBN 0-8047-4816-0. OCLC  57577446 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 57577446).

• Tiesler, Vera and Andrea Cucina (2006). Janaab' Pakal of Palenque: Reconstructing the Life and Death of aMaya Ruler. Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-2510-2. OCLC  62593473 (http:/ /www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 62593473).

• "Painted Metaphors: Pottery and Politics of the Ancient Maya" (http:/ / www. upenn. edu/ almanac/ volumes/v55/ n28/ maya. html). University of Pennsylvania Almanac. University of Pennsylvania. 4/7/2009. Retrieved2009-06-17.

Library resources aboutMaya civilization

Maya civilization 20

• Online books (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ ftl/ cgi-bin/ ftl?st=wp& su=Maya+ civilization& library=OLBP)• Resources in your library (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ ftl/ cgi-bin/ ftl?st=wp& su=Maya+ civilization)• Resources in other libraries (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ ftl/ cgi-bin/ ftl?st=wp& su=Maya+ civilization& library=0CHOOSE0)

External links• Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc (FAMSI) (http:/ / www. famsi. org/ )• Mayaweb (Dutch and English) (http:/ / www. mayaweb. nl/ )• Guatemala, Cradle of The Maya Civilization (http:/ / www. authenticmaya. com/ )• The Maya at the World Museum of Man (http:/ / worldmuseumofman. org/ mayan1. htm)• Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya at the National Gallery of Art (http:/ / www. nga. gov/ exhibitions/ 2004/ maya/

lifeatcourt. shtm)• Primary sources of Maya history – part one by Ronald A. Barnett (http:/ / www. mexconnect. com/ articles/

539-primary-sources-of-maya-history-part-one)• Mesoweb (http:/ / www. mesoweb. com/ ) by Joel Skidmore.• The Daily Glyph (http:/ / www. gomaya. com/ glyph) by Dave Pentecost.• Maya Map (http:/ / www. mayamap. org/ ) – A map of the Maya civilization.

Article Sources and Contributors 21

Article Sources and ContributorsMaya civilization  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=606971201  Contributors: -Midorihana-, 10metreh, 13756, 321Luis123, 4twenty42o, 84user, 949paintball, A-research, A.Parrot, ABF, Aaron Schulz, Abc518, Acalamari, Acebulf, Acroterion, AdRock, Adhalanay, Adityaavhad, AdjustShift, Adrian.benko, Aeosynth, Aetheling, AgadaUrbanit, Aggelophoros,Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajonlime, Akubra, Al.locke, Alan Au, Alansohn, Aldis90, AlefZet, Alex Kapranoff, Alexf, AlexiusHoratius, Alonks123, AlphaAqua, AlphaEta, AmosWolfe,Amplitude101, AnakngAraw, Anders Törlind, Andonic, Andre Engels, Animeangel224, Anlace, AnneKraemer, Anomalocaris, Anonymous editor, Antandrus, Antelopotamus, Anyatyson, Anym,Apothecia, ApprenticeFan, Arakunem, Arch dude, Ardnael, ArgentTurquoise, Arges86, Arjuno3, Arkuat, ArnoldReinhold, Arturo VI, Asdfghjkl4321, Asdqaz1023, Ashmoo, Askbutdont,Astatine-210, Astroview120mm, Aude, Authenticmaya, AvicAWB, Avicennasis, Awickert, Axcordion, Axeloide, B9 hummingbird hovering, BD2412, BKalesti, Babbage, Bacchus87,Bachrach44, Bamboo014, BanyanTree, Bathrobe, Bayerischermann, Bbagot, Bbpen, Beast of traal, Being blunt, Bejaranonicolas, BenKovitz, Bender235, Benwildeboer, Beofluff, BesselDekker,Betterusername, Bevo, Bgwhite, Bkwillwm, Blathnaid, BlessedBeing2008, Bletch, Bluedenim, BoNoMoJo (old), Bobo192, Bobrayner, Bochica, Bogey97, Boiserapidcitykid, Bongwarrior,Bowei Huang 2, Brandmeister, Brandon, Braunkehlchen, Breno, Briaboru, BrianY, Brianyoumans, Brideshead, Bruce1ee, Bryan Derksen, Bswarts, Bucketsofg, Bumm13, CJLL Wright, CPMcE,Cadwaladr, CaiusNero, CaliforniaAliBaba, Caltas, Calvin ngan, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Cantus, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Caroldermoid, Cast, Catgut, Centrx, Cfsibley, Chaan,Charlesdrakew, Checkacheckaboom, Cheezmaster718, Chetanaik, Chief2550, China Crisis, Chiton magnificus, Chmod007, Chmouel, Cholmes75, Chris the speller, Chrislk02, CircleAdrian,Coemgenus, Collins.mc, Colocho, Colonies Chris, Commander Keane, CommonsDelinker, Computerqwerty, Congzhaori, Correctionwriter, Coupe5757, Cr0ssover23, Crazycomputers, Crazyian,Crazymonkey1123, Cremepuff222, Creyes, Crispy park, Cst17, Cuaxdon, Cyfal, Czj, DGJM, DO'Neil, DOSGuy, DPentecost, DS1953, DVD R W, DXRAW, Daedalus969, Damicatz, Dan East,Danakil, Daniel Olsen, Dannown, Dannycas, DarkArrow, Darknesswolfs, Darkstknight1523, Darkwarrior, Darth Chyrsaor, Darth Panda, DartmouthRC2009, Davewild, David0811, Dbachmann,DeCausa, Debresser, Deeahbz, Delldot, Demeter, DerHexer, Deskana, Dia^, Diannaa, Dillardjj, Dionyziz, Discographer, Discospinster, Djonatan, Dmol, Dogposter, Doorwerth, Dougweller,Doulos Christos, Dpotter, Drew R. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Maya-Maske.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maya-Maske.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: WolfgangSauber (User:Xenophon)File:Uxmal, Nunnery Quadrangle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uxmal,_Nunnery_Quadrangle.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:MesoamericanFile:Bonampak Painting.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bonampak_Painting.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:ElelichtFile:Piedrasnegrastrono.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Piedrasnegrastrono.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:Authenticmaya, Infrogmation, Jafeluv, Monfornot, Simon Burchell, 2 anonymous editsFile:Maya civilization location map-blank.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maya_civilization_location_map-blank.svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Share Alike  Contributors: User:SémhurFile:Caana Caracol.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caana_Caracol.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Dennis Jarvis fromHalifax, CanadaFile:Altar 13 Mesoamerican Gallery.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Altar_13_Mesoamerican_Gallery.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Sreejithk2000File:Maya Presentation of Captives detail 2 Kimbell.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maya_Presentation_of_Captives_detail_2_Kimbell.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: User:FA2010File:Yaxchilan Lintel 24.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yaxchilan_Lintel_24.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors:User:Michel wal

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 22

File:Ahkal Mo' Naab III.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ahkal_Mo'_Naab_III.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: lapin.lapinFile:Jaina Island type figure, Art Institute.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jaina_Island_type_figure,_Art_Institute.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Share Alike  Contributors: Madman2001File:PalenqueAc.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PalenqueAc.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ricardo AlmendárizFile:Chichen Itza 3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chichen_Itza_3.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Daniel SchwenFile:Acropolis1111.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Acropolis1111.jpg  License: Public domain  Contributors: Axcordion at en.wikipediaFile:Tikal Ballcourt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tikal_Ballcourt.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Axcordion at en.wikipediaFile:Lamanai Mask.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lamanai_Mask.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Tibor MarcinekFile:Xunantunich El Castillo 2011.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Xunantunich_El_Castillo_2011.jpg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: User:KaldariFile:Belize-elcastillo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Belize-elcastillo.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Dodo, FlickreviewR,Infrogmation, Mac9File:Grosser Tempel in Palenque.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grosser_Tempel_in_Palenque.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:User:HavelbaudeFile:Governor's Palace rear view and details, Uxmal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Governor's_Palace_rear_view_and_details,_Uxmal.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:MesoamericanFile:Codz Poop details.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Codz_Poop_details.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:MesoamericanFile:Palenque temple of the inscriptions.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palenque_temple_of_the_inscriptions.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:Koyaanis QatsiFile:The Paris Codex 05.tif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Paris_Codex_05.tif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: FæFile:Mayan - Lidded Vessel - Walters 20092039 - Side A.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mayan_-_Lidded_Vessel_-_Walters_20092039_-_Side_A.jpg  License:unknown  Contributors: Daderot, Johnbod, Mercurywoodrose, NeverDoING, 1 anonymous editsFile:Cancuenpanel3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cancuenpanel3.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Authenticmaya,Darekk2, Infrogmation, Ixtzib, Lindert, Simon Burchell, 1 anonymous editsFile:maya.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maya.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Bryan DerksenFile:Maya Priester.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maya_Priester.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: WolfgangSauberFile:YaxchilanDivineSerpent.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:YaxchilanDivineSerpent.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Cwbm(commons), El Comandante, Infrogmation, Madman2001, Simon Burchell, ZapyonFile:GuatemalaBajo IKO 20021215.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GuatemalaBajo_IKO_20021215.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jesse Allen, NASAEarth Observatory using imagery provided courtesy of Tom Sever and Burgess Howell, Marshall Space Flight Center, and GeoEye.File:Nakbe str.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nakbe_str.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Authenticmaya, Infrogmation,Simon Burchell

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