The Rise and Fall of Traditional Music for the Synagogue

How Can Music Enrich Religious Experience?

Rebecca Hutter 4085969

May 2012 Supervisor: Dr. Sarah Hibberd

University of Nottingham Word Count: 12,630

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(i) Chapter 1:‘Introduction’.………………………………..……………….2

(ii) Chapter 2: ‘Twenty-first Century Hazzanut: Decline or Resurgence’…..16

(iii) Chapter 3: ‘Nusach in Nottingham? …………………………………….29

(iv) Conclusion ………………………………………………………………42

(v) Appendices: ……………………………………………………………..44

(vi) Bibliography: ……………………………………………………………48

With warmest gratitude to Jacklyn Churnett, Geoffrey Shisler and Victor Tunkel

for their generosity of time and guidance of this research,

and Rabbi Moshe Perez and Rabbi Tanya Sakhnovich for allowing me to carry out an

investigation into their communities.

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I

Introduction

“Music is the pulse of Jewish spirituality – Song charts the biorhythms of the Jewish soul”

[Chief Rabbi Sir Jonathan Sacks]

[Ex. 1: Opening of Kol Nidrei, arr. Lewandowski1]

For many Jews across the UK, Yom Kippur (The Day of Atonement) will be the one

time a year they attend the Synagogue and are moved by the passionate singing of the

hazzan (prayer leader).2 Even the most secular Jewish person will respond to the Kol

Nidrei, which immediately evokes feelings of deep sorrow and contemplative

yearning that have been passed on through countless generations.3 This simple

Askenazi theme contains an immensity of power,4 bound up with endless

                                                                                                               1 Payer, ‘Judentum als Lebensform’ 2 The Hazzan is is a Jewish cantor, a musician trained in the vocal arts who helps lead the congregation in song-full prayer. The hazzan (plural, hazzanim) is traditionally a male singer who sings unaccompanied. It is important to differentiate between the hazzan (referring to the cantor) and hazzanut. The latter refers to the elaborate musical art form as whole, encompassing the mellismatic embellishment in addition to all other the elements of the synagogue music tradition. (See appendix A, ‘Tsadik Katamar’ by Rosenblatt, for an example of this recitative style) 3 The Kol Nidrei prayer opens the evening service on Yom Kippur. 4Ashkenaz is the medieval Hebrew name for the region of Germany. Ashkenazim or Ashkenazi Jews although literally translating to “German Jews”, has now come to refer to all Jews from Western and Central Europe. This dissertation will only refer to Ashkenaz music as the Safardi descent (translating as “Spanish”) contains a very different musical tradition.

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connotations.5 There is something within the opening of the chant, repeated three

times, that triggers a feeling of repentance, remorse and unity amongst Jewish

communities. Although the words, ‘All personal vows we are likely to make… we

publicly renounce’, contain powerful sentiment, the music plays a much more

powerful role. It is the typically Jewish nature of the melody and expressive

performance of the hazzan that often draws people into the synagogue, effectively

setting the solemn mood for the service and the subsequent twenty-five hours of self-

reflection, repentance and fasting ahead. It is the outcry of the hazzan that sparks this

emotion, as they cry out to G-d asking forgiveness for themselves and their

community.

However, as moving as this may be, once a year is far too scarce. There was

once a time when people would flock to synagogues to hear the great hazzanim pour

out their hearts on a daily basis. Sadly, this tradition is now no longer in existence.

Fifty years ago almost every synagogue would have had a professional hazzan and

often a choir. Now, Moshe Haschel is the only surviving full-time professional left in

England.6

This dissertation will explore the way in which hazzanut and synagogue music

exists and is perceived in the modern era. Chapter one takes a historical approach,

providing the background and development of hazzanut. This is developed in the

second chapter, which explores the possible reasons for the decline in traditional

                                                                                                               5 For the musicologist, Kol Nidrei may be associated with the deeply romantic composition by Max Bruch, Op. 47 for ‘cello and orchestra. Although strictly a secular composition, Bruch powerfully drew upon traditional motifs and used the antiphonal exchange between string parts and harp glissandi as if to heighten the melody’s affective overtones. The prominent interval of the augmented second and extended melismas will also recall the typically Jewish sentiment found in operas such as Halevy’s ‘La Juive’ or, in contrast, the cantorial style featured in ‘The Meistersinger’ by Wagner, drenched in mockery. Film-buffs will remember the Kol Nidrei prayer from the 1927 ‘The Jazz Singer’, appearing twice and used as a punctuating motif for different turning points in the film, also featured in all three remakes of the film which similarly reach their dramatic climaxes to the sounds of Kol Nidrei. 6 Although there are many hazzanim, Mosche Haschel is the only one in full-time employment, holding the post at St Johns Wood Synagogue.

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synagogue music. The chapter also includes a close examination of the various

attempts to keep hazzanut alive in the contemporary synagogue service and maintain

an important place in the Jewish home.

In chapter three, original research into the services of two contrasting

synagogues in Nottingham is presented. Comparisons are drawn from observations

made during attendance, with particular reference to the Friday Evening (Kabbalat

Shabbat) service.7 Interviews held with the prayer leaders explore the basis for the

different musical content of the service.8 A survey conducted to assess the role music

has played to enrich, or hinder, religious experience of the congregation is analysed.

The way in which music is incorporated can greatly influence prayer, and final

conclusions are drawn to balance the positive and negative connotations of following,

or not following, the traditional instruction of synagogue music.

Existing Scholarship

The role of the hazzan has been continually evolving to meet the demands of the

community. For a comprehensive study on the history of Jewish music, Idelsohn

gives a thorough insight into the history of the hazzan, in addition to an in-depth

musical analysis of music in the synagogue.9 Although now outdated, published in

1972 and shaped by the historical and comparative patterns of the 1920s, it still serves

as one of the most important books in Jewish scholarship and a point of departure for

most histories about Jewish music in the twentieth century. Combined with his ten-                                                                                                                7 The Kabbalat Shabbat service refers to the first half of the service that takes place on Friday Evening to welcome in the Sabbath. 8 Here, the term ‘prayer leader’ is used, as Reform cantor may not necessarily be a qualified hazzan. 9 Idelsohn, The history of Jewish Music. There is also a wide amount of scholarship written about Jewish music during the Shoah, musical repression and anti-Semitism. Notably, Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 1867-1938: a cultural history, and Jews, Anti-Semitism, and culture in Vienna by Oxaal, Pollak and Botz, give a historic outlook about the social exclusion of the Jewish community in Austria, as well as showing the role played by Jews in the explosion of cultural innovation in Vienna at the Fin de siècle. Although these do not discuss cantorial music explicitly, they are useful in providing the backdrop for this subject.

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volume collection of Thesaurus of Hebrew Oriental Melodies, Idelsohn is widely

regarded as one of the leading figures of Jewish musicological research. A Passport to

Jewish Music serves as a detailed bibliography, especially comprehensive of

American Jewish Music research.10 Heskes documents the heritage of Jewish

musicology in exceptional detail, whilst providing research into all different areas of

Jewish Music, including Yiddish, Hassidic and Zionist music.

The Journal of Synagogue Music, originally released bi-annually by the

Cantors Assembly, provides a broad spectrum of articles from qualified Cantors.

Dating from 1967 to present day (now only released annually), the journals include

in-depth musical analyses, ethno-musical observations, biographies of hazzanim,

reviews, and musical extracts. The most recent edition, ‘Hazzanut in the Twentieth-

century and Beyond’, includes a very thought provoking article by Rabbi Geoffrey L.

Shisler.11 The article addresses the demise of the hazzan, concluding, ‘Hazzanut in

Great Britain is rapidly becoming little more than a subject for nostalgic

reminiscence’.12 Elie Kaunfer also provides up to date research in his book,

Empowered Judaism, but offers a more optimistic outlook, contrastingly from the

American perspective. Kaunfer offers a refreshing new theory of how to build a

successful community. Using his own creation of the Kehilat Hadar Minyan as an

example of the developing - and apparently successful – movement, Kaufner draws

attention to the trend of Minyanim across America, which has abandoned hazzanut all

together.13

                                                                                                               10 Heskes, Passport to Jewish Music: Its History, Traditions and Culture 11 Shisler, ‘The Current State of Hazzanut in the UK’ 12 Shisler, ibid., 232 13 Minyanim have been around for the past 60 years but have currently developed hugely due to a drive for a modernised community. There is no role for a prayer leader, or hazzan, reflecting the trend and desire for a more participatory service.

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This dissertation will continue the research into the current situation of

hazzanut in England, motivated largely by Shisler’s article. However, in addition to

discussing the decline of the hazzan this dissertation will build on Shisler’s article and

previous scholarship, by drawing attention to revival projects, exploring the new

direction of hazzanut and the nature of change in synagogue music. Interviews with

professional hazzanim, rabbis and leading scholars in this subject area will provide

first-hand views of the current situation of hazzanut in England. By using the two

synagogues in Nottingham, the investigation in chapter three will identify the ways in

which a hazzan or prayer leader has the ability to help empower individuals through

music. This paper offers insight into other provincial areas, tackling the broader

question, is traditional hazzanut and nusach really dead?

Hazzanut through History: The Function of the Hazzan

The function of the hazzan (plural: hazzanim) originated in the post of the precentor,

who had a similar role to the Priest of the ancient Babylonian and Assyrian nations.

However, during the sixth and seventh centuries the hazzan was the caretaker of the

synagogue, with responsibility for its maintenance and upkeep. Since its earliest times

the term hazzan has been ambiguous, and Hoffman describes the hazzan as ‘just a

general synagogue official whose duties included matters as diverse as sweeping the

sanctuary … and engaging in religious debate with non-Jews’.14 Many scholars have

traced the meaning of hazzan to the Hebrew root hazar, ‘to see’, and others link it

with the Assyrian word, hazzanu, in keeping with a similar meaning of ‘the

overseer’.15 Both translations encompass the two roles as the overseer of the

                                                                                                               14 Hoffman, Gates of Understanding 2, 14 15 ‘Hazzan’, The Encycolpedia Judaica, 102.

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synagogue in a practical way in addition to their later development into the prayer

leader.

The concept of a hazzan first came into focus in around 600, as congregations

began to rely on a prayer leader to help them through the long part of the service

made up of extensive Hebrew prayers.16 The introduction of the sheliach tzibbur

(messenger of the congregation) was formally created and any knowledgeable

member of the congregation could be asked to take on this role. However, this title

was by no means a permanent position and was not expected to function as a mediator

or musical leader, but instead signified a model worshipper on whom the community

could rely for response to the precentor. It is not totally clear as to why communities

wanted a position that exceeded that of the sheliach tzibbur, but scholars have

proposed that the rise of a sacred singer is linked to the emergence of piyutim,17 which

required extra musical skill.18

It was during the period of the Geonim19 that the hazzan became the

permanent sheliach tzibbur. The hazzan was initially only permitted to read weekly

portions of the Torah (the five books of the Old Testament) and Prophets, translating

them into the vernacular Aramaic idiom spoken at the time. In the original service,

only two parts, the Shema and the Amidah, would have been read out loud and

selected laymen would be given the honour to recite these prayers aloud,

interchangeable from week to week.20 It generally is accepted amongst scholars that

                                                                                                               16 Slobin, Chosen Voices: The Story of the American Cantorate, 5. (It is important to note that Hebrew would not have been the vernacular language in the Diaspora.) 17 A piyut (plural, piyutim) is a Jewish liturgical poem or hymn, usually designated to be sung, chanted, or recited during religious services. The introduction of the piyutim added a further complexity to the role, as it stimulated the creation of intricate music requiring more musical and rhythmical talent. 18 Slobin, op.cit., 6 19 The Geonic period extends from about 690 C.E. until the eleventh century. 20 The Shema and Amidah are regarded as the two of the most important prayers in Judaism. The Shema is the Jewish pledge of allegiance and affirmation of faith, “Hear O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is one” (Deut. 6:4). The Amidah is the core of every Jewish worship service consisting of a varying number of blessings recited while the worshipers stand.

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the role of the hazzan developed as the laymen began to neglect this tradition, either

due to insufficient knowledge of Hebrew or the increasing difficulty of liturgy due to

the desire to enhance the beauty of the service through its musical content. So the

caretaker, who had been present at every service and traditionally guarded the texts,

naturally acquired a thorough knowledge of the prayers and took on this role of

reading prayers aloud. Although the hazzan gained an honourable position within the

community, on merit of their personality and knowledge, the hazzan remained

subordinate to the instruction of the elders in the congregation as the honorary role of

the precentor remained.21 The liturgy was thus divided between the delegated hazzan

and the honorary layman, or ba’al tefiloh (master of prayer).22 Over the course of

time, the artistic demands for the chanting of the prayers was increased and there was

a need to professionalise the role of the hazzan.23

The Development of the Hazzan

It was predominantly throughout Eastern Europe that a long line of enthused

hazzanim and talented singers developed. Hazzanim usually fell into two categories;

those who possessed fine voices and performance ability and others with a gifted

talent for composition and choir-leaders but with poor vocal ability, often known as

‘the voice-less hazzan’.24 Both, however, fell into the role of the hazzan, as this was

                                                                                                               21 Idelsohn, Jewish Music: its historical development, 107-8. The early Christians, who largely influenced by many rituals of Judaism, also included the precentor to become a major part of the service. However, the choir in the Christian faith gradually replaced this position. 22 Heskes, Passport to Jewish Music, 58 23 Idelsohn op.cit., 106. He highlights these demands to include good pronunciation, distinct articulation, familiarity with the prayers. Cantor Janis Guralnick also lists the fixed qualities demanded of a Hazzan to include a pleasant voice and appearance, to be married, to have a beard, to be of blameless character, and to be acceptable in all other respects to the members of the community. 24 Idelsohn, ibid., 296

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the only available musical post within the synagogue.25 Despite the musical demands,

the hazzan remained very low on the social scale, scraping together a living from a

variety of jobs, and largely dependent on handouts from the community.

By the nineteenth century, the role of the hazzan had gradually developed,

assuming the title of cantor, which was immediately associated with a greater singing

role. Hugely influenced by the prolific Salomon Sulzer (1804-1890) in Vienna to

Berlin’s Louis Lewandowski (1821-1894) along with other hazzanim of this ability,

the musical standard was raised, transforming the role of the hazzan into that of a

professional music director. Idelsohn defined this cantorial style by its ‘lyric facility,

improvisational flow, modal patterns and motival phrases … textual focus and clarity

of emphasis.’26

The expectations of the hazzan consequently changed substantially throughout

the nineteenth century. This musical advancement affected many Ashkenazi hazzanim

across Europe, quickly turning the once poor ‘beadle-caretaker’ into a performing

showman, as hazzanim would tour around Eastern Europe to be greeted by expectant

village communities. Services on high holy days that featured a visiting hazzan were

turned into ‘gala events’ during which the communities were able to gain the cultural

satisfaction they may have otherwise been denied due to social or economic reasons.27

Vigoda, himself a brilliant hazzan, accurately depicts Ephraim Zalman Razumni

(1853-1918), one of the emerging ‘star cantors’ in the wealthy port city of Odessa in

Russia:28

                                                                                                               25 Within the former category, hazzanim such as Strelisker, Schulsinger, Polatshik, and Altshul became prolific composers and popular hazzanim among the Eastern Jewish communities. It is also necessary to point out that within the Orthodox movement, musical instruments are forbidden during a service. The voice was the only musical instrument available, and the Orthodox Synagogues would therefore use boys’ choirs to provide musical balance, harmonisation and interludes. These restrictions do not apply within the Reform movement as huge importance was placed upon the Organ instead. 26 Heskes, op.cit., 58 27 Heskes, ibid., 60 28 Vigoda, Legendary Voices, 19

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He had a way… to impress people; he was at all times elegantly decked out in a flowing cape… and a silk hat… furlined coat… Strutting in the street… His whole comportment was more like that of an opera singer than a cantor. In the synagogue he donned an extra high cantorial hat, which together with the elevated footstool tended to accentuate his towering presence.29

The expectations of the hazzan throughout the nineteenth century were therefore

raised and as a result the hazzanim adapted to the needs of the ‘audience’, skilfully

demonstrating a high level of vocal technique, versatile improvisations and sensitive

musicianship. The professionalisation of the synagogue cantors in the Austro-

Hungarian Empire in the second half of the nineteenth century led to the

establishment of cantors' associations, establishing patterns for professional training

whilst publishing musical scores and journals.30 After the Haskalah (the Jewish

Enlightenment movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries), hazzanim

gained an increased awareness of the musical world. Their integration and

engagement with the secular world allowed hazzanim to study with musicians and

they were able to focus on music in a Western European way. As a result of these

elements, services would last for hours as the hazzanim would sing for the

communities who watched in awe as the virtuoso improvised and performed for the

crowds. It was during this time the ‘Golden Age’ of cantorial art was established.

The ‘Golden Age’ of Hazzanut

As suggested by the name, the ‘Golden Age’ was in many ways the peak in

the history of the hazzan. The Golden Age is known as the period between the two

world wars, approximately 1920-1960. Enhanced transportation allowed leading

                                                                                                               29 Vigoda, ibid., 54 30 After the Holocaust there was another surge of interest in founding schools dedicated to the study of Cantorial music. These included The Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion (1947), The Cantors Institute (CI) of the Jewish Theological Seminary (1951) and The Cantorial Training Institute (CTI) of Yeshiva University (1954).

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hazzanim to visit a wide array of synagogues, enhancing not only their reputations but

also a public celebration in the art of hazzanut. Many hazzanim became celebrities of

their time and were often compared with their operatic tenor contemporaries, whose

style they increasingly emulated. The Golden Age arguably only refers to America as

this was the place that hazzanim made a significant fortune.31 However, it is unfair to

say there was never a Golden Age in England, as there were many fine hazzanim but

there was no comparison to the financial rewards or fame that America offered.

Schisler, rabbi and hazzan of the New West End Synagogue, goes so far as to say that

he is ‘unaware of one man who became an international star in this country, except

Mosche Haschel’.32 Along with many other Eastern European Jews who emigrated at

this time, many of the great hazzanim pursued an American life, naturally drawn to

‘The Land of Opportunity’.

Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, khorshul (boys’ choirs)

were an integral part of the service, providing musical support and accompaniment for

the traditional cantor in the absence of instrumentation. From this tradition, many

meshoyrerim (choirboys) matured into hazzanic apprentices.33 After their voices

changed at puberty, many of the boys, regardless of whether they decided to pursue a

career as a hazzan, still retained the musical foundations learnt in their days in the

shul khor. This firmly rooted musical awareness ensured that a very strong core of

musical leaders remained within the community, importantly securing the communal

                                                                                                               31 It is also worth pointing out that America also suffered from the financial temptation of many hazzanim. For many, the performance aspect of the cantor on began to surpass their honourable role and a result of temptation; many hazzanim succumbed to Hollywood fame, taking parts in operas and Broadway shows. The cantorial ‘sulzer’ style was heavily drawn upon by composers such as Halévy and Meyerbeer and highly lucrative contracts were offered by wealthy Opera companies. This movement is captured in the film, The Jazz Singer (mentioned in note 2.) 32 Geoffrey Schisler. Interview by author. 23 November 2011, New West End Synagogue, London. 33 By the end of the nineteenth century every hazzan in Eastern Europe would have a permanent choir of meshoyrerim. Gelbert describes the ways in which meshoyrerim were dependant upon handouts from the community as they received no wages from the hazzan. Gelbert, Fun Meshorerim-Lebn [Translated excerpts in Slobin, op.cit., 14]

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responses to the hazzan. The standard of cantorial music and understanding of music

and prayer advanced significantly during the Golden Age. This was largely due to the

intrinsic tutorial meshoyrerim received from the hazzan, but also developed due to the

increased demand for music to be written down, in addition to the introduction of

commercial recordings.34 Many hazzanim would hear recordings of the great singers

and would be inspired by their musicality and vocal fluency. The combination of

these factors, in turn, resulted in extensive coloratura, technical flexibility and

increased musicianship.

In addition to the musical techniques explored by the hazzanim of the Golden

Age, the emotional drive behind the music was also heightened at this time. The role

of the hazzan was largely to pray on behalf of the community, expressing their unified

emotions by bringing the ancient text to life through music. During times of terror and

anti-Semitism at its worst, the Ma’ariv (evening service), for example, would have

been recited as a result of genuine fear of what the night ahead may bring. The

position of the cantor was therefore not only a performance, but almost became a

stepping-stone between the congregation and G-d, pleading for a safe night ahead.

During the Golden Age, the emotions of the hazzan were raw and genuine. The

recording of the great Pinhas Levi for example, singing The Birkat Hamazon (grace

after meals) on Rosh Hodesh (the new month) will sound, to many of the post-world

war two generation, out of place for a prayer that is now known for its ‘family-

                                                                                                               34 The first cantorial discs were by Cerini and Sirota, ca. 1903, followed by Kwartin who recorded the first “modern” repertoire from the reforming communities in the West. Slobin, ibid.,18. From the first century, music had been passed through generations by ear. Many boys still learn their Bar Mitzvah portion from their fathers as a continuation of this tradition.

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friendly’ melodies.35 This recording demonstrates how the emotional outpouring from

the hazzan often happened on a daily basis in all the prayers they sung.

Nusach Ha’Tephilla

In addition to the vocal technique, one of the principal challenges of learning

to become a cantor is nusach, the traditional modes of prayer chant that carry the text

prayer.36 The term nusach (plural, nuschaot) is has a vague association with the

Gregorian modes and the Arabic maqamat, specifying the exact ‘mode’ that should be

applied whilst singing the appropriate prayer.

[Ex. 2: Extract from Freed, Harmonising the Jewish Modes (New York, 1958) p.12,

Re-notated on Sibelius by Author for clarity]

In general, the Adonai Malakh mode may be described as major-like, notated here

from c1 – c2, with the addition of two notes either side to demonstrate the alteration

outside the main octave. The Magen Avot mode is minor-like, identical to the Aolian

                                                                                                               35 Grace after meals should be recited after all meals. Many families and youth-movements, despite not singing it after every meal, will sing this with a variety of melodies, especially after a meal on the Sabbath, as a joyful song to include everyone around the table. 36 There are two different traditions of ‘Nusach’. The term nusach can be applied to the text and formula of service (written in the front of every siddur (daily payer book) to show the source of this order), to suit the specific rite of each community, ethnicity of denomination. The second, nusach ha’tephilla, is it’s musical form, which I will be referring to in this paper with regard to the Ashkenazi tradition.

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minor scale in western tradition. The Ahavah Rabbah has similarities with the

Phyrgian scale, however it includes an augmented second between the second and

third notes, giving the scale its characteristic flavour. Common to all three scales, is

the lowered leading tone, a minor seventh above the tonic instead of a major seventh.

Therefore, the dominant chord is never a major chord and, because of these defective

dominants, dominant seventh and ninth chords are instead harmonised at cadence

points, creating the recognisable ‘Jewish Modal Harmony’.37

In each of these modes, there is also a precise theory of motives, which are

applied within the nusach. The notes of the scale, although important, do not define

the mode; rather, it is the motives that create the specific sound of the mode. Different

nusachaot are applied depending on the festival, day of the week, and time of the day

and it is this specificity of the nusach and motives that gives Jewish liturgical music a

unique gift. Nusach reflects the intricate meaning of the words, creating the right

atmosphere for prayer, and thus reflects the mood of the service. Even, a Jewish

person who doesn’t understand the concept of nusach (or even its existence!) may

find the incorrect use of some of the well-known nuschaot puzzling to hear. Listening

to the sorrowful nusach of the Kol Nidrei service in what should be an uplifting

Channukah prayer, for example, would seem out of place, and vice-versa. Although

the style of the nusach can be varied, and improvisation within the nusach is

encouraged, the nusach itself should never be changed as the use of incorrect nusach

undermines the words, breaking the laws of halakha (the collective body of biblical,

Talmudic and Rabbinical Jewish Law).

The importance of nusach is therefore hugely important within traditional

Orthodox communities, yet many congregants, laymen and even rabbis fail to

                                                                                                               37 Freed, op.cit., 12

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acknowledge or learn about this necessity. The lack of interest and education in the

musical foundation upon which Jewish synagogue music is based has led to a

weakening of nusach, a clear result of the decline in hazzanut. The hazzan is obliged

to have a thorough knowledge of both the nusach and text, to enable spontaneous

improvisation from which they can give fresh meaning to the ancient words and

emphasise their importance to the listeners. Without thorough education of nusach,

the concept of hazzanut is in many ways abandoned within the Orthodox synagogue.

This subject will be further explored in chapter two, which presents reasons for such a

sudden deterioration.

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II

Twenty-first Century Hazzanut: Decline or Resurgence?

Many people now consider the years of the great hazzanut as a tradition of the

past. With a dearth of traditional hazzanim left in the UK, this chapter will suggest

reasons for the apparent decline, but will also provide evidence of an immanent

revival.

Throughout the last sixty years, there has been a huge shift of attitude towards

religion in the UK. The 2011 British Social Attitudes Survey highlights that the

percentage of those who describe themselves as non-religious has risen from 31% to

51% between 1983 and 2009.38 The substantial increase of people with no religious

belief is further highlighted, as 62% of the UK population never attend any form of

service.39 Within the Jewish community, a shift in religious attitude can also be

identified. The following section will identify reasons for a decline of hazzanut,

highlighting the changing attitudes and historical turning points that have affected

synagogue services.

Social reasons for the decline

A significant turning point for religious belief was undoubtedly the Holocaust, or the

Shoah. Following this devastating episode, many Jewish people went one of two

ways: some became much more devout, whereas others turned their back on G-d and                                                                                                                38 British humanist association, ‘Religion and belief: some surveys and statistics’ 39 This is largely due to an increasing awareness of science but also a growing anti-religious sentiment in which people believe religion does more harm than good, as the root of conflict. Interestingly, out of the 61% of people in England and Wales who ticked a religious box (53% Christian) only 29% of those same people said that they would consider themselves ‘religious’ in the follow up question. This means that over half of those who count as having a religion said they were not religious. Statistics taken from a poll conducted by YouGov in March 2011 on behalf of the BHA.

  17  

religion, questioning how such an event could have ever happened. This change of

attitude had significant effects on the role of the hazzan and hazzanut as an art form.

Prior to the Holocaust, nearly every synagogue in Europe had a full-time professional

hazzan, often with a choir. But this figure dropped dramatically. An ongoing project

by Solomon Mendelson and Joseph Levine identifies hazzanim of Europe who died

during the Shoah. The current list includes the names of 1,459 hazzanim who

perished.40 In a purely pragmatic sense, this huge number naturally had immediate

effects on the practice of hazzanut, the scope for hazzanim and also the direction of

the synagogue choir. Without the training as young boys, many potential hazzanim

consequently missed out and the cycle of hazzanim was severely affected.

One positive outcome of the Holocaust can be argued, as the event highlighted

awareness of anti-Semitism and demonstrated the need for the creation of the Jewish

State. Consequently, Jewish communities were no longer living in a state of genuine

fear and Jewish people became more integrated into society. The security of Israel

transformed Jewish outlook, and gave Jewish communities more confidence as they

had gained the support of leading world powers. But for cantorial art, this has had

damaging implications. The Golden Age was in many ways successful because it was

built around the needs of the Jewish communities at the time, depending upon the

hazzanim to provide comfort and support through the roughest times of

discrimination. Yet, in the post-holocaust era, many Jewish people leading secular

Jewish lives no longer felt an emotional devotion and connection to prayer in the

same way. Perhaps this was because they felt let down by religion, or resented

Judaism for being the target of violence. Without anti-Semitic threat, there was no

                                                                                                               40 This was last updated 19th July 2010 (Erev Tishah B’Av 5770 in the Jewish calendar), in the Journal of Synagogue Music (2011). The list provides details of their names, birth dates, the country they lived and where and when they died.

  18  

longer the need for such a distinct Jewish identity, resulting in greater assimilation

into wider society.

Integration into society also had important outcomes for the theatrical aspect

of hazzanut. The nineteenth-century synagogue-goer may have lived in a community

too small for a stage or been too pious to go to a theatre.41 However, in the late

twentieth and twenty-first centuries, theatre and the arts became more readily

available. The opera house and concert hall, which had not previously been

accessible, became places to watch a singer perform, not the synagogue. Today, many

concertgoers will be happy to sit through an entire evening of singing, but they will

simply not put up with a synagogue service that goes on for hours. Not only has the

perception of the hazzan as a performing ‘showman’ shifted, but also many people in

modern society will not engage with a performing hazzan anymore. Many

communities see the hazzan as a prayer enabler, someone who can spark individual

empowerment, and will not tolerate a self-indulgent performer.

Another reason for the lack of connection between the hazzan and many

Orthodox communities derives from the lack of Jewish education. If members of the

community do not have sufficient religious knowledge, the congregational response

will either be lacking or inappropriate, consequently affecting the flow of the service

and the communal religious experience. A decline in Jewish education and Hebrew

studies, even for those who have attended Jewish schools, results in a lack of

confidence for many synagogue goers. Although members of the community may

                                                                                                               41 Slobin, op. cit., 19. Slobin recognises that this notion is hugely reminiscent of Bach’s passionate cantata and oratorio style as this was an outlet for his pietistic congregants.

  19  

attend synagogue services regularly, without an educational foundation it is very

difficult to have the ability and confidence to contribute to the service successfully.42

Financial Tensions

In correspondence to the changing desires of communities, the attitudes of many

hazzanim also changed somewhat. As the role of the cantor became a more influential

position within the community, the hazzan was expected to do more of the smaller

jobs the community required, in some places becoming a second minister to the

rabbi.43 The relationship and roles of the hazzan and rabbi began to change as the

rabbi became less of a halachic authority and took on more of a social role.44 The

rules of halakha state that if the synagogue can only afford one position, the hazzan

should be hired. However, the combination of the reluctance and hubris many

hazzanim demonstrated along with the increasing role of the rabbi, has instead

secured the position of the rabbi as the position of primary importance. Financially,

many synagogues today can no longer afford two positions, and the hazzan will only

be employed part time, or perhaps only for festivals. This often has severe

consequences regarding the authenticity and efficacy of the service, as many of the

rabbis will not have learnt about nusach in Yeshivah, and are not necessarily musical

                                                                                                               42 The problem of confidence is not helped by the persistence of many smaller communities to use old buildings that are no longer proportionate to the size of the community. I have personally experienced services in Orthodox synagogues in Bristol, Nottingham and Newcastle on numerous occasions. The separation of women and men in Orthodox synagogues also contributes to the feeling of separation and isolation when the synagogue is not full. 43 The relationship between the rabbi and hazzan is a continual issue of debate. Goldman addresses this issue in a lecture on ‘Relations between Ministerial Colleagues’. There is also a discussion about this topic in Slobin, op. cit., 104. 44 The rabbi would have initially been a biblical scholar who people would have visited to ask religious questions. In nineteenth century Germany and the United States, the duties of the rabbi became increasingly influenced by the duties of the Protestant minister, developing their role to include delivering sermons, offering pastoral counseling and generally being much more active within the community.

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or able to sing in tune in the first place!45 A typical rabbi may not grasp the musical

importance and will consequently be incapable of incorporating the musical

grounding into a service.46

Financial difficulties have also led to a decline in building beautiful

synagogues. Unlike many of the delicate and ornate buildings in many famous

synagogues across Europe, the period of ‘post-war modernism’ in architecture instead

emphasised ‘assertive architectural gestures’ with the ability to stand-alone.47 The

change of synagogue architecture is mirrored by the attitude towards music. In the

same way that people no longer considered it a priority to build beautiful synagogues,

there was also a lack of importance placed on the necessity of decorating praying or

davening with a cantor or choir.

Financial problems have not only affected the communities, but also the

hazzanim themselves. Traditionally the hazzan as a caretaker would have been poor,

and this helped him to feel pain whilst praying. Many modern hazzanim do not want

to lead an underprivileged lifestyle, and to combat this many hazzanim today will

have a profession on the side.48 Although this ensures a sufficient salary, it

dramatically changes the perception of the hazzan, as they are no longer a figure that

depends financially on the community or leading a life that is wholly devoted to

synagogue life. These attitudes, along with the changing attitude of the communities,

institutions and financial practicalities have all contributed to the decline in the

appreciation and practise of traditional hazzanut.

                                                                                                               45 Yeshivah (plural, Yeshivot) is a very religious educational institution that focuses on the study of traditional religious texts. In the United States and Israel, there are different levels of yeshiva education. Yeshivot were previously only attended by males but since the end of the twentieth century modern orthodox yeshivot have opened for girls and women. 46 Victor Tunkel. Interview conducted by author. October 2011, Mill Hill, London. Victor fittingly described these people as ‘cowboy hazzans’. 47 Stoltzman, Synagogue Architecture in America; Path, Spirit, and Identity, 193 48 Some rabbis also have other vocations for the same reason.

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Road to Recovery

The traditional age of hazzanut is in many ways coming to an end, demonstrated by

reasons previously outlined. However, on closer examination, examples can be found

of organisations, groups and individuals who are fighting to keep hazzanut alive.

Within the UK there is an impetus for revival and through the encouragement of

education, organisation of choirs and concerts, the rise of women and creativity in

new composition, it can be argued that hazzanut and religious music is still very

significant in Jewish life, although perhaps taking on a different guise.

Education

Education is a fundamental aspect of Judaism. It is the first thing a child learns in the

Shema, ‘vi’shinantam l’vanecha vedibar’ta b’am’ (You should teach these words to

your children and you shall speak them [the words]), as the watchword of Judaism.

From an early age, the importance of education is taught to children as they attend

weekly cheder,49 and this is continued into adulthood through Bar/Bat Mitzvah

studies, youth camps, and encouragement of religious discussions during the Sabbath

and other festivals (particularly during the Passover meal).

This is exemplified in the organisation of Limmud, a Jewish Conference open

to anyone of any age who wishes to learn and discuss many aspects of Judaism. The

organisation of Limmud is unique, and largely effective, in its insistence of having no

affiliation with any strand of Judaism. Offering the opportunity to attend seminars

with leading researchers, including many different aspects of Jewish music, it ensures

that individuals, families and friends have the opportunity to learn about different

subjects in an informal setting.                                                                                                                49 In more secular and assimilated Jewish communities, cheders are attended outside normal school hours much like the Christian Sunday School. However, in Orthodox Judaism, cheder is also a term used to mean a private primary day school with emphasis placed on religious study.

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The Cantors Assembly, the largest body of hazzanim in the world, is the

professional organisation of cantors that serves the Jewish world. Founded in 1947,50

the Cantors Assembly has remained faithful to its three initial principles:

i. To help our members serve the spiritual and religious needs of their

congregants ii. To preserve and enhance the traditions of Jewish prayer and synagogue

music iii. To maintain the highest standards for our sacred calling and those who

practice it51

By building on traditions of the past, members of the assembly work to inspire young

people to train for the cantorate. Jewish liturgy, music and singing are taught through

creative and vibrant programs, providing placement services and publishing key

source materials. The archive of Journal of Synagogue Music along with online

podcasts and blogs ensures that education is easily accessible on the Internet.52 One

significant aspect of the Cantors Assembly is the annual conventions, which are held

in varying locations around the world. This allocated week once a year brings

together hazzanim from all over the world and offers seminars, discussions, services

and concerts.

The Cantors Assembly is successful in functioning as a central point for

bringing together worldwide hazzanim, however the entry requirements to join the

assembly are very high, resulting in the exclusion of applicants who lack sufficient

                                                                                                               50 After the Holocaust, a conference on 'Jewish Music in the Synagogue' was held in 1947 in New York for all cantorial organizations (168 representatives of various groups were present). Hazzan David J. Putterman, who had just been appointed Director of the newly created Department of Music, wanted development of a Jewish Music Library in addition to setting up an association of cantors from which preliminary ethical standards for Cantors would be agreed to ensure financial stability and a spirit of fellowship. The outcome of this conference was a turning point, as it changed the perception of the cantor in many ways. 51 Cantors Assembly website, <www.cantors.org> [accessed 12/09/11] 52 Unfortunately, the most recent blog was posted on November 24, 2009. Although the blogs are still relevant, this lack of update shows a significant trend towards podcasting, the most recent was released January 10, 2012.

  23  

Jewish and musical education.53 The recent launch of the European Academy for

Jewish Liturgy (EAJL) founded by Jaclyn Chernett, the first female Hazzan in the

UK, is, however, dedicated to train lay people and aspiring cantors alike, as long as

they commit to invest in their own spiritual development and learning. Set up in 2007,

EAJL functions as an educational programme to preserve hazzanut in its widest forms

and inspire potential prayer leaders regardless of religious denomination. The aims of

the organisation are,

[To] nurture and inspire able individuals who seek to lead their groups in prayer, by matching each of them with a professional cantor according to the tradition and language in which they wish to learn.54

Through individual coaching to seminars with scholars, the EAJL works with the

Cantors Assembly to ensure the best network of professional teachers.55 Jaclyn

Chernett and the EAJL strongly believe in the responsibility of the prayer leader as

their role can either stimulate a community or ‘leave it cold’.56

Beyond all else, the leader of Jewish prayer is continually soul-searching and hungry to learn, enabling congregants to share his/her devotions in a way that will touch their hearts, inspiring in them a deep love of God, their heritage and their community.57

Other individuals have set up websites and organisations that provide a wealth

of information. Tephilharmonic set up in 2007, is an organisation dedicated to

preserve and develop traditional synagogue music in UK Orthodox communities.58 It

functions as a network for people who are interested in cantorial music in addition to

providing support and musical resources for hazzanim and choirs. However,                                                                                                                53 Applicants are not only tested for an extensive knowledge of Jewish history, Hebrew grammar and comprehension and Jewish music history, but also music theory, nusach, T’amim and sight-singing. 54 EAJL website, <www.eajl.org> [accessed 12/02/2012] 55 The use of Skype or similar technology helps ensure a student-mentor relationship can be formed wherever in the world they may be. 56 ibid. 57 ibid. 58 Tephilharmonic website, <www.tephilharmonic.org.uk> [accessed 10/09/11]

  24  

Tephilharmonic also reaches out to the communities, promoting the participation of

younger synagogue-goers and encouraging community members to appreciate

traditional synagogue music. Websites, notably the homepage of Rabbi Geoffrey

Shisler and ‘Hazzanut Online’, provide substantial and easily accessible information

containing musical manuscripts, articles and lectures about many different aspects of

the subject.59

Found at the core of all these initiatives, is the Jewish Music Institute (JMI).

Formed after the first Jewish Music Festival In 1984, the JMI has developed into a

World Centre for Jewish Music. In addition to organising concerts and conferences,

the JMI contains a vast library and promotes Jewish music education about all

different types of Jewish music from Klezmer to Western Classical Music; Israeli to

Ashkenazi and Yiddish folk to Synagogue Music. Integrated in the Synagogue Music

branch of the JMI is the Cantorial Branch, hailed by Alex Klein, with aims to

encourage a new perception of the value of hazzanim and the cantorial art and refresh

the repertoire for the twenty-first century while remaining faithful to tradition. It was

following discussions that arose from the first European Cantors’ Convention in 2006,

which had been organised by the JMI, when enthusiasts decided to set up

organisations such as Tephilharmonic, as the need for preservation of traditional

music had been highlighted.

Jewish Choirs and Cantorial Concerts

Although many of the educational organisations promote concerts and choirs in a

religious setting, one cannot overlook the importance of Jewish music as a leisure

                                                                                                               59 Geoffrey Shisler website, <www.geoffreyshisler.com> [accessed 14/09/11] and Chazzanut website, <www.chazzanut.com> [accessed 12/10/11] are among many others but these contain a significant amount of information on the website. A full list of websites can be found on the JMI website, <www.jmi.org.uk/synagoguemusic> [accessed 11/4/12]

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activity in a secular setting. The London based Zemel Choir is the UK’s leading

Jewish mixed voice choir, performing a diverse repertoire including ‘works by both

Jewish and non-Jewish composers, both sacred and secular, light and serious’.60 The

choir effectively brings Jewish people together on a weekly basis through their love of

singing, embracing many different aspects of the musical tradition but with one

fundamental difference: there are women. The mixed-voice choir are consequently

unable to partake in Orthodox services, unlike the traditional male voice choir, yet an

awareness and enjoyment of traditional Jewish music is still very significant.

The concerts put on by the Zemel Choir highlight the connection of Jewish

people through music all around the world, by not only singing repertoire of different

countries, but also through travel and European tours. The recent launch of the

Lewandowski Festival in Germany was a clear example of this. Asked to participate

in the first festival of its kind, the Zemel Choir joined seven other choirs in Berlin in

December 2011 to celebrate this prolific composer, affectionately regarded as ‘the

father of Jewish music’, renowned for his contribution to Reform synagogue liturgy.61

Although the weekend offered academic lectures and synagogue services, the

emphasis of the weekend was not placed on religious debate or music within the

religious context, but the music itself, as concert repertoire in its own right.

Role of Women

The Zemler choir was one of the four mixed-voice choirs in the festival,

diplomatically balanced with the male voice choirs. The highly contentious issue

about the role of women singing in a religious context will not be included in this

                                                                                                               60 Zemel Choir website, <www.zemelchoir.org> [accessed 3/01/2012] 61 Martin, ‘Louis Lewandowski Festival in Berlin’

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paper as the topic is too big to begin to embark upon.62 However, the rising position

of women as prayer leaders within many communities and strands of Judaism is

undoubtedly a contributing factor to demonstrate a revival of synagogue music. The

fact that women are eager to lead communities in prayer reflects the changing nature

of modern society and also reflects a changing attitude to long-established Jewish

conventions.

Currently there are two qualified female hazzanim in the UK, Jaclyn Chernett,

the UK’s first ordained female cantor, and Zöe Jacobs, the first Reform female cantor,

who lead communities at Kol Nefesh Masorti and Finchley Reform Synagogue

respectively. Both women lead deeply moving services, and are dedicated to the

music, and its importance, within a service. Monthly Shira sessions, where members

of the community can sing and learn new harmonies, along with seminars and

workshops are organised by Zöe Jacobs at the Finchley Reform Synagogue.63 Her

devotion to music, her community and the ‘synergy between text and music’

demonstrates qualities of a truly inspirational hazzan, encompassing many of the

attributes of the traditional hazzan but in a modern context.64 Debates surrounding the

role of the female as a hazzan draw heavily upon kol isha,65 however it is clear that

these two female hazzanim have a significant role in the restoration of synagogue

music and the function of a prayer leader by inspiring and connecting their

communities through music.

                                                                                                               62 Biale, Women and Jewish Law; Frankel, The Voice of Sarah. Feminine Spirituality and Traditional Judaism; Greenberg, ed. The Ordination of Women as Rabbis. Studies and Responsa 63 Finchley Reform Synagogue website, <www.frsonline.org/Services/Music/> [accessed 10/02/2012] 64 Rocker, ‘Songbook is music to the ears of Reform’ 65 In Orthodox Judaism men are generally not allowed to hear women sing, a prohibition called kol isha. This is derived from Song of Solomon 2:14: ‘Let me hear your voice, for your voice is sweet (‘arev’) and your face is beautiful.’ The Talmud classifies this as ervah (literally ‘nakedness’) and forbids a man to pray or study Torah in the presence of a woman who is singing.

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New Composition

As with the role of women, the subject of new composition is a debatable one, with

arguments for both the introduction of new popular music and the preservation of

traditional music. Either way, it is important to acknowledge that there is a world of

new music being written in an attempt to restore liturgical music and link

communities together.

The most renowned composer to have succeeded post-Golden Age was

Shlomo Carlebach, ‘The Singing Rabbi’. With a profound effect across Orthodox,

Masorti and Reform movements, the Carlebach phenomenon remains to this day, and

many synagogues, minyanim, and even churches and gospel choirs, draw heavily

upon his melodies. Although his tunes are beautiful, Carlebach has been criticised for

replacing traditional nusach, as the tunes are not always sensitive to the mood or

words of the text. Nevertheless, his contribution to liturgical music is undoubtedly

significant, and according to Rabbi Jonathan Rosenblatt, Carlebach ‘changed the

expectations of the prayer experience from decorous and sombre to uplifting and

ecstatic as he captivated generations’.66

The need to compose music of this intent is promoted through the organisation

Shalshelet, set up specifically for the publication and encouragement of new liturgical

material.67 The mission of Shalshelet is, ‘to enhance spirituality and build community

through the creation and dissemination of Jewish sacred music’.68 Set up in 2003,

Shalshelet runs workshops and an international composition festival, aiming to

                                                                                                               66 Rosenblatt, ‘A New Dialogue With The Divine’ 67 The word shalshelet means chain in Hebrew. Shalshelet is a non-profit organisation that is supported by a grant from the Rita Poretsky Foundation and individual donors. 68 Shalshelet website, <www.shalshelet.org> [accessed 22/02/2012]

  28  

stimulate the writing of new Jewish sacred music and support the composers.69 Over

the past nine years, Shalshelet has welcomed a broad range of compositional styles

and musicians and has received over one thousand compositions.70

Summary This chapter has demonstrated that the art of hazzanut and the role of the hazzan have

significantly changed, acting as a microcosm for the nature of mainstream Judaism as

a whole. People no longer want to be passive spectators, but instead to engage in

prayer in order to feel religiously empowered. In order to keep hazzanut alive, it is

essential to accept that the twenty-first century hazzan cannot be a performer but a

prayer enabler. There is clear evidence to show a growing awareness for the

preservation of hazzanut across the UK, however recognition of changing needs of the

communities is crucial in order to protect hazzanut from becoming lost all together.

                                                                                                               69 Shalshelet’s 4th International Festival took place December 4-5, 2010 at Congregation Ansche Chesed, New York City. 57 new compositions by 40 composers were introduced at the Festival Concert and Workshops. The next festival will be in Miami, February 2013. 70 Promotional video, ‘Shalshelet Makes a Difference’

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III

Nusach in Nottingham? A comparison of the Two Synagogues

Introduction to the Friday Night Service The Kabbalat Shabbat service is one of the most musically rich and joyful services in

the Jewish tradition. It welcomes and inaugurates the Sabbath and is followed by the

evening (Ma’ariv) service. As the ‘newest’ service,71 the full Friday night service is

comparatively short (around 45 minutes in most communities) and there are many

varying traditions regarding order and, of course, melodies. Kabbalat Shabbat

consists of seven psalms, one for each day of the week. The six working days

correspond to six Psalms (Psalms 29, and 95-99) and the Sabbath is represented by

the poem, Lecha Dodi, which has now become the hallmark of the ceremony.72 The

service is completed with Psalms 92 and 93.

The two synagogues in Nottingham hold very different Kabbalat Shabbat

services and this will be discussed in detail in the second part of the chapter. In order

to analyse these services effectively, it is important to acknowledge the traditional

form of the service and some popular melodies used. The first part of the traditional

service (psalms leading to Lecha Dodi) is sung in Adonoi Malach, with characteristic

motifs and cadences of the major sounding mode to reflect the joyfulness of

welcoming in the Shabbat. However, the Ma’ariv service that follows embodies a

                                                                                                               71 The Kabbalat Shabbat service is relatively new in comparison to the rest of our tefillot, which were established at the beginning of the second Temple (516 BCE) The service was first introduced in the middle of the sixteenth century by Jewish mystics in Tzfat (Safed, in Galilee) and did not get to European Synagogues until at least 100 years after. 72 The Psalms were selected by Rabbi Moses Cordovero, and L'cha Dodi was written by his brother-in-law, Rabbi Solomon Alkabetz, whose name is spelled out by the first letters of each stanza.

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more sober mood, changing into the nusach of Magen Avot .73 Many of the psalms

encourage participation from the congregation as the emphasis of the service

encourages the community to welcome in the Sabbath. Moshe Haschel explains the

attraction of the Friday night service:

Its recital to a very special and exhilarating 'Nusach' …arouses enthusiasm and exaltation in worshipers. It is only natural that it inspired Chazzanim and choral composers to set parts of its text to music. Thus Kabbalat Shabbat became the centre of the Friday evening service setting that special ‘shabesdig’ spirit of delight and tranquility that every Jew associates with Shabbat.74

Lecha Dodi is one of the most exhilarating of all the prayers in the service,

literally meaning ‘come my beloved’, as the congregation joins together in welcoming

the Shabbat ‘bride’ (‘likrat kallah’)75. Lecha Dodi helps congregants anticipate the

arrival of Shabbat each week as one would anticipate the arrival of an honoured guest.

The traditional setting includes nine verses, with the congregation standing and facing

the door for the final verse to welcome the arrival of Shabbat. In Ashkenazic

synagogues the verses are ordinarily chanted at elaborate length by the hazzan, and

the chorus is used as a congregational response. As a piyut, Lecha Dodi is subject to

composed melodies rather than any nusach. Consequently, there is a wealth of

melodies composed for this piyut, and participation is very accessible due to the

repetition of the verses. Traditionally, Lecha Dodi is still kept within the Adonai

Melach mode and the following two psalms herald the Magen Avot mode to prepare

the ear for the Ma’ariv. Popular examples of Friday night melodies that remain in the

correct nusach can be found in Craig Traubman’s Friday Night Live, and hazzan

                                                                                                               73 Interestingly the German Jews (and here until a generation or so ago) had a much more major-sounding evening (erev) shabbat nusah, in Adonoi Malach with again characteristic cadences. 74 Cantor Moshe Haschel, ‘Accompanying Notes by for Shabbat Shira, 11 Shevat 5772’ 75 Rabbis of the Talmud would often dress in their best white clothing and say to each other, “Lekha dodi likrat kallah”, “Let us go greet the Shabbat Queen.” The Shabbat ‘bride’ or ‘queen’ represents the female presence of G-d, and the relationship between Shabbat and the Jewish people is compared to the relationship between a bride and a groom.

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Stephen Robins’s How Does it Go guides lay readers through the Kabbalat Shabbat

Service. Carlebach compositions continue to dominate many traditional services

although some congregations will not put up with drawn out ‘la-la-lays’.76 Hazzan

Charles Davidson wrote Immunim l’Nusach Hat’fillah, which clearly shows the

modes in use for Friday night with lots of examples. This music of this service and

this psalm in particular is therefore integral to the success of service. A rousing and

recognisable melody ensures engagement with prayer, helping the internal absorption

of the words and sentiment of the poem.

Investigation

The following sections draw comparisons and highlight similarities between the two

synagogues in Nottingham and their attitude towards the Kabbalat Shabbat service.

The examples of the Nottingham Hebrew Congregation (NHC) and Nottingham

Progressive Jewish Congregation (NPJC) are not intended to give generalisations

about denominations of Judaism, as every synagogue and rabbi have their own

traditions, but give insight into the trends of many provincial communities outside

London and Manchester. Musical observations will be drawn from personal

attendance of the services,77 in addition to discussions held with Rabbi Moshe Perez,

Rabbi Tanya Sakhnovich and community members.

Time

The first major difference found is the value placed on the service as a whole.

Regardless of what music is used, the timing of the Friday night service is an

important factor that correlates to synagogue attendance. In traditional synagogues,

                                                                                                               76 Rabbi Perez. Interview with author. 7 March 2012, Shakespeare Street, Nottingham. 77 Services attended by author: NPJC on 16 March 2012 (8.30pm) and NHC on 30 March 2012 (7.05pm)

  32  

the service takes place no later than half an hour after sunset. NHC keeps strictly to

this rule, whereas NPJC provides different timings of the service to allow maximum

attendance, consequently achieving a stronger Friday night service tradition. At

NPJC, a ‘Shabbat Shirim’ takes place on the first Friday of every month at 6.30pm.

This is largely aimed at families and younger members of the congregation, who are

encouraged to bring instruments and learn melodies before having dinner together in

the synagogue. For the remaining three weeks, services are held at 8.30pm, allowing

people time to come home from work, and perhaps have dinner before hand. The

Shabbat Shirim often hosts forty or more people, whereas the later service attracts

around twenty.78 Although the synagogue council accepts that there is no optimum

time for everyone, these two options ensure that there is a service available at least

once a month at a more convenient time.

In comparison, the Orthodox synagogue usually has a small core of ten to

twenty-five dedicated members on a Friday night, whereas the Saturday morning

service attracts a minimum of seventy people each week. This huge contrast shows

the social difference between the two communities, with much greater significance

placed on the musical Friday evening service in NPJC instead of the traditional

Saturday morning in NHC.

Who takes the service?

The role of the prayer leader also differs in each community. In NHC, Rabbi Perez,

who received sufficient hazzanut training at rabbinical school, takes all the Shabbat

services (with the occasional exception of ‘Shacharit’ on the Saturday morning if

                                                                                                               78 Natalie and David Bogod. Interview with author. 2 March 2012, Nottingham

  33  

someone else capable is available).79 At NPJC, Rabbi Sakhnovich principally leads

the service, but the Rites and Practise Committee find people in the community to fill

in when Tanya is absent. Within the Progressive community there are around seven

people that are capable of taking the service.80 It is also worth noting that the

Progressive synagogue invites different people from the congregation to sing the

prestigious Kol Nidrei on Yom Kippur each year. This shows that there is interest in

sharing the role of a prayer leader figure, and members are capable, and encouraged,

to take on the musical leadership of the service.

NPJC has also formed a small and fairly informal choir, set up by Natalie and

David Bogod. The choir do not read music or attempt harmonisation (some

individuals do so of their own accord) but instead their role is to encourage singing

from everyone, and they choose to sit amongst the congregation. The nature of the

choir is therefore very different to the traditional shul chor, which can sometimes

damage the participatory element, detaching the stronger singers from the

congregation. The choir do not practise regularly throughout the year, only on the lead

up to high holy days, weddings and bat/bar mitzvahs.

Observances from Services

As anticipated, the two Friday night services differed greatly. The emphasis on music

was far greater in NPJC, despite it not being a Shabbat Shirim. The siddur (prayer

book) provided had been compiled by Rabbi Sakhnovich, which clearly laid out all

the texts in Hebrew, with English translation and Hebrew transliteration.81 This

                                                                                                               79 Interview with Rabbi Perez, op. cit. 80 Interview with Natalie and David Bogod op. cit. Natalie takes the service around 2/3 times a year. David was keen to state that although he directs the choir, he is in no way a ‘prayer leader’ but a ‘choir leader’. 81 The majority of the service was in Hebrew, with the exception of 2 blessings said in English: The Blessing of Lying Down in Peace (p.9) and Prayer for peace (p.15).

  34  

encouraged the participation of all congregants, making the service easy to follow for

all levels. A large majority of the service was sung; using tunes that were memorable

and easy to learn. Melodies were selected and initiated by Rabbi Sakhnovich, who

was leading the service. At NHC, there were only two occasions where everyone sung

together: Lecha Dodi, and a final closing piyut. The rest of the service was said

individually, with Rabbi Perez starting and ending paragraphs and congregational

responses spoken instead of sung. For this reason, the service assumed a large amount

of prior knowledge and the service was not as straightforward to follow or actively

participate in.

During prior conversations both Rabbis demonstrated a good understanding of

nusach. Rabbi Sakhnovich was very aware of the nusach she was using, however she

felt that this was not important in her community. Rabbi Perez also felt that his

congregation would not put up with hazzanut. At NPJC, The Kabbalat Shabbat

service was mainly in a minor sounding nusach, which meant that there was no

recognisable change in mood after Lecha Dodi into the ma’ariv service.

[Ex. 3: Carlebach melody used for Lecha Dodi, in Rabbi Sakhnovich’s Service, Notated by author]

This melody demonstrates the minor sounding nusach, with the additional ‘lay lay

lays’ for an optional second voice part. Rabbi Sakhnovich did use some particular

nusach motifs for some words, however she admitted this was ‘just because [she]

  35  

liked the sound’, not for any halachic reason.82 It was more difficult to recognise the

nusach used in NHC, however the individual reading of the psalms leading up to

Lecha Dodi meant that the mood was much more solemn as a result.

The order of service was one of the most surprising differences found. As

expected, Rabbi Perez followed the traditional order of service. All Progressive and

Reform synagogues will have altered versions of the service, however the service at

NPJC was much more different than anticipated. The service started with the lighting

of the candles, which was followed by a number of songs, all of which were used to

welcome in the Shabbat. These songs included, Shalom A’lechem, Yah Ribbon Olam,

Yedid Nefesh and Yom Zeh L’yisrael, all of which would usually be sung during the

Shabbat meal, or just for fun. After these songs, the service arrived at Lecha Dodi,

missing out all of the psalms. Four of the nine verses were sung (verses 1, 2, 5 and 9),

and the community stood for the final verse, as traditionally done in Orthodox

synagogues.

The way in which the Rabbis engaged with their communities during the

prayer is also interesting to compare. Rabbi Sakhnovich sat down at the front, facing

the congregation, whereas Rabbi Perez stood throughout and prayed towards the ark,

with his back to the community. This shows the importance placed on the Holy Ark in

NHC, compared to Rabbi Sakhnovich’s desire to make the service a more open

environment. In no way is this intended as a criticism of Rabbi Perez, as his

dedication and compassion towards his community is admirable, but it did create a

much more serious prayer environment, which is favourable in some communities.

The position of Rabbi Perez may have also been due to the fact that on this occasion

                                                                                                               82 Rabbi Sakhnovich. Discussion with author following the service. 16 March 2012.

  36  

the women were not separated by a michitza (a divide used when women are not

sitting on a different level).83

There were also times during the service when people were talking to one

another while Rabbi Perez was praying. This is a common problem, often within

Orthodox synagogues and particularly in the ladies’ gallery. However, this talking

immediately stopped when Lecha Dodi arrived, proving that while singing, the

congregation felt much more included and united. Although the number of people

attending was not vastly different (approximately 20 in NPJC and 11 in NHC) there

were an equal number of men and women at NPJC, whereas NHC was all men apart

from myself and one other lady. The attitudes of the small congregations were also

very different. The members at NPJC all warmly greeted each other, all actively sang

throughout the service, and chatted after the service during the Kiddush provided. At

NHC the primary purpose appeared to be the prayer, and there was less focus on the

social aspect. This may have been due to the timing of the service (as many people

would be going home for dinner), or the greater emphasis placed on the Saturday

morning service, but also could have been a result of the lack of women present!

Congregational response

A survey completed by members of both congregations is analysed in this section

(See appendix B). The survey was sent to members of both communities in March

2012.84 68 people in total completed the survey; 31 from each synagogue and 6 were

                                                                                                               83 However this is just an observation. It is important to note that Rabbi Perez feels strongly that women should not be excluded from services, finding it difficult to comprehend the laws of Kol Isha. In conversation, he recalled the time he asked Rabbi Sakhnovich to join him leading a service for holocaust memorial day - much to the surprise of Rabbi Sakhnovich and others present - as he felt she had equal right in participating in such an important service. 84 With gratitude to the consent of both Rabbis, this survey was circulated round the communities via an online web link.

  37  

a member of both.85 The first striking difference can be drawn from question 9, ‘How

easily do you find it to follow a service?’. The results show a much wider distribution

of answers in NHC, with the majority (45%) of people admitting they have a ‘fair’

understanding, and 13% falling into the lower 2 categories.86 To contrast this, NPJC

has an overwhelming 100% of people who fall into the upper three categories.87

A stark difference in response can also be found in the answers to question 18,

‘Do you think there are enough musical opportunities in your synagogue?’. NPJC,

again, held an overwhelming majority of people (61%) who selected the most positive

response (‘Yes – Plenty!’). Only one person selected this option in NHC. 36% (the

majority) of NHC stated they would like much more of a musical tradition whereas no

one selected this option in NPJC. This is also backed up by responses to question 11,

‘Do you feel that music and singing plays a big role in your services?’. 67% of people

                                                                                                               85 Regretfully, the comparisons drawn between the two synagogues will ignore these six people, as it cannot be certain which synagogue they are referring to in their answers. Their responses will still be used for other more general statistics and comments. 86 Percentages will be rounded to the nearest whole number throughout the analysis. 87 One person answered ‘other’, but stated that ‘I can lead a Friday night service but am not confident at reading from the Torah’, so has been included in this statistic.

  38  

asked from NPJC said ‘Yes’, compared to 52% at NHC. Although this statistic isn’t

too different, it is interesting to note that 8 (18%) people at NHC actively said ‘no’,

compared to only 2 people at NPJC.

Question 5 allowed participants to select any number of reasons given for

going to synagogue. The results contain very similar statistics, excluding the option

‘to sing’. In NHC only 4 people selected this, compared to the 12 people in NPJC.

This contributes to the evidence that there is a much stronger singing tradition in

NPJC. It is also interesting to note that it was the women in the communities who

mostly supported this reason. 3 of the 4 people who selected this option in NHC were

women, and out of the 12 in NPJC, 9 were women.

  39  

With regard to the Friday Night Service, reasons for not going to the

Synagogue (question 7) were very similar across both communities. Interestingly,

despite the efforts NPJC has made, 22% still said the timing was inconvenient.

Results remained constant between the two communities for answers to question 8

(‘Reasons for going to Friday Night Service’), with 5 people from each community

saying they liked to hear the tunes. Despite the Shabbat Shirim initiative and stronger

musical aspect in the NPJC, the survey showed very few members from both

congregations actively enjoyed learning new tunes. Only 1 person from NHC and 2

people from NPJC selected this option, and the division between ‘Yes’ and ‘Don’t

mind’ was equal among both.88 Question 16 asked if participants had any

understanding or awareness of hazzanut. Participants from NHC were more evenly

split in their knowledge about nusach and the traditional style of cantorial art (52%

answering positively), whereas 23 out of the 31 participants from NHJC (74%) said

they did not have any knowledge on this subject. Only one or two people from each

community were aware that there was only one hazzan in full-time employment in

England.

Questions 12-15 asked participants to answer questions on a scale from 1 to 5

(1 = strongly for, 3 = impartial, 5 = strongly against). This ensured that an extremely

                                                                                                               88 NPJC: 15 people selected Traditional, and 14 said ‘Don’t Mind’: NHC: 16 said ‘Traditional’ and 14 chose ‘Don’t Mind’.

Q.5: Reasons for going to the Synagogue (select any that apply)

NHC People (%)

NPJC People (%)

To pray 16 (22) 19 (20) To support the community 24 (32) 27 (29) To sing 4 (5) 12 (12.8) To teach your children 6 (8) 10 (11) To feel closer to other members of the congregation 17 (23) 17 (18) Because your family does 3 (4) 6 (6) Other 4 (5) 3 (3)

  40  

religious Orthodox person would select fives throughout, whereas a Progressive

member was likely to choose numbers on the lower end of the scale. The most

popular choice was 3 for the majority of the questions in both communities. The

strongest response from the Orthodox community came against the use of using

musical instruments during services (question 14) with 42% selecting number 5.

Question 15 asked if people agreed there was no longer a need for a hazzan or

individual prayer leader. The responses for this differed greatly from what I had

expected. The most popular response was in fact ‘impartial’ from members of NJPC,

and equally surprisingly, the Orthodox community showed no clear preference

towards having a hazzan, with only 11 who felt strongly about the presence of a

leader, closely followed by the 10 people who were impartial.

Summary

The survey has provided original statistics from both communities and has given a

much deeper insight to individual responses to services. The results have repeatedly

proved that there is much more of a musical motivation in NHJC and generally people

find it much easier to engage and follow a service. Although there seems to be a core

of very committed members in the Orthodox community, there are also many

members who do not feel this connection and as a result, do not attend services

regularly or actively participate. This is an extremely common issue in many

provincial communities and it would be interesting to compare this investigation with

bigger communities in London and Manchester.

An unexpected outcome of this survey was that the majority of participants

who enjoyed the musical aspect of the service were, in both communities, women.

This was particularly surprising in NHC where the women are usually separated from

  41  

the men in the gallery above. Further research into gender and age would be

extremely interesting investigations to continue. Unfortunately, only 3 people who

completed this survey fell into the 12-30 age bracket. The majority of participants

(49%) fell into the 51-70 age group. Although this has prevented further analysis into

the response to music from different ages, the lack of willingness to complete the

survey is interesting in itself as it could either be demonstrative of a detachment of

young people from the community, or a lack of younger members present in the

community.89

                                                                                                               89 Another potential reason for this lack of response from younger members could be because they are members of the community through their parents, which means the parents may have received the email and not passed it on. With encouragement, it may have been possible to get some more responses from these age categories, however this was not the purpose of the investigation.

  42  

IV

Conclusion

The path of hazzanut has by no means been an easy journey. From the beginnings as

the caretaker of the community, to the celebrated singer in the golden age, to the

devastations of the Shoah, how do the hazzan and hazzanut fit into today’s society?

This paper has shown that although the traditional role of the hazzan may be

changing, music within the synagogue still remains important as it emphasises the

communal aspect of the service. The hazzan may no longer be required as a prayer

leader, but instead, an enabler of prayer.

Judaism is a religion based around traditions and customs. The tradition to

stamp on a glass at a wedding, the tradition of the youngest child to sing Manish-

Tanah (the Four Questions) at Passover, and the tradition to cover the mirrors in a

house of mourning have all become customs in their own right. Although the reasons

for doing so may not be fully understood, they are nevertheless accepted and followed

in the lives of many Jews, whether Orthodox or Reform, Israeli or English, religious

or secular. Yet, the musical tradition of hazzanut, for many, is quickly fading, despite

it being one of the oldest.

It is important to ask, why do Jews go to the synagogue, how do they pray,

and what makes the religious experience empowering? As demonstrated by the results

from Nottingham, music was the recurring answer for many of the members of the

Progressive synagogue. By bringing music into the 21st century, Reform and

Progressive communities are able to confidently sing together, and the musical

tradition is consequently thriving. Although Orthodox Jews may argue that the

importance of Jewish prayer is placed on the relationship between the individual and

  43  

G-d, which is devalued by ‘happy-clappy’ tunes, this assumes a high level of Jewish

education, creating a form of elitism and disparity amongst Jewish people. If this is

the case, then surely the music is not for those who already feel spiritually close to G-

d, but for those who don’t? Music should thus become a facilitator for those people

who do not feel the intimate connection, who instead gain their sense of religious

empowerment through song and congregational unity.

It is important to remember that hazzanut embraces all aspects of traditional

synagogue music, which requires an active response from the congregation. It can be

argued that although the tunes and set up are very different in Reform synagogues, the

role of music, and the empowering effect it has on the community, is in fact much

more true to the tradition.

In 2012, rabbis, hazzans, synagogue councils, and communities must ask

themselves the extent to which the musical tradition encourages or hinders religious

connection? For many, the knowledge that what they are doing has been practised for

hundreds of years is enough to continue preserving the tradition. But for others,

hazzanut is no longer relevant, and must consequently be developed in some way to

ensure that spiritual empowerment and connection to religious practice is not all

together lost.

  44  

Appendix A

  45  

10/04/2012 17:05Survey provided by

Page 1 of 4http://freeonlinesurveys.com/app/dumbsurvey.asp?lastPage=1

Page 1 / 1

Thank you for participating in my dissertation survey. All results are anonymous and will be extremely useful for my research.Best wishes, Rebecca.

*1 Which Synagogue are you a member of?

*2 How often do you go to the Synagogue?Every day On Shabbat Once a month Only on festivals/special occasions Only on high holy days Only for social events Other (Please Specify):

*3 Please select the correct genderMale Female

*4 Please select the appropriate age bracket

*5 What are your main reasons for going to the synagogue? (Select any that apply)To pray To support the community

Report Abuse

Appendix  B  

  46  

10/04/2012 17:05Survey provided by

Page 2 of 4http://freeonlinesurveys.com/app/dumbsurvey.asp?lastPage=1

To sing To teach your children To feel closer to other members of the congregation Because your family does

Other (Please Specify):

*6 Do you regularly (once a month or more) attend the Friday Night service at your synagogue?Yes No

7 If no to question 4, why?The timing is inconvenient I prefer to go on Saturdays because it is my family’s tradition to do so I prefer to go on Saturdays because it is a more convenient time I didn’t realise there was one I don’t want to

Other (Please Specify):

8 If yes to question 4, why?I feel it is the right thing to do to welcome in the Shabbat I have always been brought up to do so It is an accessible and easy service to follow I enjoy hearing/singing the tunes I enjoy the musical and participatory aspect of the Shabbat Shirim (only applicable for Progressive Synagogue)

Other (Please Specify):

*9 How easily do you find it to follow a service?Can barely follow at all I can just about understand what is going on but will not sing/speak aloud I have a fair understanding of the service and am happy to sing with melodies I recognise I am confident at following a service and actively participate in the congregational responses as well as singing the more

familiar prayers I am able to lead a service (and actively participate when I am not) Other (Please Specify):

*10 Do you prefer singing traditional melodies that you are familiar with or are you happy to learn new tunes?Traditional New Don't mind

*11 Do you feel that music and singing plays a big role in your services? Please also comment on any festivals/tunes/prayers that

you feel are particularly musically inspiring.Yes

  47  

10/04/2012 17:05Survey provided by

Page 3 of 4http://freeonlinesurveys.com/app/dumbsurvey.asp?lastPage=1

No

Comments:

*12 On a scale of 1-5 (1= strongly for, 3= impartial, 5 = strongly against), What are your views about singing/praying in English?

*13 On a scale of 1-5 (1= strongly for, 3= impartial, 5 = strongly against), What are your views about the use of

catchy/contemporary melodies for prayer?

*14 On a scale of 1-5 (1= strongly for, 3= impartial, 5 = strongly against), What are your views about the use of instruments in a

service?

*15 On a scale of 1-5 (1= strongly for, 3= impartial, 5 = strongly against), Should everyone in the community have the chance to

suggest the tune for a prayer without the need specific training (i.e. there is no need for an individual prayer leader or hazzan)

*16 Do you have any understanding of hazzanut (the importance and existence of nusach, the role of the traditional hazzan, and

the style of cantorial art and extensive embellishment that was traditionally used)?Yes No Other (Please Specify):

*17 Were you aware that in England there is currently only one hazzan in full-time employment?

*18 Do you think there are enough musical opportunities offered in your synagogue?Yes – plenty! There are some but I would like there to be more opportunities to learn melodies used in service I would like there to be more opportunities for non-religious singing No, I would like there to be much more of a musical tradition I am not interested in the musical aspect of Judaism so this does not really affect me I am not aware of any musical opportunities Other (Please Specify):

19 Any other comments about the way in which music affects your religious experience?

  48  

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