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THE ROLE OF STUDENTS
IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
by
AL CERT NTSHENGEDZEN11 MATODZI
A mini-dissertation
submitted as partiall fuliffiment of the requirements for
the degree
MAGISTER EDUCATIRDNIS
in
CURRICULUM STUDIES
in the
FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND NURSING
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
SUPERVISOR: PROIF. H. Co GEYSER
OCTO ER 11998
OPSOMMING
Die doel met hierdie navorsing is om studente se sieningswyses oor hul rolle in
kurrikulumontwikkeling te bepaal. Die kontemporere uitdaging in terme van
kurrikulumontwikkeling, is die versoening van die Onderwysdepartment op alle vlakke,
onderwyskollegebestuur, dosente, asook ander opvoedkundige instansies aan die een kant, en
die tans gewilde mening dat studente aktiewe deelnemers in kurrikulumontwikkeling is .
Daar is behoefte aan 'n versoening van die oortuiging dat kurrikulumontwikkeling beperk word
tot kundiges en professionele persone aan die een kant en die tans gewilde mening dat studente
aktiewe deelnemers in kurrikulumontwikkeling is.
Sedertdien blyk kurrikulumontwikkeling n verskynsel te wees gedoen vir studente in plaas van
saam met hulle gedoen te wees. Dit lei tot die gevolgtrekking dat studente die nodige
vaardighede en kennis moet openbaar om sodoende n effektiewe en betekenisvolle bydrae te
lewer tot kurrikulumontwikkeling.
Tydens n ondersoek na die rol van studente tydens kurrikulumontwikkeling, blyk demokrasie
tydens die onderrig- en leerproses in die klaskamer 'n kritiese vraag te wees. Ten einde die
onderrigleersituasie te maksimaliseer moet studente, en ander deelnemers ingelig te word ten
opsigte van kurrikulumontwikkeling by onderwyskolleges.
Studente behoort nie slegs toeskouers te wees met betrekking tot kurrikulumontwikkeling nie,
maar moet aktiewe deelnemers wees in die ontwikkelingsproses van ' n relevante kurrikulum.
Effektiewe kurrikulumontwikkeling is afhanldik van die betrokkenheid van studente eerder as om
dit te beperk tot kurrikulumkundiges, lektore en spesialiste.
Literatuuranalise is gedoen ten einde uit te vind wat die ideale posisie is betreffende deelname van
studente in die Noordelike Provinsie. Die gegewens vir die studie is versamel via fokus groep
onderhoude met studente. Die inligting word geanaliseer binne die raamwerk van die kwalitatiewe
navorsing, want die fokus van hierdie studie is op woorde, idees of menings soos voortgebring
deur studente respondente dan op numeriese waarde van sulke idees. Die raamwerk vir studente
deelname trapsgewys versyn wyse die formasie van kurrikulumkomittees, werkswinkels,
konferensies, studente rade by nasionale, provinsiale en op kollege vlakke.
Hierdie navorsing bring die volgende aan die lig: dat studente betrokke wil wees in kurrikulum
ontwikkeling en dat demokratiese kommunikasiestyle soos besprekings, seminare, konferensies,
vennootskappe, komittees en onderhoude, behoort ondersoek en gebruik to word vir die
ontwikkelling van ' n relevante en sosiaal bruikbare kurrikulum vir onderwyskolleges.
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER 1: GENERAL ORIENTATION, STATEMENT OF THE PRO
RESEARCH MET1H1ODOLOGY.
IL LEM AND
1.1 General orientation 2
1.2 Statements of the problem 3
1.3 Aims of the research 4
1.4 Research methodology 4
1.5 Clarification of terms 5
1.6 Summary 7
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.
2.1 Aim of the chapter 8
2.2.1 Curriculum 8
2.2.2 Curriculum development 10
2.3 Levels of curriculum development 13
2.4 Phases in curriculum development 16
2.4.1 Curriculum design 16
2.4.2 Curriculum dissemination 21
2.4.3 Curriculum implementation 24
2.4.4 Curriculum evaluation 27
2.5 Reasons for student involvement 30
2.6 Student participation at micro-level 33
2.7 Student participation at meso-level 34
2.8 Summary 37
CHAPTER Z: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 Aim of this chapter 38
3.2 Research paradigms 38
3.3 Reliability and validity of the study 40
3.4 Research methods 42
3.4.1 The population of the study 42
3.4.2 Focus group interviews 43
3.4.3 Sampling 46
3.4.4 Data collection 47
3.4.5 Protocol for data analysis 48
3.4.6 Pilot interviews report 49
3.5 Data analysis 51
3.5.1 Report on the research process 51
3.5.2 Description of categories 52
3.6. Summary 75
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH OVERVIEW FINDINGS, CONCLIUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 Aim of the chapter 76
4.2 Research overview 76
4.2 Findings 89
4.3 Recommendations 92
4.4 Limitations of the study 94
4.5 Strength of the study 95
4.6 Recommendations for further study 96
4.7 Conclusion 96
BIBLIOGRAPHY 98
ADDENDUM A: List of responses 108
ADDENDUM B: Categories and sub-categories developed by an external
decoder 108
ADDENDUM C: Categories and sub-categories for the stud 109
LIST OF FIGURES:
Figure 2.1 : Phases of curriculum development 12
Figure 2.3.1 : Principles of design: A cyclical model 19
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express sincere gratitude to:
Almighty God, for his love and strength to complete this study.
My supervisor, Professor H.C. Geyser, for her positive attitude, purposeful guidance, insightful discussions, patience and encouragement.
Dr Annete Lotter, for the valuable work and guidance that she offered as an external decoder.
My parents and family for their words of encouragement and tolerance.
Mrs Ramatshimbila Takie for typing the dissertation.
All college students who participated in the interviews and friends who shared their time with me.
1
CHAPTER ONE
1 GENERAL ORIENTATION, STATEMENT OF THE PRO
LEM AND RESEARCH IC,
METHODOLOGY
1.1 GENERAL ORIENTATION
The Ministry of Education has already committed itself in creating conducive conditions for
democratic governance and instutitionl-based decision-making process in South African
educational institutions (Department of Education, 1996: 9). However, most stakeholders,
especially student-teachers are unaware and uncertain about what such changes will mean for
their institutions and themselves. This may be so in curriculum development at colleges of
education in South Africa, especially in the Northern Province.
Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 287) sums up the complexity of the situation during curriculum
development as follows: " Sometimes the designers work in harmony, and sometimes they are at
odds with each other. In fact there is competition for authority and control and for the primacy
of certain values."
It is in view of this contentious situation that the topic on student participation at colleges of
education has been chosen so that all stakeholders in teacher education can know and appreciate
the nature and extent of students' involvement in curriculum development.
The latest document on norms and standards for teacher education released by the Committee on
Teacher Education Policy (COTEP) (1998:115-119) has identified various guiding principles
that can be used to ensure that education is relevant to the modern democratic society. The
Committee also outlined a schedule of activities that they pursued in setting the norms and
standard for education and training. However, in both cases, no reference is made of the level and
extent of students' participation in curriculum development.
In its findings, the National Education Policy Investigation, to be called the NEPI throughout this
2
text, has revealed that college curriculum especially in the former homelands and independent
states offers little room -for students to manoeuvre. Students have much more in common with
high school students, than with fellow tertiary counterparts. For example, college students wear
some kind of uniform, timetables are highly compartmentalised and follow rules that restrict their
freedom of movement (KEPI, 1993: 13).
Furthermore, Jeff, Rice, Hofmeyer and Hall (19961: 4) identified students as one of the key role-
players and argue emphatically that: " ... the teacher education curricula should involve students-
teachers in shared discussion and analysis to increase their capacity for intellectual analysis and
reflection".
It is in this context that the topic on student-teachers' participation in curriculum development
in the Northern Province is undertaken. This is done so that the nature and extent of students'
involvement can be investigated.
The Northern Province comprises the former Venda independent state and two homelands
(Lebowa and Gazankulu). Of the twenty-two colleges found in this area, seven colleges of
education remain training teachers (Nieuwenhuis & Mamabolo, 1995: 6). The sample of this
study will focus in these colleges in that they are found in the various regions that constitute the
Northern Province. They are therefore more representative of colleges within the province, and
South Africa as a whole.
1.2 STATEMENTS OF THE PRO LEM
This research is an attempt to investigate how student-teachers at colleges of education perceive
their roles in curriculum development. Two main problems related to this topic are:
1.2.1 To what extent do student-teachers at colleges of education want to be involved in
curriculum development?
1.2.2 What are the possible guidelines for student-teachers' involvement in curriculum
development?
3
1.3 AIMS OF THE RESEARCH
The aims of this study are twofold and are related to the problems identified above:
1.3.1 The first aim of this study is to find out to what extent do student-teachers at colleges
of education want to be involved in curriculum development.
1.3.2 The second aim is to identify and write recommendations on how students can be involved
during curriculum development at colleges of education.
1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The problems for this study are centred on student involvement in curriculum development at
colleges of education in the Northern Province. The study is qualitative research in that the
researcher will use group interviews. The researcher will analyse responses from students and
group them into categories and sub-categories. The quality of the relationship between the
categories will be established and theory about student involvement will gradually emerge.
The research programme for the study will unfold in consecutive steps as outlined below:
STEP 1: This step entails the identification of the problem, setting aims and describing the
research methodology. This will be reported in chapter one of this dissertation.
STEP 2: A literature study will be conducted on relevant and recent literature on the role of
student-teachers in curriculum development in order to establish a theoretical framework for
students' participation in curriculum development at colleges of education. This will be reported
in chapter two of this research.
STEP 3: A literature review is done on relevant research methods in order to select an
appropriate paradigm and a suitable method for data collection will be chosen. A protocol for data
analysis will also be included in chapter three.
4
STEP 4: This step entails the collection and analysis of data. This will be reported in chapter
three.
STEP 5: Conclusions and recommendations based on the theoretical framework and the
empirical data on students' participation at colleges of education is generated. This will be
reported in chapter four.
II. 5 CLARIFICATION OF TERMS
Different scholars in curriculum studies often use similar terms to mean different things. The
following terms and concepts are therefore explained as utilised in the study. This will be done
to avoid or lessen any possibility of ambiguity that may arise.
1.5.1 CurricuRum
Kelly (1977: 78) in Carl (1995:31) defines a curriculum as a plan of action that includes
strategies for achieving desired goals or ends. In this view, a curriculum is conceived as specific
and prescriptive. It includes strategies and goals to be achieved. A curriculum is therefore a plan
which has a beginning and an end and includes means to achieve the desirable end. A curriculum
can be defined in a broader sense as "...experiences of the learner..." (Doll, 1996: 15). This view
considers even those activities outside the school if they are planned.
Duminy, et al. (1992: 26) perceive a curriculum as the curriculum-in-use, the resources, text,
people making decisions and reasons for such decisions. In this report, a curriculum is considered
as the contextual process in which policies and activities are developed and planned through
negotiations by all stakeholders. This is a preliminary definition to be discussed in depth in chapter
two of this dissertation.
5
1.5.2 Stakeholders
A stakeholder refers to a person or a group of people or any interested party or parties in a
particular issue or process (Morris, 1996: 15). In this work, this term will be used to mean all
people or bodies especially parents or community members, lecturers, rectors, the student-
teachers and the student representative councils who are partaking in curriculum development.
This term has also been used interchangeably with the term participants and role-players
referring to the same people or bodies identified above.
1.5.3 Curriculum development
Novak (1994: 234) and Print (1993: 24) define curriculum development as a way of planning
curricula to increase student learning. It is a blue print or a plan for structuring the learning
situation and coordinating the personnel, materials and equipments. However this definition
appears to be too narrow and limited to curriculum design which is just one of the phases of
curriculum development. The definition is therefore inapplicable to the present study.
Other definitions like that of Glatthorn (Orstein & Hunkins, 1993: 275) emphasize that curriculum
development focuses on the individual's self-perception and priorities as the base for curriculum
decisions. Thus, emphasis is on those persons, especially students whom the curriculum affects
which is the point of departure of this work.
However Carl (1995: 47) perceives curriculum development as an umbrella concept and an
ongoing process in which logical planning in the central point from design to evaluation. He
continued to point out that this process is characterised by several phases that are design,
dissemination, implementation and evaluation.
It is in these definitions that curriculum development will be taken to mean how the curriculum
is planned, disseminated, implemented on and evaluated as well as what student-teachers,
community members, lecturers and rectors will be doing at colleges of education. However, this
is a preliminary definition that will be discussed in detail in chapter two.
6
1.5.4 College of education
The Oxford Dictionary (1991: 510) defines the college of education as an institution for higher
education or professional training. In this research, colleges of education will refer to institutions
where teachers are being trained for a three-year diploma to teach either at primary or at
secondary schools.
However, Leurs (1991: 29) indicates that in the Republic of South Africa, colleges of education
are sometimes loosely called teacher training colleges. Teacher colleges offer a three-year diploma
comprising the study of one or more academic disciplines and professional subjects as well as
supervised teaching experience. Thus, colleges of education are not simply concerned with
teachers' vocational training, but also a post-secondary education that will contribute to their
future professional growth as in curriculum development, for example.
1.6 SUMMARY
In chapter one, a general orientation about the involvement of student-teachers is given. The
statement of the problem, aim of the study and methodology of the study were also highlighted.
In the next chapter, a review of selected relevant literature on student-teacher participation in
curriculum development is given.
7
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 AIM OF THE CHAPTER
The aim of this chapter is to undertake a literature review of recent publications on curriculum
development to identify a theoretical framework for student involvement in curriculum
development. Thus, the literature study is conducted to establish how the ideal position about
student participation must be at colleges of education.
2.2 DEFINING KEY CONCEPTS
2.2.1 Curricu ➢ om
As yet, a consensus has not been reached on the meaning of the concept curriculum. The reason
for this is that it is a very comprehensive concept and many different interpretations, meanings and
emphases have been assigned to it. The Latin origins of the word curriculum lie in the word
currere, which means 'to run'. Thus, implies a relatively fixed track or racecourse (learning
content) which must be covered (mastered) by the participants (learner) to reach the winning-post
(the learning result) (Fraser, Loubser & Van Rooy 1993: 92). Attempts to define and describe this
track has led to diverse definitions of the concept curriculum.
The word curriculum that originally referred to athletic events came to mean a course of study
or course content or subjects studied in schools, colleges and universities (Carl, 1995: 32). This
definition seems to show that a curriculum is perceived to be rigid and authoritative to give
ample room for interaction among stakeholders.
A curriculum can also be defined in more broader terms as planned learning experience of the
learner offered by the school (Carl, 1995: 31). This view suggests that the curriculum be the
whole range of compulsory and optional activities that are formally planned for students whether
8
they occur inside or outside the institution. Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 9) stated that curriculum
is " all the experiences that individuals have in a program of education which is planned in terms
of theory and research or past and present professional practice."
The view that the curriculum is always planned does not enjoy an overall support as unpredictable
learning outcomes can be achieved unintentionally or cannot be built into original planning. The
definition is significant for this research in that it has great concern for those planned curricular
activities in which student-teachers are more likely to participate. This work considers only the
planned and more formal experiences as offered by the college as the curriculum.
The unplanned and unwanted experience and outcomes are conceived in this work as non-integral
to the college curricula. The view of planned experiences as conceived in this work does not
consider the concept of a hidden curriculum. The college curriculum as understood in this work,
excludes the unintended, unknown or unpublicised results in the didactic situation.
Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 9) define curriculum as a system for dealing with people, processes
and procedures for implementing that system. This conception of the curriculum as people-,
process-and procedure-driven appears to be emphasising the role of all stakeholders in curriculum
development. Issues like: do students want to be involved in curriculum development or why do
college administrators assume greater roles in curriculum matters ; are considered as part of the
curriculum.
The curriculum is in this sense an interactive system in which all stakeholders are involved to
achieve the negotiated, accepted educational goal and objectives. This research is also focussed
on the processes and procedures for student involvement during curriculum development as
discussed in chapter three. The present work upholds similar view expressed here.
Some experts also view curriculums as a field of study. This field of study comprises its own
foundations, knowledge, its own research theory and principles as well as specialists to interpret
this knowledge. Although students are not considered as experts in curriculum studies, students
will have their main concerns regarding the relevance of the content and the appropriateness of
9
the form of college curricula. Action research opens the space for students to voice their interests,
to analyse and comment critically about their classroom experience.
The idea of the curriculum as a field of study becomes an important component of the way
curriculum is perceived in this work. Unterhalter (1991: 163) has similar view and argues that:
"...pupils should also be important partners in the research process as they work with their
teachers to co-investigate classroom reality, creating appropriate and relevant pedagogical
knowledge in the process".
From the above exposition of some definitions of the concept curriculum, a curriculum means
the planned educational experience and social interaction under the auspices of the college to
achieve the negotiated learning objectives. This definition emphasises the following issues, among
others, as the major components of the college curricula:
that the curriculum is a systematic plan
that the curriculum consists of a learning experience
that the curriculum is characterised by active and formal learner/student participation or shared
decision-making
that the curriculum consists of intended learning results.
It needs to be shown that the diverse interpretations and definitions of the curriculum given above
are the result of efforts to understand and explain the innermost nature and essential components
of curriculum development.This will be discussed below.
2.2.2 Currnicullum development
The concept curriculum development also lends itself to various interpretations. Some definitions
will be discussed in search of an applicable view or definition to this study.
Fraser, Loubser and Van Rooy (1993: 102) view curriculum development as all the processes
necessary to plan, design, implement, and evaluate a functional curriculum. Thus curriculum
development is at issue when the effectiveness of an existing curriculum is evaluated and, as a
10
result, it is revised and amended. Curriculum development is also relevant when a new curriculum
designed for new or existing circumstances, is implemented on trial basis and is evaluated and
modified before being implemented in its final form. However, this definition seems to have a low
regard for the dissemination of the curricula. Therefore, the definition cannot be utilised in this
study as it stands.
However Carl (1992: 47) is of the same view and defines a curriculum as an umbrella and ongoing
process in which orderliness and systematic planning figure strongly from design to evaluation.
He also identified various phases but has initiation as the first phase instead of planning as
identified in the above definition. Some experts say planning instead of design. He identified the
following phases: curriculum design, curriculum dissemination, curriculum implementation and
curriculum evaluation as the distinctive phases of curriculum development.
Ornstein and Hunkins (1992: 16) have similar perspectives about curriculum development, but
added a new dimension to the view that it includes various phases. They argued that the
curriculum reveals "... how the curriculum evolves or is planned... as well as what the various
people, processes and procedures are involved in constructing the curriculum". The various
phases are for the purposes for this study reduced into four; which are: curriculum design,
curriculum dissemination, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation (Fraser, Loubser
& Van Rooy, 1993: 102; Carl, 1995: 47). This study therefore is destined to find out whether
students want to be involved during these various phases of curriculum development.
For this study curriculum development is regarded as the whole process and procedures through
which the curriculum is designed, disseminated (distributed), implementated (started) and
evaluated with active involvement of the students.
The dynamic nature of the curriculum and the interrelation between the various phases, renders
curriculum development to be an open-ended process. Curriculum development is depicted in
curriculum studies as a linear process or a cyclical process or as more complicated models like
11
DESIGN DISSEMINATION
EVALUATION IMPLEMENTATION
Saylor's four step planning model or Francis Hunkin's model (Ornstein & Hunkins 1992: 16) or
Carl's model (Carl, 1995: 48). Such models are valuable in that they attempt to show the
relationship of a curriculum to various decisions, activities and processes and phases that are
generic to this research. The various phases of curriculum development can be shown as folows:
Fig. 2.1. Phases of curriculum development ( adapted from Carl, 1995: 48)
The above diagram is valuable for this study in that curriculum development is viewed as a whole
process starting from design to evaluation than as comprised of separate units. It is also quite
clear that curriculum development is a cyclical process dominated by the interrelationship
between the components of the curriculum. The phases of curriculum development are a unit and
activities that might commence during each phase can continue during the other phase. College
students, like all other stakeholders have to participate in all these phases of curriculum
development as they are professionals in the making. Therefore it remains to be seen as to whether
students are ready to accept this challenge or not.
12
2.3 LEVELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
For Print (1993: 24) and Chitty (1993: 8), curriculum development is basically infusing theory and
practice. Curriculum development is a dynamic process with no beginning and no end. The reason
being that people working with the curriculum are faced with a living and changing educational
environment. The curriculum should therefore not remain the same but continuously be
reappraised by all stakeholders, including student-teachers (Walker & Soltis, 1995: 54; Boomer,
Lester, Onore & Cook, 1992: 5 ).
What then are the various levels of curriculum development? Firstly, curriculum development
occurs at the macro-level or national level where a national educational framework or standard
is set by politicians and professionals (McNeil, 1996: 112-113). Secondly, curriculum
development occurs at the meso-level where curriculum activities are undertaken by external
examiners, senior administrators, textbook publishers or professional organisations. Thirdly,
curriculum development occurs at micro-level which occurs at institutional level and includes
classroom activities (Carl, 1995: 82; Hammersky & Hargreaves, 1993; Spackman,1991: 73). The
various levels are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs.
A consideration of these levels of curriculum development is vital for this research in that it sheds
light on the nature and extent of student involvement in curriculum development at colleges of
education. Thus, the issue of concern is in which level of curriculum development would students
want to be involved?
Recent studies on curriculum development like that ofApple (1990: 148-149); Sowell (1996: 6)
and Chitty (1993: 95-97) have noted that curriculum decisions made at head offices (macro-level)
have been predominantly theoretical and speculative. Much deliberations appeared to be about
exploring connections between ideology and curriculum practice.
There is no attention given to students' classroom talk and their writing. Even where discussions
about student performance or activities are made at macro-level, such analysis has been far from
being vigorous as Hammersky and Hargreaves (1993: 7) claim. Marsh (1990: 126) in his studies
13
of large-scale curriculum projects developed centrally in countries such as United States of
America, the United Kingdom and Australia observed that a scant attention is also given to the
implementation of those programmes at the institutional level.
The main implication of this top-down curriculum development is that students have no role to
play during curriculum development at macro-level. Therefore this research attempts to discover
whether student-teachers at colleges of education want to be part of the stakeholders in
curriculum development for colleges of education in South Africa.
Curriculum development at the meso-level as done by the different subject committees and
examination boards is unsatisfactory. Hammerskey and Hargreaves (1993: 6) and Galton (1993:
85-86) observed that learners' understanding of activities and effects of examination bodies on
the school curriculum are very limited. Much work still needs to be done to expose the subject
committees' activities and the examination process that take place at the meso-level as they
impact on the classroom activities.
Curriculum development at the meso-level is therefore limited to the regional or district
educational authorities and experts. Students at colleges of education do not participate, especially
as college curricula appear to be within the competency of the national ministry of education.
Much is therefore left in the hands of the regional and district officials to determine the needs and
aspirations of the students and the society.
Curriculum development at micro-level occurs at the institutional and the classroom contexts.
Recent studies on curriculum development like that of Salmon and Woods (1991: 112) have
discovered that much is known about classroom relations in general, but very little is known
about the varying nature of curriculum practice at the micro-level or in the classroom in particular.
However most scholars seem to agree on that students involvement is likely to be greater and
intense at this level of curriculum development (Bacon,1995: 27).
It is in this context that the topic on student participation at colleges is undertaken to try to find
out the curriculum activities in which students are interested to partake at classroom level as well
14
as in institutional societal levels.
In the same line of thinking, Sowell (1992: 31) and Eggleston (1992: 81) feel that curriculum
development is more appropriate in a small scale, school-based context. Marsh (1992: 128-129)
defines school-based curriculum development as "the planning, design, implementation and
evaluation of a programme of students' learning by the education institution of which those
students are members" (Marsh, 1992: 128). Blake, et al.(1995: 120) perceive school-based
curriculum development as referring to all curriculum decisions made at educational institutions.
Thus, school-based curriculum development (SBCD) denotes all decisions taken by all
stakeholders, including students, within an individual school or by a group of schools within a
given area or context, the Northern Province, for example. The term school-based curriculum
development appears to limit curriculum development to school contexts. Therefore the term or
phrase institution-based curriculum development has been used instead to refer to all curriculum
activities that are locally developed be it in the school, college or any other educational institution
where the curriculum is developed with active participation by the learners or students. This point
of view excludes all other curriculum activities at whatever level they occur and by whosoever,
which are taken in the interest of a college or group of colleges of education.
The conception of institution-based curriculum development is significant to this research in that,
amongst other considerations, first, it emphasizes shared decision-making, planning, designing and
implementation of the curriculum between students and teachers. To realise this, this research
purports to discover whether student-teachers want to be involved in those curriculum activities.
Secondly, institution-based curriculum development implies some considerations of what actually
happens to the persons involved, like attitudinal changes. It would also imply that student
participation decreases as one moves from the micro-level moving up the macro-level. This
research is likely to discover a definite pattern of values, norms, procedures and roles of the
student-teachers during curriculum development at their respective colleges of education.
From the above exposition of the concept of curriculum development, it has become quite
observable that student participation is more likely to take place at the grassroots level where the
15
curriculum is consumed by the relevant stakeholders. However, the nature and extent of their
involvement depend on the various phases of development which are briefly discussed below.
2.4 PHASES 11 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
As already mentioned in paragraph 2.2.2 above, curriculum development is understood in this
study as an umbrella and continuing process in which structure and systematic planning pervade
imminently from design to evaluation. Curriculum development comprises four phases, namely:
those of curriculum design, curriculum dissemination, curriculum implementation and curriculum
evaluation. These phases are significant for this research in that it purports to investigate about
whether students want to be involved in these various phases of curriculum development.
2.4.1 Curriculum design
Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 23) define curriculum design as the arrangement of the elements of
a curriculum into a substantiated entity. Thus, it involves the actual arrangement of the parts of
the curriculum plan. McNeil (1995: 183) used the term organisation for 'design' and describes
it as " the sequencing, ordering and integrating of learning opportunities so that learning outcomes
are achieved". The parts sometimes called components or elements or principles are usually
inclusive of (a) aims, goals and objectives, (b) subject matter (c) learning experiences and (d)
evaluation (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993: 232; Carl, 1995: 97).
In this dissertation, the researcher conceives of curriculum design as deliberating on the
components in the curriculum that are to receive particular attention. Thus, the whole process
whereby these components are being constructed is called curriculum design. In this study the
researcher will concentrate on the principles which are common in most models proposed for
curriculum development (Carl, 1995: 97; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993: 233; Marsh,1992: 79). Such
components of curriculum design are:
16
Situation analysis
Setting aims and objectives
Selection of content
Selection and organisation of learning experiences and methods and
Evaluation (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993: 233; Marsh, 1992: 79).
The significance of these principles of curriculum design lies in that they constitute an attempt
to establish a logical process for building a curriculum. These principles of design also suggest
factors that will influence the curriculum and need to be taken into account. The principles also
show that curriculum development should be planned and introduced on rational and valid basis
according to a logical process (Leurs, 1991: 218).
The curriculum process commences with the diagnosis of problems. An analysis of all the factors
within a situation needs to be done. This viewpoint regard situational analysis as a major stage
during curriculum development (Tanner & Tanner, 1995: 592; Kruger & Miller, 1988: 30). The
insights and knowledge gained through this analysis are used to formulate a wide range of
objectives that should be clear and precise. The question during this step is: what do I want to
achieve? (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993: 33). This implies that the environment must be surveyed
in respect of the needs of learners and those of the community. The data gathered should then
serve as the base for identifying the aims, goals and objectives suitable for the interests of the
students and the whole community as such.
The next step comprises the content and its organisation, which embraces knowledge, skills,
attitude and values to be learnt. Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 233) feel that the determination of
content is followed by deciding instructional strategies, resources and activities.
The next step which follows, is learning experience, in which teachers appropriate the learning
content in terms of teaching methods and learning activities (Sekeleko,1997: 59). Emphasis is
laid on meaningful learning experiences/ activities through which the content can be presented.
It is in this context that Marsh (1992: 36) maintains that the students have the right to be provided
with an educational environment that is comfortable and conducive for learning. The students and
17
teachers have to collaborate to the effect of negotiating on the content.
The other step is evaluation which refers to the process of determining the extent to which the
aims and assumptions of the curriculum have actually been achieved. In particular, evaluation
reflects upon and provides value judgement concerning the quality and the effectiveness of the
didactic activities or a lesson/lecture (Vermeulen,1997: 17).
There are various forms of evaluation. Formative evaluation determines the effectiveness of the
didactic activity or lecture as they are developing it (formative evaluation or process evaluation).
The main aim is to diagnose shortcomings in the actualisation of the didactic activities with a
view of remediation, adjustment and improvement. Summative evaluation, or product evaluation
takes place at the end of the lecture or process of teaching and learning to detect whether the
desirable outcomes have been achieved ( Kruger & Muller, 1988: 144; Jackson, 1992: 110; Pratt,
1994: 108).
Vermeulen (1997: 17-18) indicates that as a component of curriculum design, evaluation
performs various functions. It supplies feedback on individual learner's learning and learning
gains. It diagnoses the nature and extent of possible teaching and learning problems. It also
indicates weaknesses and strengths in the didactic abilities of both learner and teacher.
These functions are vital for this study in that they show that evaluation can also be performed
by students and lecturers together. Students are to participate actively during the evaluation
process. The principles of design described above are perceived in various ways. The different
principles of design are sometimes viewed as a linear process (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993: 267-
268 cited Tyler's model and Taba's model as well as Saylor and Alexander Model: Planning
Process).
The linear model of curriculum design is inapplicable for the study in that it shows the curriculum
design process as linear with a definite starting point and a definite end point. The implication of
this view is that curriculum design has to follow a specific pathway from making decisions on the
objectives, to be followed by decisions on content, experiences and evaluation in that particular
18
SELECTION OF METHOD
LECTION OF LEARNING OPPORTUNITY
order. Hence there is no relationship amongst the various principles except that one is the pre-
conditions for the other. At times they depict the principles of curriculum design as cyclical
(Marsh, 1992: 108; Carl, 1992: 48) as depicted in the following diagram:
' Fig. 2.3.1. Principles of Curriculum design ( adapted from Carl, 1995: 85-127)
19
For this work, the cyclical model is chosen as it depicts the interactive dimension and progression
of the various phases of curriculum development. This suggests that students participation during
curriculum design cannot be reduced to a particular principle but is holistic in nature. Hence
curriculum development is depicted as a continuos process starting from situational analysis to
evaluation.
However, these principles of the curriculum design appear to be an over-implication of the
process as one cannot strictly move from one step to another as suggested by Wheeler (1983:
31). These principles are rather independent but interrelated and interactive. Each principle is a
logical development from a preceding one and each principle eventually affect the other one.
Curriculum design is therefore a dynamic process and the principles need to be changed, redefined
or altered as the new situation arises (Print, 1993: 94-95) and in terms of student needs and
aspirations as rational consumers of the curriculum (Reid, 1992: 107).
Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 233) argue that not all curriculum designs need to encompass all
the principles ( Kruger and Muller, 1988: 27, McNeil, 1995: 183). They continued to argue that
curriculum design has to provide a consistent framework of values and priorities for dealing with
operational decisions necessary for delivering the curriculum.
From the above discussion five principles are common in most curriculum design models and are
used to develop a framework for student involvement during curriculum development at colleges
of education in the northen Province. The principles of design are valuable for this research in
that:
1. During situational analysis, the designer has to establish the needs of the students. It appears
from the discussion above that students are not active participants. Students' needs are identified
through observation by the educators both inside or outside the learning environment. Students
are therefore passive determinants of their needs and interest during curriculum design. It is in this
context that Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 269) argue that students need to take inputs into the
curriculum as for their demographic, cultural, psychological or developmental needs.
20
The formulation of aims and objectives is taken in terms of the students' needs identified to
ensure that what they require is met. As in the case with needs analysis, students inputs during the
formulation of aims and objectives appears to be absent. Lecturers design their lectures in terms
of the demands of the department or the college syllabi. Thus, despite the need for students to
participate directly during decision-making about aims and objectives (Leurs, 1997: 220), students
are not involved during curriculum design.
The selection and organisation of the content are influenced by the maturity of the learners,
their academic achievements and their interests. Similarly student are not involved in deciding
about the content. This challenges the students at colleges to partake in decision-making
processes through what Haselgrove (1994: 36) calls ' curriculum negotiation'.
In organising learning experiences or choosing the methods, the particular interests of the
students need to be considered (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993: 269). The question arises about how
does the curriculum caters for such needs without the students voices being heard or without the
students influencing decisions on the choice of teaching or learning strategies ? It has also
become observable that students are not involved and even not consulted when deciding about
this principle of design. It became necessary for the present researcher to try to find out whether
students want to be involved.
Lastly evaluation procedures need to be decided by the students and teachers. However this
seems not to be the case in South African colleges of education. Evaluation is still examination
focussed and emphasis is on rote learning than on the learners themselves. There is a need for
students to participate in decision-making about the evaluation process. This brings us to a
discussion about the second phase of curriculum development, which is curriculum dissemination.
2A.2 Curricullum dissemination
Marsh (1992: 180) define dissemination as a process through which curriculum programmes,
ideas and practices are transmitted from where they have been generated to places where they are
to be used. Such a process is planned as contrasted with diffusion which is the unplanned
21
transmission of curriculum programmes from the centre of production to the
places of implementation.
Carl (1995: 49) conceives curriculum dissemination as that phase in curriculum development
during which the curriculum consumers are prepared for the intended implementation and
information is disseminated. This is done through the distribution or publication of information,
ideas and actions, in-service training, seminars, and many other ways to prepare all those involved
and to inform them of the proposed curriculum.
In this research, dissemination will mean communicating and transmitting curriculum packages
and practices from the national and provincial level or from educational authorities to the college
or from the college to the classroom.
According to the Human Science Research Council Report of the Working Committee for
Curriculum Development (1981: 112), it seems as if curriculum dissemination is a key activity
during curriculum development. As a key activity it is a vital strategy for implementation renewal.
Effective dissemination is vital for effective implementation of a curriculum and the
institutionalisation of it into the curriculum practice.
Carl (1995: 146-147) indicates that curriculum dissemination may take various forms like power
strategy and /or influencing strategy. A power strategy often comes from the macro-level. Schools
and teachers have little or no control over decision-making process. As a result of his/her
involvement, the teacher may be characterised by passivity. The researcher disregard this strategy
in this study because the curriculum is disseminated from the national education office to the
college as a finished product. Undoubtedly students are not assuming any role during the
distribution of curriculum package and materials from the centre to the point where they are
consumed or received by the consumers.
An influencing strategy seeks to make the curriculum more acceptable to all those involved, on
one hand with the help of subtle persuasion, on the other by manipulation. Involvement in this
context often comprises leadership, decision-making and active participation in the process. An
22
influencing strategy of curriculum dissemination befits the present study in that it allows for active
participants by all stakeholders , including students. Hence it suitable for operationalisation at the
micro-level or within the college or classroom contexts. The dissemination of materials, ideas and
information must make informed decision-making in educational institutions possible (Carl, 1995:
146).
Bayona (1995: 60-61) maintains that the procedures for dissemination are also vital for later
successful implementation. He went further to categorise dissemination procedures into traditional
and modern procedures. Traditional dissemination procedures comprise: the distribution of syllabi,
drawing up and publishing manuals, holding courses, producing, textbooks, presenting papers
and inspection. These procedures usually take place at the macro-level and are not relevant for
this study as students cannot be involved during these procedure.
A more modem procedure for dissemination is found in the role which teachers play in
dissemination as active participants through discussions, joint participation in projects, dealing
with media and working groups. This procedure is suitable for this study in that it emphasises
active participation by the relevant stakeholders and it occurs at the micro-level where students
are likely to be accommodated during curriculum development.
A critical factor in successful curriculum development and change is the level of preparedness for
such a change by those involved. The disseminated information may be received in various
divergent manners and the designers should consider this in planning their dissemination
strategies. There are various causes and factors that often lead to resistance to curriculum
implementation that needs to be taken into account during the dissemination phase. The following
are few of them, namely, is fear of unknown and new, lack of knowledge, insufficient support by
education leaders, indistinct and faulty dissemination and ambiguity (Bird, 1996: 57).
Thus, curriculum dissemination has to ensure that the needs of stakeholders, student-teachers
included, are articulated and they should be opportunities for participation by interested parties
that may lead to a positive acceptance and support for the envisaged curriculum.
23
Thus student-teachers at colleges of education can provide information on individual and group
basis even through informal conversations and the use of surveys (Marsh, 1992: 52; Carl, 1995:
140). It is in this context that Bayona (1995: 61) concluded that effective dissemination cannot
be a one-way system where the outside authorities prescribe and impose a complete curriculum.
It must be an interactive process in which outside organisations, outside persons as well as the
eventual consumers are involved and work together as a team.
Carl (1995:158) believes changes in the curriculum in South African education institutions occur
without effective dissemination to schools and to all interested parties. He continued to argue that
all stakeholders must be involved and efficiently prepared. Thus, student-teachers like others
stakeholders must be involved in curriculum dissemination through active participation in
discussions, joint participation projects, and active working groups, for instance (Bird, 1996:58,
1995:7; Carl, 1995: 149).
Once, the curriculum has been designed and disseminated, it becomes a reality when teachers
implement it with real students in the real classroom environment.
2.4.3 Curriculum implementation
The term implementation refers to the actual use of a curriculum, that is what it consists of in real
practice (Marsh, 1992: 180). Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 297) are of the same idea, and defines
it as the logical step that attempts to change individuals' knowledge, actions and attitude once the
program has been developed and piloted.
In this dissertation, curriculum implementation refers to a dynamic process of putting plans into
practice with the involvement of all stakeholders concerned and whether they are also prepared
to associate themselves with it, which is the focus of this study. The researcher has focussed this
study on how the curriculum is enacted and experienced by students rather than on how a
curriculum is merely implemented.
Carl (1995:169) argue that there are different levels at which curriculum implementation occurs:
24
the macro-implementation level and the micro-implementation level. Macro-implementation is the
application of policy and curriculum initiatives at national level by curriculum authorities. It
therefore comprises a broad curriculum designed at national level and distributed and applied all
over the country. Students are therefore not playing any role at this level of curriculum
implementation. It needs to be seen whether students are conscious of their role at this level of
implementation.
This level of curriculum implementation cannot be discussed any further as it appears to be
authoritative, prescriptive and is limited to curriculum experts and the national ministry of
education.
Carl (1995: 169) cited Jordaan (1989: 393) defines micro-implementation as the process during
which local decisions are taken. He continued to show that it leads to application in practice and
the eventual institutionalization of it. Teacher participation and initiative are high at this level. The
micro-level is therefore that level at which the so-called curriculum consumer applies the
curriculum. Micro-implementation gives educators opportunities for exercising their creative flair
and implement individual versions of a curriculum, what Marsh (1992: 181) refers to as adaptation
or process orientation.
In terms of student involvement, the role of students is virtually absent as the implementation of
the college curriculum is based on the demands of the syllabi (Mukhavhuli, 1989: 129). Therefore
students cannot interpret and utilise the college curricula to suite their own needs and aspirations.
The implication for micro-implementation is that the college curricula are just for adoption.
Adoption of a curriculum refers to someone's intention to use the curriculum whether the
curriculum has been implemented or not (Marsh, 1992: 181). The college curriculum is just
accepted by both the lecturers and students in the manner and prescribed form of the national
ministry of education. Thus, the role of students during curriculum implementation at colleges
is limited to that of adoption; which is characterised by passivity and irrelevancy.
The significance of the micro-level for this research is that it represents an area where the
25
curriculum is implemented, namely, the classroom, where students like teachers are the main
urgent of curriculum implementation. It is in view of this state of affair that the research is done
to find out whether students want to be participants during curriculum implementation at colleges
of education in the Northern Province.
Troyna (1993: 1991) argues that people are afraid of change. Curriculum implementation can be
limited by the daily routine problems on the teacher. Some teachers feel that they are
professionally on their own and therefore cannot interact with other stakeholders. To address
such problems, curriculum implementation has to be incremental and in small gradual steps
(Ornstein & Hunkins,1993: 1993). Curriculums implemented in gradual steps are likely to
accommodate students' involvement. Both students and teachers will learn to work together
experientially. This will encourage openness, trust and give feedback so that participants realise
that their contributions are appreciated and their talents are considered worthwhile (Beane, 1990:
17; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993: 300).
Marsh (1992: 183) emphasises the need for time to experiment and for attitude to change. Thus,
during the initial stages of involving students in curriculum implementation, students should be
offered enough time, especially for pilot-testing and contacts (Walker & Soltis, 1992: 72 ). Carl
(1995: 170) refers to the initial stage as phase one of the implementation strategy which include
the creation of a satisfactorily orientating environment (introduction of change and preparation
of consumers), and is actually a part of dissemination, but will be continued on an ongoing basis
during implementation.
Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 300-301) argue that communication among all stakeholders is a key
factor to successful curriculum implementation. They define communication as the transmission
of facts, ideas, values, feelings and attitudes from one individual or group to another.
Communication is therefore a two-way process. Its significance lies in that it ensures that the
message sent is accurate or of high quality. To ensure that communication system is
comprehensive and avenues are in place, curriculum developers should understand both informal
and formal channels. Thus, the involvement or contributions of students during curriculum
implementation can be both formal and informal. Doll (1992: 269) maintains communication can
26
either be vertical as from the teacher to the students or lateral as well as amongst students
themselves. Communication can take various forms like memos, articles, books, bulletins,
speeches and research reports as well as face to face contacts (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993: 300-
302).
Another factor which determines effective curriculum implementation is that of a support system.
A good support system is likely to ensure effective and successful implementation. All
stakeholders must have open discussions amongst themselves. Financial support, sound human
relations, recognising the role of individuals, incentives and rewards, leadership, a collaboration
framework and sharing the burden are some support services that can facilitate the gradual
involvement of both students and teachers in implementing the curriculum (Marsh, 1992: 83).
The need for a support system to facilitates student participation during curriculum development
is therefore urgent and crucial for successful implementation.
These factors discussed in the last two paragraphs constitute what Carl (1995: 170) calls phase
two of the implementation strategy. This phase includes sufficient support networks (instruction,
communication, contact oppoturnities, ongoing discussion, meeting) and also contains elements
which should actually have taken place during dissemination.
2.4.4 Curriculum evaluation
Curriculum evaluation can be defined as a cluster of processes that people do to gather data that
will enable them to decide whether to accept, change or eliminate a curriculum or some aspect
of it (Ornstein & Hunkins,1993: 32). Similarly, Marsh (1992: 186) defines it as 'a process of
ensuring maximum congruency between the written, taught and the tested curricula'
Duminy, et al. (1992: 4) and Costa and Liebmann (1997: 46) define evaluation as the analysis
and interpretation of information to find out whether the objectives have been met. However this
conception of the evaluation is too narrow for this work because it focuses on the critical
assessment of the components of the curriculum as they relate to students.
27
To clarify the use of this term in this work, evaluation is used in this research to mean qualitative
judgement about the curriculum to determine its effectiveness and success. Curriculum evaluation
therefore embraces investigations into and decisions regarding the efficient functioning of all the
components of the curriculum individually, as well as the combined impact of all the components
on the didactic activities. Thus an empirical basis for decisions regarding changing, adjustment or
replacing the curriculum is established. Because this type of evaluation is carried out on a
continuous basis, we speak of process evaluation.
Although this study does not over emphasise the importance of evaluation, there is a demand that
the results of curriculum activities be identified and made public to all stakeholders. Students as
consumers of the curriculum want evidence as to the effectiveness of the programs. Moreover,
the demand for knowing what is happening at every level of the education system: classroom
level, institutional level and other educational level are very high. In addition there is also a need
for comparison with other schools or regions.
In these demands for making colleges accountable, a great need exists for students to be involved
in the evaluation process. Students have to negotiate with the lecturers about the types of
assessment that might be used, like, self-assessment procedures (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993: 324;
Marsh,1992: 34) which lay emphasis on individual performance or the quality of the programme
(Eisner, 1994: 202).
Curriculum evaluation can take various forms. It can take place when curriculum development
is in progress to improve or modify before full implementation. They call this approach formative
evaluation (Pratt, 1993: 108; O'Hear & White, 1993: 53). It can also occur after the curriculum
has been implemented at the educational institution to find out how well it has worked. This form
of evaluation is called summative evaluation. Formative evaluation on the other hand usually rely
on informal methods and focuses on processes. Summative evaluation, on the other hand, is the
process by which we gather information through formal means like tests for students and surveys
(Henderson & Hawthorne,1995: 72-73).
However Pratt (1993: 109) argues that evaluation decisions relate to the entire curriculum and
28
all the people responsible for it, including the students have to be involved in assessing the
curriculum. They continued to argue that students can work with teachers in classrooms and in
curriculum committees to decide the worth and effectiveness of the curriculum components.
However Carl (1995: 49) argues that curriculum evaluation also points out to the effects that the
curriculum has on the learners. Thus, students should also play increasing roles in determining
what procedures of evaluation will be applied to judge their learning.
Kimbell (1994: 65-83) pointed out that evaluation should be holistic and that progression in
learning should be ensured. Students should also be given opportunities for commenting on how
well they liked and how much they learned from particular curriculum units. Students should also
participate in evaluating their peers' learning and teachers. These evaluations are sometimes
considered for merit and tenure.
Although scholars in curriculum studies make a distinction between summative and formative
evaluation, the essence of the matter is that all possible persons, including students are to be
involved. It may however be stated that curriculum developers must have knowledge of and be
competent in the various methods of evaluation and forms of evaluation as then can they make
a meaningful contribution to an accountable practice.
It is in view of such a perspective that Carl (1995: 210) argues that South Africa is faced with
great educational challenges that it is more necessary to establish a supple, accountable, workable
and feasible practice of evaluation. He continues to argue that if the evaluation processes are rigid
and defective curriculum evaluation and curriculum development will be unsatisfactory. It then
becomes questionable whether students have the necessary skills and knowledge to partake in
curriculum evaluation? Or put differently, how can we ensure that students participate
meaningfully during curriculum evaluation?
It is evident from the preceding paragraphs that curriculum development is dynamic and complex
process that will require active participation of students to ensure that their needs and interests
are met. It also needs to be indicated that like the principles of design, the various phases of
curriculum development are interrelated and each phase logically develops from the preceeding
29
one and also affect the other one. Curriculum development must include all phases. This premise
is used in this study as the starting point for studying student involvement in all phases of
curriculum development at colleges of education in the Northern Province.
2.5 REASONS FOR STUDENT INVOLVEMENT
Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 287), Doll (1992: 389), Davidoff (1993: 63) and Connelly and
Clandinin (1998: 124) think that a curriculum involves most people, both school-based and
community-based. They continued to list categories of stakeholders both within and outside the
school.
Participants within the school include teachers, principals, and students, among others (Ornstein
& Hunkins,1993: 287-289; Do11,1992: 388; Connelly & Clandinin, 1988: 125-132). Participants
outside the school range from curriculum specialists, lay citizens, boards of education, state
agencies to other groups like universities.
However, the present researcher has focussed on the role of student in developing the curriculum
at colleges of education. Doll (1992: 395) believes that the actual involvement of students in
curriculum development is minimal. Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 289) and Connelly and
Clandinin (1988: 126) are emphatic on that the students have a major stake in curriculum
development.
It is in view of the above that the present research is undertaken to investigate whether students-
teachers at colleges of education want to be involved in curriculum development. The key issues
concerning the role of the students include the following. What responsibilities should they take
during curriculum development? What special backgrounds, skills and abilities do they need?
How may the talents of the students be used in coordinated ways? However, Bridges and Kerry
(1993: 6) warn that in thinking about such issues related to the student participation, their age
should also be considered. What then are some possible reasons for student participation during
curriculum improvement. In this work the rationale for student participation are discussed in the
following paragraphs in relation to the phases of curriculum development.
30
Marsh ( 1992: 32), Connelly and Clandinin (1988: 126) and Doll (1992: 391) are of the opinion
that given opportunity for involvement, students can be active initiators and reactors than passive
recipients. In this context students can assume the role of being curriculum designers. Like all
other stakeholders students can take part in decision-making about the various principles of design
from situational analysis to evaluation.
In addition, they perceive students as clients in the educational situation. Such an assertion is
normally accepted by many without even asking the qualifications of students to be involved in
curriculum decision-making process (Hawthorne, 1992: 118-119). Their thinking, feelings and
expectations cannot be ignored in any curriculum activities. Students as part of the client system
take role of being curriculum consumers. Their role as consumers of the curriculum implies that
they can determine their needs and interests as it is being designed. Students as consumers
determine the quality of curriculum design.
Recent researches, like that of Salmon (1991: 73) indicate that student-teachers are involved with
day-to-day activities like sports, leisure groups, religious activities and have developed leadership
and communication skills. This illustrates that students have the capacity and the potential that
we can explore during curriculum development, especially during the implementation phase.
Moreover, as for constitutional provisions, the students have legal rights that cover some aspects
of schooling, curriculum activities are no exception. The constitution of the Republic of South
Africa guarantees human and other democratic rights which allow students to partake in college
activities when decisions are taken.
Other studies in curriculum issues, like Beane (1990: 167) and Spackman (1991: 55) show that
student participation in curriculum issues is likely to ensure sound relationships between teachers
and students, students and administrators and other stakeholders in the institution. The existence
of and the promotion of co-operation amongst students and lecturers as well as with other
stakeholders is a prerequisite for effective curriculum implementation both at the meso-level and
micro-level or classroom.
31
Despite these reasons for student participation, some reservations against such participation exist.
Experts in curriculum studies like Ornstein and Hunkins (1992: 317) and Marsh (1992: 32) are
of the conviction that curriculum decisions should be the responsibility of professionals like
teachers. Thus students are perceived as having no theoretical knowledge, skills and experience
necessary for a curriculum decision-making process. Others feel that public examinations may
be a limiting factor. In these contexts, students cannot take part during the various phases of
curriculum development as they are not yet professionals. Ingram and Worral (1993: 56-57) have
a contrary perception on student involvement and comment that `...once the child has displayed
an initial sign of interests in an activity, then give the child or the group room to develop the idea,
the activity often becomes more than was expected' .
To the present researcher, the varying views for and against student participation do not negate
the importance of such participation. Rather, such divergent views beg one crucial question with
regard to the various levels of curriculum development: Whether it has to be centralised with the
curriculum to be disseminated as a finished product or whether it has been decentralised (locally
developed) with active participation by all. Recent research work and recommendations
expounded in the reports of the Department of Education (1995: 91), the COTEP Document
(1997: 4) as well as the provincial Gazettes, Northern Province (199: 15-16) do not reflect
workable guidelines for student participation in a coordinated effort to curriculate purposefully
at colleges of education.
Marsh (1992: 34-25) and Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 288-289) have paid a very scant attention
to the role of students at both the classroom level and the whole school level. It is therefore the
intention of the present researcher to try to investigate the nature and extent of student
involvement in curriculum development at colleges of education in the Northern Province. Such
an investigation would assist in the formulation of some possible guidelines for such a
participation at the classroom and at institutional level as discussed in the following headings.
32
2.6 STUDENTS PARTICIPATION AT MICRO-LEVEL
Once curriculum decisions are made during the design phase and distributed during the
dissemination phase to colleges, the curriculum is ready for implementation at the classroom level.
Studies on student participation, like Doll (1992: 396) and Marsh (1992: 35) conclude that
student participation is minimal. Student participation is usually in the form of consultation, either
formally or informally. In this form of participation, students do not participate actively as
teachers employ various ways to identify needs and interests of their students.
Consultation can assume various forms; including oral questioning, filling in questionnaires,
group discussions, curriculum plans or interviews (Altrichter, Posch & Sommekh,1993: 101;
Eggleston, 1992: 84-87). Doll (1992: 396) shows that through observation of students' individual
behaviour outside the classroom and elsewhere, valuable data can be gathered for curriculum
development. The significance of such findings lies in that students tend to speak less in the
classrooms and elsewhere in the school premises. Teachers, on the other hand tend to speak
almost incessantly in the classroom.
However, consultation has its own problems. Students can become mere receivers or respondents
to questions posed by the teacher. This makes students to be passive participants. In addition, the
teacher's judgement can be based on the group of students in a different learning environment
(Glatthorn, 1994: 82). Therefore observation as a strategy for involvement is not valuable for this
in that students are passive rather than being active participants during the curriculum design
phase.
Other indications are that students can take active roles in curriculum implementation or in
certain activities of curriculum implementation. They can afford students active participation in
selected activities within their interests, experience and knowledge as well as within their ability.
The more developed or matured, the more they are likely to participate in sophisticated
curriculum activities.
33
It is for this consideration that this research focuses on the participation of student-teachers at
colleges of education. Their maturity stage and level of education are likely to ensure valuable and
efficient contributions to curriculum development (Beane,1990: 163; Wittrock,1990: 5; Ornstein
& Hunkins,1993: 16).
Observations from curriculum studies like Ingram and Worral (1993: 44) and Beane ( 1990: 148)
show that students can participate at classroom level by sharing during curriculum decision-
making. A process sometimes referred to as "negotiating", which implies that teachers and
students decide together or in partnerships to develop a learning contract which is mutually
agreeable (Collins, 199.1: 8).
Marsh (1992: 35) cited Griffis (1996) and Henderson and Hawthorne (1995: 118) discussed
several ideas on how students might become active participants in classroom decision-making and
curriculum implementation. Such suggestions are inclusive of negotiation between teachers and
students on the methods of teaching, organisational procedures, division of work and the type of
assessment activities for example. Such ideas are likely to serve as the guidelines for student
participation which is the focus of this research study.
It becomes more apparent from several publications on students' participation, Ingram and
Worrall (1993: 64) that they give scant attention to the role that students can play in the
formulation of learning objectives. Much emphasis is put on the role of students in selecting
methods and procedures as well as activities (Ornstein & Hunkins,1993: 317; Beane, 1990: 149).
Thus it can be deduced from this discussion that student participate during the curriculum design
phase seems to be absent. This leads us to next level of curriculum development which is the
meso-level.
2.7 STUDENT PARTICIPATION AT IVIESO-LEVEL
Most recent researcher studies like Marsh (1992:35) cited Marsh and Overall (1989), Novak
(1994: 243-245) indicate that the participation of students at institutional level is valuable in that
students can make consistent judgement. Students can also make reliable descriptions of
34
classroom deliberations. In addition, students can judge teachers accurately and objectively.
Student participation can occur during curriculum evaluation phase. Students must evaluate the
whole college curriculum with other stakeholders so that effectiveness of the curriculum can be
determined in terms of their needs and interests.
The Committee of Colleges of Education Rectors of South Africa, Northern Province (hereafter
referred to as (CCERSA) (1994: 1-2) in its proposal to the Minister of Education in the Northern
Transvaal Province, envisaged the establishment of college councils, in which students would be
represented by two members and the college senate, also two members. The role of these two
structures is advisory and therefore the students who are members are not involved in the day-to-
day activities of the college. It therefore becomes necessary for this research to establish the
nature and extent of the student-teachers at a college level.
Despite several committees that are prevalent in many colleges of education, all student activities
operate under the student representative council (SRC) in which all students in a particular
college campus are alleged to be presented.
In South Africa, student representative councils were established in many colleges after the 1976
student uprising. As early as 1989, the contentious nature of student representation becomes
apparent. There is a chasm between the often-voiced demands for democratically elected SRC's
and a deeper understanding of the reality of what such SRC's should be, particularly in the
context of a college (Salmon, 1991: 72). This research is therefore interested in finding out
whether the students want to be involved through SRC's in curriculum development as most of
them appear to be interested in sporting, cultural and religious activities, for example.
Studies on student participation like Hawthorne (1992: 51) and Van Zyl (1991: 113) indicate that
college curriculum offers little room to manoeuvre, especially by the students themselves. In
many ways, the ethos of a college often ensure that students have much more in common with
high school students than with fellow tertiary students. For instance, they still follow some very
highly compartmentalised timetables, they wear some kind of uniform and are expected to adhere
to rules and regulations which limits their movements beyond the college ground (Cullingford;
35
1990: 159).
Cronin (1994: 15) for instance, has observed that the student representative council (SRC) in
South African colleges of education are concerned with minor peripheral and social issues. There
is no evidence of formal student involvement in curriculum dissemination at the college level.
However, Marsh (1992: 35) noted that the SRC's at colleges have taken part in student
newspapers, lunchtime meetings and weekend meetings, but students' access to confidential
documents of the college, discipline involving teachers and other sensitive matters like curriculum
development remain contestable and need to be resolved.
As for the research problems, the literature review is valuable in that:
* it has shown that there is a need for student involvement. Thus the literature review indicates
that there is a general consensus among experts and scholars that students must be involved due
to a number of considerations as discussed in paragraph 2.4 above. Despite that, there is very little
written about student participation during curriculum development, students in South African
colleges of education are not involved in curriculum development. Students are usually involved
in social, cultural and political activities. Therefore there is an urgent need to investigate whether
they want to be involved in curriculum development and why as it will be discussed in the
following chapter.
* it has revealed that the nature and extent of students' involvement depends on the level on
which a particular element of curriculum is being dealt with. Literature review shows that student
involvement is more likely to be intense at the institutional and classroom levels than at the
macro-level and the meso-level. This can be in the form of committees, SRC, negotiations and
discussions. However, in South Africa it seems that there are no procedures and opportunities that
are carefully developed to involve students in curriculum development. So, there is also a lack
of a deliberateness of efforts to involve students in curriculum development at colleges of
education in the Northern Province.
36
2.8 SUMMARY
The literature review is valuable for this study in that it has indicated that there is a consensus that
students like all other role-players in curriculum development need to be involved. However the
nature, level and extent of that involvement resides in the level of development of the students,
whether students are in the first, second or third-year of teacher training. What is more important
is that student involvement is also dependent on the skills and knowledge that they possess.
In order to investigate how the student-teachers perceive their roles in curriculum development,
a suitable instrument for this research will be chosen and discussed in the next chapter. Data will
also be analysed in the next chapter.
37
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH MEIHODOLOGY AND DATA ANALYSIS
3.11 AIM OF THIS CHAPTER
The aim of this chapter is to undertake a review of relevant literature on research in order to
select a suitable research paradigm, research method and a protocol for data analysis. Then the
researcher will analyse the data to find out how students perceive their roles in curriculum
development at colleges of education.
3.2 RESEARCH PARADIGMS
Tesch (1990: 55) and Keeves (1988: 18) indicate that we can classify research strategies into two
main categories. Mouton and Marais (1990: 19) called these categories research paradigms
meaning the way shifts in basic scientific thinking occurs in research methodology. The two
research paradigms identifiable in social sciences are a qualitative research paradigm and
quantitative research paradigm. A qualitative research paradigm includes those research strategies
that do not base any information on numbers.
Qualitative research on the other hand relies on numbers as the basic source of its data. Through
qualitative research, findings for this study will not be analysed on the bases of statistical
computation but will be a qualitative one. Thus, the quantitative research relies on statistical
results represented with numbers while qualitative research method relies heavily on narrative
descriptions as it is utilised in this research for understanding the social phenomena, namely, the
involvement of students in curriculum development (Strauss & Corbin, 1996: 17-18 ).
38
Qualitative research methods will affords the present researcher with opportunities for being
flexible and more spontaneous in exploring how student-teachers perceive their roles in
curriculum development. Such data is socially significant and therefore is more qualitative in
nature than the statistically significant findings more peculiar to quantitative research paradigms
(Rudestam & Newton,1995: 31).
Strauss and Corbin (1996: 180 argue that "...qualitative research is based on the notion of
context sensitivity..." which for this research are the colleges of education characterised by the
physical and social environment that has a bearing on whether students want to be involved in
curriculum development or not. Qualitative researchers emphasise a holistic interpretation
whereby facts and values are perceived to be inextricably mixed. The research is a qualitative in
that it will consider what the students perceive to be their role during curriculum development.
The research focuses on what is socially significant than the numerical value of responses. In this
work, facts will be generalised or interpreted holistically than as separate variables or entities.
In addition, the study is qualitative in that responses will be reduced into categories. The principle
here is to present an accurate description of what has been said. This does not necessarily mean
that all data that have been given during interviews will be reported.
The study is also of qualitative paradigm in that the researcher will also intersperse his
interpretative comments in and around the descriptive passages or quotations from interview
responses. The researcher will weave the descriptions about curriculum development as described
in chapter two with student responses into a description about student involvement in curriculum
development at colleges of education in the Northern Province.
Lastly, this study is qualitative research because it attempts to uncover the nature of students'
experience with curriculum development at colleges of which very little is yet known. As Gerber,
Williams and Billmann (1995: 283) noted "... qualitative method uncovers intricate details about
a phenomenon to be studied ..."
In view of the above considerations, this research relies much on qualitative research
39
methodologies than quantitative ones which leads us to look at how the problems of reliability
and validity will be addressed in this study.
3.3 MELIA ,ITY AND VALIDITY OF THE STUDY
The issues of reliability and validity are inherent methodological problems in qualitative research
for as Rudestam and Newton (1992) put it, " one cannot separate the investigator from the object
of inquiry " (1992: 31). Therefore this study does not lean on the notion of objectivity in studying
a human phenomenon as often happens in experimental and quasi-experimental studies of
quantitative design (Kicheloe, 1991: 142).
Reliability refers to the repetition of same study under similar situations so that they can reach
similar conclusions (Rudestam & Newton, 1992: 38). In this research, the problem of reliability,
is likely to be addressed by taking the transcription from the tape to the members of the group of
students interviewed. The researcher will request members of the group interviewed to read the
transcripts carefully and to sign it if it is correct. The researcher will request the interviewees to
correct the script or edit as needed.
In addition, the researcher will also give the transcripts and the protocol to the external decoder
whose observations and/or categorisation of the data will be collaborated with those of the
researcher. This is likely to increases the reliability of the observations from the interviews
consulted. Reliability therefore, means consistency of the observations (Stanfeld, 1993: 71 ;
Kicheloe, 1991: 127).
The issue of validity as defined by Stanfeld (1993:69) "...addresses itself to the truth of an
assertion that they make about something in the empirical world"(Stanfeld 1993: 69). It was felt
that to obtain a degree of greater truthfulness, the respondents remain anonymous. Mouton and
Marais (1991: 86-88) argued that in other instances validity demands knowing how the
respondents interpret questions. In this research, pilot interviews will be conducted, with the
resultant reformulation of an interview schedule as discussed paragraph 3.3.3 below.
40
The reformulation of the interview questions increased the validity of the group interviews as the
instrument for data collection. Terms and concepts like "development" which was beyond the
comprehension of the students were replaced. In its place, the researcher utilised the term
`improvement'. The simplification of the terminology which they conceive as difficult for students
increased the validity of the group interviews as the research tool.
Gay (1992: 155-160) and also Marshall and Rossman (1994: 144) feel we can divide validity into
two types: external validity and internal validity. External validity relates to the extent of the
applicability of research findings to other contexts. That is, to what extent do students' perception
in the four colleges of education reflect the'perception of other students in the Northern Province
in particular and in South Africa in general? This problem is likely to be addressed in this study
by verifying the research through recent research findings.
All the participants are in their final year doing either Primary Teachers Diploma or Secondary
Diploma at colleges of education. This will give room for the generalisation of the research data
to other colleges especially in the broad area of divergent group interests found in the Northern
Province and South Africa as a whole.
The other problem is that of internal validity which refers to the consistency of the effect of the
interview questions. This means that the interview questions must be able to measure what they
are intended to measure. Interview questions must be able to achieve the purposes they are meant
for. The issue of internal validity is vital for this research because without it, generalisation to the
entire student population at colleges would be impossible. To ensure internal validity, the
researcher asked similar questions during the various interviews. Where the situation demanded,
the researcher repeated the research questions in similar format, and made follow-ups on certain
ideas to ensure content validation (Marshall & Rossman,1994: 145).
In addition, internal validity is also ensured by narrowing down the problem for this study into
a workable size as it is impossible to cover all aspects of a problem under scrutiny. In this work,
the problem has been reduced into two research sub-problems as discussed paragraph 1.2.
41
The present researcher has also used a methodological criterion for data interpretation commonly
referred to as empirical validity (Mouton & Marais 1991:115) by which the researcher reaches
conclusions logically based on collected data and literature check as reported in chapter four of
this research. Conclusions and findings will be reached through inference and deductive methods.
3.4 RESEARCH METHODS
Strauss and Corbin (1996: 18) maintain that qualitative research demands certain requisite skills
which are " to step back and critically analyse situations, to recognise and avoid bias, to obtain
valid and reliable data, and think abstractly...".
The choice on qualitative research for this study was due to a reflection on the nature of the
problem, which is the role of student-teachers in curriculum development. This research attempts
to uncover the nature of students' experience with the curriculum, of which little is yet known
as revealed in literature review in chapter two. Qualitative methods were therefore a better choice
than quantitative methods as they can give intricate details of the phenomenon under study as
already discussed in paragraph 3.2 above.
However Burgess (1993: 77-78) shows that various researchers use various research strategies
of qualitative methods for data gathering and analysis. In trying to overcome problems associated
with quantitative research, the researcher reflected on focus group interviews among others, as
qualitative research strategies for this research.
3.4.1 Population of the study
Brause and Mayher (1991: 97) states that the population for a study refers to all existing members
of a stated class. The target group or the population is all teacher-trainees in all colleges of
education in the Northern Province. The population comprises students who are doing a three-
year teaching diploma. Such students might have chosen to teach either at primary schools or at
secondary schools.
42
The population is consisted of all students who are found in the twenty-two colleges of education
in the Northern Province, including students in rationalised colleges. The population excludes
those teacher-trainees at universities and those in private teacher training institutions and through
distance education.
Although a need exists for research to be conducted in all South Africa's provinces, time and
financial constraints limited this study to the Northern Province. Hence the use of group
interviews as the research instruments for the study.
3.4.2 Focus group interviews
Scholars in research studies describe an interview as the face to face conversation of an
investigator with the subject (Marshall & Rossmann,1994: 80). Brause and Mayher (1991: 89)
also regard an interview as an encounter between two persons started by the interviewer for
obtaining research-relevant data. In this dissertation, the researcher takes an interview as a
research technique carried out with a definite purpose of gathering data by means of a spoken
word using a planned series of questions.
Gall, Borg and Gall (1996: 305-306) and Burgess (1993: 6) identified several types of interviews.
First, the structured interview in which the researcher poses a set of questions and record
responses on a standardised schedule. This research will not be based on a structured interview
since the respondents are expected to reveal their frame of reference and to give reasons. Hence
the study will not rely on the value of numbers in analysing data.
Second, the unstructured interview in which the researcher is free to modify sequence of
questions or wording of questions is chosen. During the unstructured interviews, free responses
are given in one's words, and the researcher exerts little control over his subjects. The present
researcher will allow respondents to offer responses in a flexible manner but will still leads the
respondents through follow-ups to their responses.
43
Third, there are individual interviews which are conducted in a private setting with one person at
a time. Individuals feels free and express themselves trustfully (Gall, Borg & Ga11,1996: 300). The
present researcher will not utilise individual interviews study in that they are not economically
viable in terms of resources and time.
Fourth, there is the focus group interviewing which is a technique in which groups are generally
composed of seven to ten people. However the range can vary from four to twelve members.
The participants are unfamiliar to one another and have been selected because they share certain
characteristics which are relevant to the study as would be shown in paragraphs that will follow.
In focus group interviews, the interviewer creates a permissive atmosphere by asking questions
eliciting discussions and expression of differing opinions and views. Group interviews are
conducted several times for the researcher to identify trends in the perceptions and opinions
expressed. This method assumes that an individual's attitudes and beliefs are borne out of the
society. People need to listen to other' opinions and understandings in order to form own.
Individual interviews are not chosen for this study in that if the participant had not reflected on
the topic and feels unprepared to respond, the whole interview can be impoverished.
Group interviews are chosen as the research instrument for this research in that the student-
teachers at colleges of education came from divergent geographical, demographical and cultural
background. Group interviews are socially orientated. It was felt that this will offer a good
opportunity for divergent views from heterogeneous sample population of this study. At the same
time, the target is also homogeneous as it is comprised of students doing final year at teacher-
training colleges of education. This leads to the fact that group interviews as they will be
conducted at the colleges, will study participants in a natural and real-life environment. The
respondents will not be subjected to the experimental nor the strain and artificiality of a one-on-
one interview.
In addition, students can also help one another to recall, verify or rectify items of information
(Marshall and Rossman, 1995: 81). The benefits of group interviews lie in that group interviews
have the potential for discussions to develop between the group members and the value of that
44
as a research resource. The format of the group interviews allows the interviewer the flexibility
to explore unanticipated issues as they raise in the discussion. Group interviews afforded the
present researcher to encourage students into thinking about their roles in curriculum
development.
The present researcher wants to investigate precisely the group or the subculture in colleges of
education with specific reference to curriculum development. Group interviews therefore have
some practical and organisational benefits as well. The present researcher is likely to find it easier
to gain access to the group than by contacting the individual members.
The researcher is aware of the fact that some colleges of education were under review in terms
of rationalisation; and was therefore conscious not to allow specific matters to emerge and was
therefore aware of the group dimensions in the administration of the interview schedule (Marshall
& Rossman, 1995: 80-81).
Moreover, group interviews affords the researcher with the opportunity to observe the nonverbal
behaviour which is useful for the collaboration of facts. The research topic for this study seems
sensitive for there is an apparent fierce competition among the stakeholders in curriculum
development as Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 243) noted. Therefore behaviour is vital for the
present researcher has to distinguish between the relevant and the irrelevant ideas as reported in
paragraph 3.3.7 below.
Finally, the researcher has preferred group interviewing technique in that the results have high face
validity because the method for data collection and data analysis can be easily understood as are
given in a protocol form. In addition, the findings emanating from group interviews appear
believable and results are rapidly available. The sample size of qualitative studies is increased by
interviewing more people at once than in individual interviews.
There are certain disadvantages to this method as well, like that the irrelevant issues can be raised
and that the data can be difficult to analyse. The problem of irrelevance is addressed in this study
by follow-up questions and by adherence to the research questions; with some level of flexibility
45
allowed. The problem of data analysis is likely to be addressed in this work by following the
protocol for data analysis as discussed in paragraph 3.4.5. below. A sample of the study is
discussed.
3.4.3 Sampling
A sample was drawn by using a modified form of the table of random method (Mackenzie, Powell
& Usher,1997: 108) in order to permit blind chance to decide the outcomes of the selection
process. The researcher arranged the individual students in each of the participating colleges in
a systematic order. A class list was used for this purpose.
Four groups of students in four colleges of education were eventually constituted using the very
same selection method. Each group consisted of seven to eight members, who have enrolled for
a three-year teaching diploma either for primary or secondary level. All the participants are in their
third-year of teacher training and are therefore on the verge of being professionals.
With the sample population limited to four focus group interviews, follow-up on the correctness
of viewpoints expressed was easily done. The interviewees could confirm the interview
transcripts. This increased the likelihood of high validity and reliability values of the study
(Mackenzie, Powell & Usher,1997: 106).
Although the sample consisted of a mixed gender composition, more males than females
participated in the research study. This weakness did not affect the reliability of the research
findings as all the participants have a common teacher training experience over a training-span of
three-years. Therefore, the population characteristic is generally homogeneous. The appropriate
sampling technique utilised is random sampling as already discussed above (Mackenzie, Powell
& Usher,1997: 108).
The researcher conducted four interviews. The researcher ended the interview process when the
participants start to repeat themselves, what Strauss and Corbin (1996: 178) refers to as
`saturation'.
46
3.4.4 Data collection
In collecting data for this research, the researcher followed five consecutive steps. This is done
to ensure the success of the focus group interviews as a technique for collecting empirical
qualitative data as suggested by Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996: 306).
Step one: The researcher obtained a permission to conduct interviews from the Department of
Education, Arts, Culture and Sports and from the respective colleges of education in the Northern
Province.
Step two: The interview schedule is set up well in advance. The researcher sends the interview
schedule to the interviewees two weeks in advance so that they can reflect and familiarise
themselves with the interview schedule. Hence this step will ensure that respondents are prepared
for the process. This will not affect the reliability and the validity of the study in that the study
is a qualitative research and searches for definite patterns and values of a social phenomenon that
cannot rely on the number of times a particular correct response was given. Hence follow-up
questions will be made so as to limit any possible effect on the reliability of the research
instruments due to the pre-view of the interview schedule. Instead this is also likely increased the
validity of the interview schedule as the research instrument for this study.
Step three: Dates for interviews will be confirmed and the researcher will send reminders ten
days before the actual days for interviews.
Step four: The researcher will be prompt and follow the agenda. At the beginning of each
interview the participants introduced themselves. The researcher will explain the purpose of the
interview and that the use of the tape-record as a way of ensuring that everything that will be said
is well captured. The researcher will guarantee confidentiality to all participants.
Step five: The researcher conducts the interviews until the respondents start to repeat similar
views and issues.
47
Step six: The researcher will translate each interview into a written, typed script and distribute
them to the respondents. The researcher obtained an acknowledgement of their accuracy and
permission to use the data for this study. This constitutes the reliability check for this study.
All theses steps will be followed to ensure that there would be no discrepancies between the
respondents contribution and the data collected by the researcher for this study. The focus group
data will be then be analysed and interpreted according to the protocol for data analysis
as will be discussed in sub-heading 3.4.5 below.
3.4.5 Protocol Tor data analysis
After the collection of the data, a protocol drawn based on the guidelines proposed by Strauss
and Corbin (1996: 62-69) and Weitzman and Milestone (1995: 333) is followed step-by-step to
analyse data as follows hereunder.
Step one: The researcher reads the transcripts for a holistic view. The researcher puts all the
preconceived ideas aside.
Step two: The researcher reads the transcripts for the second time. The researcher also
underlines relevant answers. This step involves a line-by-line analysis with the relevant and
irrelevant phrases or words or terms distinguished. The researcher lists relevant responses in the
language of respondents (" in vivo codes") (See Appendix A).
Step three: Labelling the phenomenon: This step entails the conceptualisation of data which
entails the researcher giving each discrete incident, ideas or event a name.
Step four: Identification of categories: This refers to grouping ideas or labels that appear to
belong together to the same phenomenon. The pattern or codes or themes developed have a
theoretical power, that is, a theory of the study gradually emerges. In this study the categories
discovered relate to the relevant responses to the interview questions as depicted in Appendix
B.
48
Step five: Description of categories
In this step, the essence is on giving a 'thick description' of each category as identified in step four
(above), and involves only 'what you see' (Strauss & Corbin, 1996: 75) than being influenced by
assumptions and experience. The density and saturation of categories directed the description of
the student responses as related to the interview questions. The theoretical analysis of each
category will be subjected to literature check-up simultaneously.
The group interviews as describe in paragraph 3.4.2 and the protocol for the study as described
in paragraph 3.4.4 above were effected during pilot study as reported in the following sub-
heading.
3.4.6 ?allot interviews report
In this study the researcher conducted two pilot studies on student-teachers at two different
colleges of education, one offering a primary teacher's diploma and another offering a secondary
teacher's diploma. Such interviews were conducted at the SRC offices in the colleges. This was
to ensure a non-threatening setting as well as a relaxed atmosphere. The pilot interviews were
very valuable to the present researcher in that they provided opportunities for some form of
orientation in interviewing techniques and skills for conducting group interviews like hearing
biases, facts supporting other interpretation, and other forms of distortions (Hopkins & Antes,
1990: 260).
The pilot interviews also afforded the researcher with opportunities for reviewing research
questions. Most of the students seemed to have a difficulty in understanding the term curriculum
development. The phrase college courses and the concept curriculum improvement will then be
used during interviews to mean curricula and curriculum development respectively.
The researcher reformulated questions and related them to the subproblems as stated in chapter
one. It was also felt that question one has to be included in the interview schedule since, it will
49
afford a chance to get to know the respondents' problems. It was also hoped that such a question
is likely to create an opportunity for easy chat and relieve the expectancy of going to be
interrogated-what is commonly referred to as an 'icebreaker' (Hopkins & Antes,1990: 263).
Eventually an interview schedule included the following three questions:
The first question: What are some problems that you experience in your colleges courses?
Despite being an ice-beaker, the researcher intended this question to establish the needs and
interest as well as the expectations of the students about the college curricula. Response to this
question will provide the areas where students feel they can participate during curriculum
development. Such data is valuable in the formulation of guidelines for student involvement during
curriculum design, curriculum dissemination, curriculum implementation and curriculum
evaluation as discussed in chapter two paragraph 2.5.
The second question is: Would you like to be involved in curriculum improvement and why?
This question has been meant to establish how students themselves give meaning to their
participation in curriculum development. To put it more clearly, the question is intended to find
out whether students want to be involved in curriculum development. As already stated in chapter
two, little has been written about student participation in curriculum affairs at colleges of
education, especially from students' perspective.
Moreover, there are sometimes conflict and fierce competition among the different stakeholders.
Some educationists like teachers, government authorities and many other stakeholders feel that
curriculum development is a professional matter while some feel that the learner is also a
legitimate and useful role-player in curriculum development (Blom,1990: 42-44; Ornstein &
Hunkins, 1993: 243; Connely & Clandinin,1988: 124).
The third question is: How would you like to be involved in improving college courses? This
question has been included in the interview schedule in order to elicit responses on how the
50
students perceive the nature and extent of their involvement in curriculum development. Students
are expected to reflect on the ways and manner of participating during curriculum development,
which leads to data analysis.
3.5 DATA ANALYSES
3.5.1 Report on the research process
The researcher followed the protocol for data collection as described in paragraph 3.4.4 above.
The researcher was prompt and followed the agenda as confirmed by the participants. The
researcher possessed extra copies of interview schedules in case a participant has lost his or hers.
The researcher was disturbed and frustrated when governmental officials were using the allotted
venue in one of the colleges for audit purposes. The process of finding and organising an
alternative venue delayed the interviews for at least five minutes. Such a delay did not affect the
reliability and validity of the study as it was of short duration.
At the beginning of each group interview the participants introduced themselves. The researcher
explained the purpose of the interview and that the respondents will remain anonymous. The
researcher recorded the interview responses as the interview progressed. The researcher utilised
a high quality tape recorder during the interviews to capture the conversation between the
researcher and the participants. The use of the tape recorder was well explained to show that
their contributions were regarded as of great value. The researcher explained that the tape
recorder is being used to avoid forgetting what was discussed.
Eventually four groups of students were interviewed. The size of the group allowed everyone to
participate while still eliciting a wide variety of responses. Participation was free and democratic
throughout the interview sessions. The duration of focus group interviews varied between half
an hour to one hour. None of the group interviews lasted for more two hours.
The interviewer also scribed some vital views as they raised them. The researcher controlled and
facilitated the interviews by encouraging the students to interface freely. The researcher used the
51
probe technique to obtain additional information from students. As already indicated in paragraph
3.4.3 above, the researcher recorded the group interviews and discussions on the tape. The
researcher conducted the interviews until students, starts to repeat themselves, what (Strauss &
Corbin, 1996: 178) calls 'saturation'. The researcher translated the interviews into a written and
typed form.
The transcripts of the interviews were made and sent to the participants. Although the researcher
could not find all the participants, the available ones were met and they confirmed the transcripts
as a true reflection of their responses. The researcher thanked them for their cooperation. This
step ensured the first reliability check on the responses for this study.
The researcher sent transcripts of the interview to the external decoder who drew own lists of
categories. The lists of the decoder and that of the researcher was compared. Most of the
categories as listed in step four (above) appeared on both lists (Refer to Appendix C). The major
differences lie on the names or labels to designate the major ideas and issues raised during the
interviews. A consensus was however reached that the researcher uses the labels more suitable
or more related to the subproblem of this research, since they cover the main issues embraced in
the two lists. This constituted the validity check for the study. The researcher settled for the
following categories (See Addendum C).
3.5.2 Description of categories
Data for the study are of two kinds: primary data and secondary data. The primary data for the
research is made of responses from group interviews as conducted 3.3.5 above. The secondary
data comprises recent published studies, texts unpublished dissertations and these dealing with
student participation in curriculum developments.
The following three identified categories, namely problems at colleges, reasons for participation
and ways for involvement in curriculum development. A few quotations from the focus group
interviews will be provided and a literature check will be done in each category to ensure
reliability and validity of the data.
52
3.5.2.1 Problems experienced by student-teachers
Question one: What are the problems that you are experiencing in your college ?
This category is developed from the question: What are the problems that you are experiencing
at your college ? The question has been included in this research as an 'ice - breaker' as already
reported in chapter three. Therefore, only relevant responses to the question will be discussed in
relation to the research questions: why and how the students want to be involved in curriculum
development at colleges of education?
All of the respondents feel that they want to be involved in order to ensure that the college
curricula is relevant. This needs a thorough situational analysis of the needs and interests of the
learners and the community as a whole. Therefore the respondents feel that certain academic
subjects are no longer relevant and useful to the new educational dispensation. Students feel that
certain subjects or courses need to be removed like Biblical Studies, Afrikaans or Special
Afrikaans and new ones introduced especially technical and other skill-based subjects or courses.
All students are of the view that the college curricula are no longer useful to students and the
entire community. Some of the students responded:
"The problem we experience at the college is that we are doing subjects which are not relevant
to those which we find at the secondary school"
"... how can one justify the fact that a certain student-teacher who is measuring in Mathematics
and Science orientated subject to be forced to do a subject like special Afrikaans which is not a
medium of instruction in most secondary schools"
A study of the college curricula for both Senior Teachers Diploma and Primary Teachers Diploma
has revealed the same observation, that the college curricula are heavily-loaded with subjects
which are highly compartmentalised. Repetition is also apparent in most courses.
53
It is in this context that Lalendle (1996) argued that although the college curriculum is
differentiated and kept college graduates at career paths, "...certain curriculum combinations are
used to foster ethnicity and inculcate the values of the National Christian Education" (Lalendle,
1996:15) than real-life skills and economic demands of our country (Monobe,1997: 60-61, Malan
1997: 10).
Similar observations were made by Jaff, Rice, Hofmeyer and Hall (1996: 59) and Salmon and
Woods (19990: 55) during their studies on teacher education, and state that the curriculum at
colleges of education mirrors the interest, values and aspirations of those in power - what is
commonly referred to as a hidden curriculum which implies the transmission of unstated messages
to learners.
Malan (1997:11) in her argument for outcome-based education shows that curriculum developers
have traditionally accepted as a premise that subjects were inherently valuable and were
automatically included in any curriculum. The relevance of such courses to modern and future was
seldom questioned. The content is always fixed even before the aims or goals are identified.
Curriculum development was therefore not based on thorough situational analysis. He continues
to argue that even when new subjects are added to make it more relevant, the old subjects
remain.
The significance of this category lies in that students show that they want to be involved to ensure
that the college curricula are relevant. They are the consumers of the curricula. Responses indicate
that student want to participate during curriculum development to ascertain that the curricula
meet their needs and those of the community. This then constitutes the major reason why students
want to be involved in curriculum development at colleges of education in the Northern province
and the whole of Southern Africa.
Students also made numerous references to subjects and content which are irrelevant and even
suggested new subjects and new content area that can be introduced in the college curricula. Such
references demonstrate quite clearly that students have the capacity and ability to make reliable
judgement, which becomes a possible reason why students want to be involved in curriculum
54
development as already alluded to in chapter two, paragraph 2.3.
Responses to this category do not address directly the question of how students want to be
involved. Instead, responses refer to the various principles of curriculum design. Almost all
students feel that they want to participate during curriculum design, especially during situational
analysis. Students feel that their mode of involvement will be in form of an analysis of their
interests and needs as well as those of the community. Although the principle of situational
analysis was not mentioned by name, it was deduced from the respondents' reference to that the
environment, the needs of the individual student, the needs of the society, commerce and industry
must be surveyed.
The same findings were made in similar researches in teacher education in South Africa like
(Mathe,1991: 93) and Koller (1993: 17) who suggested that curriculum development should
commence with situational analysis. They continued to indicate that situational analysis entails,
inter alia, finding out about the needs, interests, beliefs and future inspirations of the learners and
the group for which the curriculum is planned.
From the description of the first category for this study it is clear that the major problem of the
college curricula centres around the irrelevancy in terms of students'needs and interests, non-
transferability of knowledge and skills. The various concerns raised serves as the base for student
involvement. In other words, the problems that are found in colleges of education are in
themselves highlighting the circumstances, reasons and factors surrounding students involvement.
Thus, the category on problems experienced at colleges serves as a background surrounding
student involvement which is related to the second category of the study, which is, reasons for
student involvement.
3.5.2.2 Reasons for student involvement
Question two: Do you want to be involved in improving your college courses, and why ?
With regard to the sub-problem whether students want to be involved, all of them have indicated
55
that they want to be involved. Most students perceive themselves as important stakeholders in
curriculum development. The same view has been expressed in various curriculum debates where
students are considered alongside other stakeholders like parents, teachers and inspectors as
discussed in paragraph 2.6.
Although studies of pupils involvement indicate that students consider themselves as capable of
contributing during curriculum development, actual involvement is minimal as already discussed
in chapter two of this study. The subcategories discovered in the study are described as follows:
* brelevant college courses
Responses in this category have references to the irrelevancy of the needs of students and the
whole community. Students feel that they have to participate so that their needs, interest and
aspirations will be considered during curriculum development. Students expressed a concern that
the college curriculum must prepare graduates for the vast range of South African schools. This
is particularly the case with regard to exposure to other cultures, languages and teaching
strategies. Students mentioned the need for the curriculum to be appropriate to the needs of the
students and the entire community. The curriculum does little to promote an awareness of
important socio-economic issues like social needs or problems, employment and other current and
future demands.
The following responses are a reflection: "... as students-teachers we are taught work which is not
relevant to our coming work, with subjects which are not suitable for ourselves and our people
to come "
It becomes apparent that there is a feeling amongst students that colleges should offer courses
that would provide students with wider options once they left colleges. In other words colleges
should be like a community college which in the South African context can be defined as a public,
comprehensive institution offering programme beyond compulsory schooling which include
academic transfer, compensatory and remedial programmes responsive to student and community
needs.
56
The irrelevancy of college courses is shown by student's remarks such as: "In some of the subjects
we are taught things which are no longer existing. We are now in a democratic country so that
we must be taught things which are now existing".
Student responses relate the problem of irrelevancy from a variety of perspectives. Such
perspectives ranges from compartmentalisation of content, receiving training in areas not found
in schools, lack of vertical mobility through affiliation and accreditation with universities and / or
technikons, as a means of social control by the ruling power, to irrelevancy to the needs of the
learners and the entire community or country.
The same observations were made by various committees in their studies on teacher education,
in South Africa. The KEPI document, ANC Draft policy document, the White Paper (1995),
the RDP document (1994) proposed progressive policies and integrative approaches to education
which addresses the learner's needs and nation's needs.
Blom (1992: 32) seems to support this view and noted that curriculum development, especially
the development of learning programmes and materials, should put learners first, recognising and
building on their knowledge and experience and responding to their needs. This type of curriculum
design is usually called the "needs and interest design"
Some students noted that the issue of irrelevancy can be related to the notion of culture, that is,
the curricula at colleges of education should reflect the culture and language of the community.
Students revealed that there is often a mismatch between what the college offers and stands for
and the community values. This mismatch between the curriculum and cultural values is
particularly apparent in content of courses and languages, with Religious Education and Afrikaans
frequently repeated in most interviews. Consequently, there is a real need to integrate the college
into the community. This then becomes the rationale for student participation in curriculum
development at colleges of education as one of the students responded:
"The present curriculum is a white men's let me say an Afrikaans. He drew up this curriculum in
order to improve his culture"
57
The importance of culture in curriculum development has been widely debated in recent
curriculum research studies such as Noel (1993: 14). There is a general consensus amongst such
studies that the society and culture can inhibit or accelerate the process of curriculum
development, and therefore the curriculum must match the cultural dimensions of the society.
Labuschagne (1996: 10) argues that students should be sensitized to what he calls: cultural
democracy, where cultural diversity is recognised.
The question of language and culture in education has been addressed in the South African
constitution ( section 31) which provides for the rights to use the language and participate in the
cultural life of one's choice and sections 3 (b) and (c) which respectively provides for the right
of language choice in educational institutions. It is in view of such constitutional provisions that
the need for student participation in curriculum development is justifiable and conceivable.
The issue of the relevancy of the college curriculum in terms of the needs of the learners,
economic needs of the community as well as cultural considerations show that students are aware
of their role during curriculum design.
* Incllusive decision-making
Underneath some students' need for involvement in college curricular issues, there seems to be
a strong feeling of the curriculum being imposed from the top level of the educational hierarchy
to the colleges.
The following response shows this line of thinking: "Those that are in high ranks in education,
when they plan their curriculum they must involve us the students".
The issue of inclusivity in curriculum development runs throughout the categories and the sub-
categories of the research data as related to the three questions as discussed in 3.3.2 above. Most
of the respondents feel that students need to be involved like all other stakeholders so that their
needs can be considered. Hence as consumers of the curriculum students feel that they have a
58
stake in curriculum issues. They must be included in curriculum development. The following
response represent this type of thinking: " ...we are now in a democratic country, so that we must
be taught things which are now existing...":
Curriculum development therefore involves inclusive decision-making process and active
participation by all role-players so that their needs can be met. The demand for democratic
participation then becomes a possible reason for students to ensure that their aspirations and needs
are taken into consideration during curriculum development. This is more likely to occur during
the curriculum design phase.
Students also seem to reflect a desire for a locally developed curriculum in which students will
participate. There seems to be a reflection that the current college curriculum has been developed
to suit the objectives of the ruling power to achieve its goals as one of the respondents shows:
" I think that subjects that are now done, they were drawn by others, someone who want to
achieve their goals..."
Mukhavhuli in his study on teacher training in the Northern Province, is of the same opinion and
maintains: `... the person in power dictates what must be taught and what must not be taught'
(1989: 182). Thus, the curriculum at colleges of education is prescriptive, authoritative and
inflexible. The debate on the centralisation of the administration and control of education
provisions is a currently a matter of great concern. It is contended in recent research studies that
curriculum development should be developed at the colleges so that both lecturers and students
can be 'empowered' as discussed in paragraph 2.5 and provided with an open-ended democratic
avenues and processes that are more likely to promote student involvement in matters affecting
their everyday life.
Thus the respondents appear to be interested in an institution-based curriculum approach in
which more opportunities for their involvement can be opened. It is in this context that Carl
(1995: 3) in his studies on teacher empowerment though curriculum development noted that
South Africa is currently faced with the challenges from the national to the classroom levels in the
sense that every stakeholder, students included should be involved in negotiating about what to
59
learn, how to learn it and how to assess how well it has been learnt. The Committee for Higher
Education (CHED) (101: 2) shares the same sentiment and feel that the South African educational
institutions require freedoms, opportunity, responsibility and resources to determine and direct
their curricular affairs.
As already raised in paragraph 2.3 student involvement in curriculum development must consider
the developmental level of the students. This issue which was not raised by the respondents which
might indicate their uncritical perception and acceptance of being role-players in curriculum
development at colleges of,education. This also indicates that students appears to be interested
in participation out of democratic and psychological need to be recognised and accepted as part
of the stakeholders It also needs to be noted that involving students do not mean abdicating the
entire curriculum while for it to be effective and strong, students need to be involved.
In addition, recent studies in South African colleges of education like that of Van Rensburg
(1997: 14) indicate that student involvement in curricular issues is likely to ensure sound relations
between students and lecturers, what Scoutt (1996: 93) refers to as in Zulu as `Ilbuntu'- a more
inclusive form of humanism. This observation which is also apparent in the responses as one of
the students remarked "... such involvement will make students and lecturers to cooperate"
It can be inferred from the preceding discussion on inclusivity in curriculum development that
students want to be involved during curriculum design phase. Students appeared to be aware of
their roles during decision-making on the principles of design from need analysis to evaluation,
especially at the micro-level as discussed in paragraph 2.6.
* Legitimacy and ownership
Students' responses also highlight some concerns about the legitimacy and ownership of the
curriculum. Students appear to be rejecting the current curriculum for it has been imposed by
educational authorities to meet their objectives as the following comments are a reflection:
" As stakeholders with our participation we can then say that the curriculum is ours and be willing
60
to follow and implement it "
" I think that with our participation we can say that the curriculum is ours"
The involvement of all interest groups from within and outside college affairs is a basic underlying
principle in the development of college curricula. The development of the generally applicable
facets of the curriculum must be a joint venture by all interested groups. Students need to be
involved so that they be involved in their learning and to get them to accept a degree of
responsibility for it and therefore, "it is ours" as one-student puts it.
It is also evident that student teachers at colleges do not see the relevancy and value of college
courses in their current state of affairs due to lack of insufficient consultation. In this democratic
dispensation, consultation in matters surrounding the curriculum at colleges of education must be
done to ensure legitimacy and ownership thereof
There is some reference from student response to the constitutional and human rights which
constitute the framework for student participation and legitimacy thereof. The constitution of
South Africa guarantees equal access to basic education for all. The satisfaction of this guarantee
provides an increasing range of learning possibilities offering learners greater flexibility in
choosing what, when, how and at what pace they learn (Department of Education and Training
1995: 21). It is apparent from recent studies that the right of students to participate with adults
in curricular issues needs to be acknowledged. Democratic participation by students is valuable
for this research in that it is likely to make the college curricula legitimate and more acceptable
to students.
The following responses are a reflection:
" We are now in democratic country so that we must be taught things which are existing now
rather than past things"
"As we are living in a democratic situation, like when the constitution was drawn, the community
became involved"
61
Fern (1985: 83) have similar views and argue that South Africa has become one of the few
countries such as Denmark where student participation is enshrined in the legislation of the
country. The legal framework became a rationale for student participation in curriculum
development at colleges of education.
From the discussion above, it can be deduced that students are aware of their roles during the
curriculum implementation phase. It emerged form the above discussion that effective curriculum
depends on whether the curriculum is perceived to be legitimate and owned by all stakeholders,
especially student-teachers in this context.
* Professional considerations
The responses of the students also highlight that their concern for participation arises from some
professional considerations. In response to question one, students have raised a number of areas
at colleges which appear to be problematic. Students concerns cover a lot of professional issues
like irrelevancy of courses to social and economic demands of our modern society, time
mismanagement, inadequacy of teaching strategies taught at colleges and others as discussed in
paragraph 3.5.2.1. The following responses show such views:
"... because we are the ones teaching those programmes. Why should someone who is not
teaching these programmes should be the one who has to improve for us. We are the one who
knows all big difficulties..."
"We are the ones who are going to teaching pupils, if we had wrong information we are also
going to give a wrong, information to the younger ones"
The research study is focussed on students who are in the third-year of teacher training at colleges
of education. They are therefore on the verge of being practising teachers. The students seem to
consider themselves as having a certain level of professional maturity that can serve as a base for
participating in curriculum development and so their responses were considered in this light. This
should not be misconstrued to mean that student-teachers are already professionals because a
62
qualified teacher is the one who is in a possession of an approved teaching qualification which is
at least evaluated as M+ or Category C (COTEP, 1996: 3).
Contrary to this view, Koller (1993: 33) states that decision-making should be left in the hands
of teachers or professionals who have been given intensive training in such areas like child
development, learning styles, educational measurement and subject didactics.
Salmon (1991: 73-74) in his studies on the role of students in colleges of education in Kwazulu,
discovered that there is very little evidence of formal students involvement in curriculum issues
and that students seem to have no clarity on their roles and expectations in high level decision-
making. However most students show that they have professional interests in curriculum designs.
This then becomes a rationale for student involvement in the development of the curriculum at
colleges of education in the Northern Province.
Labuschagne (1996: 10) is also of the same opinion and argues that students can make judgement
and reliable descriptions of classroom activities. Students feel that their involvement in curriculum
development emanates from the fact that they are going to be part of the teaching 'corps' or
professional 'corps'. It is out of students' professional concerns that they consider themselves
as major role-players during the curriculum design phase at colleges of education in the Northern
Province.
* Partnership
Students feel that there is no horizontal and vertical articulation in the curriculum offered at
colleges of education. The following response is an observation:
"...To make our college more we are supposed to affiliate to a certain institution like technikons
or universities"
The same need was echoed:
63
"... If you complete this diploma, then it is not easy to go and get a degree, maybe you have to
start from scratch as the last speaker has already mentioned "
These responses relate to the issue of affiliation which implies close cooperation in matters
affecting teacher education programme, and accreditation which entails that successful learners
are given credits for the courses that they have passed in the college, and thereby ensuring
horizontal and vertical articulation or movements as envisaged by the 'outcome-based approach'
espoused in the National Qualification Framework (1996).
Van der Vyver argues that: "Our contention is thus that, whether an institution driven approaches
or programme driven approach are adopted, issues of cooperative inter-institutional governance
should be given careful attention because of their impact on decision-making and consequently
quality (Vyver,1996: 13). Similarly as one of the respondents puts it: "I think that would make
our college visible and again will make students aware of learning"
The National Commission for Higher Education (1996: 6) shows that such linkages and
partnerships are not a new phenomenon in South African teacher education. Many collaborative
links have been developed between some colleges, universities and technikons. However,
emphasis seems to have been placed more on vertical collaborative arrangements than on
horizontal linkages such as colleges and colleges.
Contrary to what the majority of the interviewees expect, collaboration arrangements with
colleges and technikons are always biased in favour of universities. College and technikons are
reduced to junior partners. Usually, as is the case with University of Witwatersrand and its
affiliated colleges collaboration is inclusive of overseeing the academic affairs particularly the
curriculum, staffing, accreditation and franchising of some of the courses.
However, in line with students' views, Gozo noted "... that the current approach to accreditation
which sees procedures of teacher preparation as ends in themselves must be abandoned. He shows
that all provincial departments of education have instructed colleges of education to be affiliates
to universities so that some form of quality assurance, control, professionalism and academic
64
standards of colleges can be raised " (Gozo,1996: 6).
Similarly the Department of Education (1998: 73) emphasises that the aim of establishing
institutional partnership is to promote flexibility and responsiveness necessary for change in
college education.
It can be deduced from the preceding paragraphs that students want to be involved during the
curriculum evaluation phase like through accreditation of the course passed in their institutions
by other institutions
It has emerged from the above description of the category that there is an apparent general
consensus on the reasons for student participation. Student responses on this category appear to
corroborate with the literature check on that student must be involved in curriculum
development at colleges of education. The data on the extent and nature of student involvement
is analysed in the next category.
3.5.2.3 Ways for student involvement in improving the curriculum at colleges of
education
Question three: How do you want to be involved in improving your college courses ?
Student's response to this question on participation can be conceptualised at various levels: at
a national, provincial, individual classroom and the total college context as discusses in paragraph
2.3. Responses to the question, how would you like to be involved in improving college courses
elicited a number of responses which indicate the concern that students are not provided with
opportunities and support for their involvement at various levels of curriculum development.
65
* Formation off curriculum committees
The respondents are of the opinion that curriculum committees should be created in various
colleges of education. Students should participate by sending delegations to present their views
and aspirations in curriculum innovations. The following response is a reflection on the formation
of curriculum committees through which students are likely to participate:
"I believe in most of the colleges, have the curriculum committee, we as the students need also
to be represented in that curriculum committee"
However, the role of curriculum development committees appears to be limited to the national
and provincial education departments. The role of curriculum committee is perceived as largely
focussed on the development of curriculum frameworks, learning programmes and materials. The
activities of the curriculum committees appears to be limited to the national and provincial levels
where the role of students seems to be very minimal.
Similarly Labuschagne (1996: 13) noted that students can participate by serving on curriculum
committees when selected agenda items are discussed or when it is considered that students could
become highly self-motivated and innovative on them. Madigoe (1992: 35) argues that this
position involves more elaborates efforts to have students participate than merely being consulted
in matters like school reviews, sports and other peripheral as well as some social aspects of the
college.
Reference has also been made to the formation of subject committee in which students would
participate. Such committees are to serve as a link between the students and the education
department as one of the respondents observed: "In each subject we as the students must conduct
a subject committee from the students whom those people from the department of education,
when they decide about college subjects, they must firstly contact these committees members from
the students"
This view is contrary to subject committees existing in the current South African Education
66
system. A subject committee is usually taken to be a committee comprised of practising teachers
in a specific learning area or subject. Thus ruling out the possibility of such a channel of
communication as a way of involving students in curriculum development at colleges of education
in the Northern Province.
However, students seem to be confusing subject committee with curriculum committees which
can serve as link between students and colleges of education. As such the interpretation of
students' response in this category was taken to mean curriculum committees otherwise some
responses would seems to limit the members of that committee to student-teachers only. This
correlates with responses given under consultation as already discussed in paragraph 6.2.3
above.
Nevertheless, students highlight the need for channels of communication to be established within
colleges of education to ensure student participation in college affairs. Curriculum committees can
serve as a link between colleges of education and the provincial government. The emphasis on the
communication between students and educational authorities show that students are willing to
participate during curriculum implementation. Communication is one of the most important
ingredients for effective curriculum implementation as discussed in paragraph 2.4.3.
* Conducting workshops and seminars
The respondents also expressed their strong desire for a college environment where discussions
amongst all stakeholders direct curriculum development. Koller (1993: 15) contends that
discussion is a crucial process in higher education colleges exist so that students, including
academics can talk together. He continued to argue that discussion provides the interaction of
minds and the testing of ideas as well problem-solving.
For such discussions to occur at colleges of education, the respondents suggested that
workshops, seminars and conferences be held at colleges. Students can participate through
conferences and workshops to ensure that the college curricula are exposed. The following are
some of the suggestions:
67
" The manager should conduct conferences, seminars and workshops for curriculum and other
teaching materials in the organisation of content or courses"
" We are the Northern Province citizens, when they come and do their seminars we are going to
say something which is relevant to our life and which is going to be relevant to our peoples. They
must do the seminars"
It is quite evident from these responses that there is a great need for students and teachers to
interact formally cooperate and exchange views on classroom activities what is commonly
referred to as 'negotiating' classroom activities - a process in which the participants reach some
kind of agreement as to what to learn, how to learn (methods) and how to assess how well it has
been learnt.
Students and teachers co-investigate the classroom reality, creating appropriate and relevant
pedagogical knowledge through action research. Through such reflective participation students
are more likely to take responsibility for their own learning and to participate in shared-decision-
making. Therefore seminars, conferences and workshops are some of the possible ways for
student involvement in curriculum development, especially during the dissemination phase.
In this context, a curriculum is viewed as a social construction of knowledge about the
classroom, which emphasizes student negotiating meaning and placing authority on evidence and
logic than text and teacher, thereby enhancing student power through seminars and conferences
on curriculum development (Scoutt, 1996: 100)
Contrary to this, recent research reports on teacher education in South Africa have uncovered that
student participation in seminars and conferences on curriculum development is absent. Seminars
and conferences on curriculum development appears to be limited to curriculum specialists,
officials of the department and professionals.
The significance of this category lies in that students want to be involved in curriculum
development through seminars and conferences. Various publications offer suggestions on how
68
students can be active participants in decision-making process about classroom activities. In this
way students can make vital contributions for the real didactical situation at colleges of education.
* Consultation
Responses in this category highlight the need for consultation during curriculum development.
The respondents reflected on discussions and meetings of all stakeholders when views and other
curricular issues are deliberated. The following are some of the responses which indicate the
concern over consultation:
" I think that it will be good for us to have a body where parents and students and lecturers will
be involved and will sometimes have meeting with MEC's of a certain province. There we sit
down again and discuss our problems together "
"I think that the government is responsible for views from structures like political organisations,
churches and other organisation like parent-teachers-student organisation"
Students are a reliable source of information in that they do not typically provide distorted
judgement and are candid in their comments. He continued to indicate that consultation can also
take the form of observation of individual student behaviour in classroom, corridors, lunchrooms
and elsewhere within the school, what Doll (1992: 396 ) refers to as 'shadowing'. Findings of
this nature can be helpful in starting the curriculum improvement that is of real practical use to
the students.
Observation as a form of student involvement is never evident in the responses of students to this
section. Observation is commonly regarded as a way by which students not given opportunities
to participate directly in planning the curriculum, but are passive as the teacher seeks out student
needs and interests. The teacher is the one who is active and decisions of the class of the students
observed. Thus, schooling that ignores what learners think and feel that is possible when the
teacher knows the thoughts and values of the learners.
69
Students feel that the department of education should consult with the students. However (Heyns,
Mokwena & Ncholo (1993: 7) warn that in many ways consultation should be "most inclusive,
non-partisan and cost effective" to ensure legitimacy to all sections of the community and nation-
building.
Apart from observation, consultation may take other forms. Student responses highlight that
consultation with students can be in the form of questionnaires and interview to establish the
needs and interests of the students during the design phase. The students commented:
"My viewpoint is that by using something like questionnaire, students can say ideas which are
different"
Curriculum studies on the participants during curriculum development appear to confirm these
perceptions that questionnaires and interviews are appropriate for older learners, like student-
teachers at colleges of education. The older the learner the more sophisticated his or her
participation may become (Blom, 1990: 32).
* Institutional visits
Students expressed their concern that they need to visit institutions of higher education to learn
and exchange views about curriculum development. There seems to be a perception that though
generally regarded as tertiary educational institutions, the difference between a college and a high
school is not always apparent. Responses show that both students and lecturers have to visit other
institutions of higher learning like technicons and universities. The following responses reflect
such perspectives.
" I think what we can do at colleges of education is to make a visit to a certain institution, lets,
say a technikon or university that offers related subjects that we have in our case"
"We need to visit institutions of higher learning like technicons, where we can see what they are
doing and bring it back to our college"
70
In this sense all students are researchers and should seek the truth about the curriculum as they
see it. He continued to argue that seeking the truth is a process of solving problems, which in this
context, will be focussed on curriculum development. The need for seeking the truth about the
curriculum relates to action research alluded to in the preceding paragraphs and will not be
repeated here.
This observation is supported by research reports like Blom (1990: 21) which observed a need
for students to share ideas amongst themselves. He continued to emphasise the value of social
interaction amongst students in various institutions as a way of enriching students with curriculum
knowledge and understanding .
In its submission to the National Committee on Further Education, the National Institute for
Community Education ( NICE) also noted the significance of the interaction of institutions and
set one of the goals from colleges as "... to encourage extensive and intensive interaction amongst
institutions ..." (NICE, 1997: 17 ). Such an interaction between institutions is likely to ensure
vertical articulation between institutions and training programmes. Thus, institutional visits is
perceived as one of available ways to ensure student participation in curriculum development at
colleges of education in South Africa .
* Apprenticeship
The respondents also felt that students who enrolled for more practical courses like Engineering
or Agriculture, have to undertake apprenticeship which is more likely to provide excellent
opportunity for hands on experience at the site of work. Students feel that such an experience is
likely to be vital for later discussions and inputs in curricular issues. This need for practical
experience indicates that students want to be involved during curriculum implementation as
discussed in chapter two. One of the students responded:
"We can liaise with Eskom, maybe other industries so that during school vacation our students
would go there and be employed part-time, working there and by that they will be gaining a lot
of experience"
71
The same view has been highlighted in responses to question one of this study. Responses to this
question emphasized the need for a college curriculum which will facilitate the transferability of
the learnt material to the real situation as responses to question one highlight:
"I believe students before they come to school are children at home and use the knowledge that
they get from the college to help the community at home. That we call the student brigade"
Students are therefore of the opinion that they have to partake in practical activities like
community projects and community outreach programmes related to their area of study. In this
way, students will be able to acquire practical skills and knowledge that they can utilise during
curriculum development or debates on curricular issues.
Students also view internship in economical terms. Responses indicate that they will be
contributing to the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) as one of the students
remarked: " We need to be productive a bit and improve our community as it will be our
contribution to the RDP, and I think we need to be involved there and avoid theories and do
probably practicals "
Similar view have been expressed in some research reports on student volunteer organisations like
Heyns, Mokwena and Ncholo who observed that: "The above (internship) should in the long run
have an influence on the approach of our tertiary institutions and their curricula. When students
return from the field, they will start asking questions about the relevance of the courses they are
doing for the problems they have encountered. The first obligations should be to address the
problems of the society" (Heyns, Mokwena & Ncholo, 1993: 6).
It is widely believed that internship affords many students who want to render real service to their
society some way form of repayment for education received, and offer participants chance for
experience vital for later job hunting.
It can be deduced from this discussion that students can participate during curriculum
implementation through internship. Internship affords students with opportunities to implement
the curricula in the real world of work while they are still being trained. This would include
72
implementation through teaching practice (Mukhavhuli, 1989: 156).
* The Student Representative Council
From the students' responses it is clear that there is an urgent need for a constructive input into
college affairs by the Students Representative Council (SRC), as the following response indicates:
... we as students have to inform the SRC so that the SRC of ours has to inform us the students
and the SRC will take those views and submit them to the desk which is forming or drawing that
curriculum with the SRC "
College students appear to be concerned with channels to facilitate communication and making
inputs into college curriculum affairs. Thus, there is consistently a sharper focus by students on
communication, which the current college set-up does not seem to provide.
The same observation was made by Salmon (1991: 74) in her recent research into teacher
education at seven Kwazulu College of Education. She found that there is little in the formal
curriculum which is designed to nurture student initiative and leadership. This gap could
potentially be alleviated by the encouragement of and support to democratically elected SRC's
within colleges. She continued to argue that if a student teacher is given no opportunity to play
a leadership role in a relatively safe micro room of the college of education, the student will be
less inclined to take bigger risk on exposure to the entire social community in the world of work.
In South Africa, until now the role of the SRC's in curriculum development is lesser than their
role in the broader political sense. To a large extent, SRC's seem to be concerned with minor
peripheral issues than formal student involvement in major issues like curriculum. The paramount
emphasis on nationwide political mobilisation has overshadowed the potential of smaller focussed
initiatives on matters like curriculum development to harness the human resources at our tertiary
institutions (Van Vuuren, 1996: 12-13).
From the students' responses, it is clear that the urgent need now is for all the stakeholders,
73
especially both students and those in authority to shed the rhetoric and develop a new era for
SRC's, one which meets the actual needs of students in colleges, and which is firmly aligned to
its own context (Salmon, 1991: 74).
The same sentiment was expressed by most of the respondents. One of them noted: "As we are
the ones who sees problems and we can communicate with our SRC, and they can join the
lecturers and go to the department and solve the problem".
It is notable from expression such as the above that students also appear to be more concerned
with grievance articulation. The SRC's at colleges of education are not involved in curriculum
development.
Van Vuuren (1996: 14) also made similar observations in his studies on curriculum development
in South Africa and noted that student participation in curriculum affairs is mostly derivative
rather than absolute, a privilege granted by higher powers and subject to revocation by them.
Often student government is administrators' or teachers' means of securing student cooperation
at the whole college context.
As already mentioned paragraph 2.5, the nature of student involvement is dependent on the
maturity and age levels of the learners. The higher the level of skills of the students involved, the
more specialised their contribution could be. It might be due to the manifestation of this factor
in this research that the sample group of this study tended to be engaged in real curriculum
development at colleges of education as they are about to be professional teachers or are in a
third-year level of professional development.
On other hand, it is has also been discovered that student involvement is also determined by the
nature of that particular community. South Africa is a multinational society, comprised of
students from all racial, ethnic and cultural background. For the college curriculum to reflect this
multicultural component, it becomes logical that such an element should be considered in the
formation of channels of communication within the college to increase intercultural competence
(Heyns, Mokwena & Ncholo, 1993: 6). The SRC is therefore viewed as a mouthpiece for all
74
divergent groups within a college and the interests of all the cultural groups should be embraced
during curriculum development .
3.5 Summary
In this chapter the qualitative research method was selected and group interviews were used as
the research instrument for this study. A particular protocol was utilised to analyse the collected
data. The findings, conclusions and recommendations for this study will be made in the following
chapter .
75
CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH OVERVIIEW9 CONCLUSliONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 AIM OF T1111 CHAPTER
The aim of this chapter is to report on the findings by comparing student's response in chapter
three with theoretical framework discussed in chapter two. Recommendations will then be made
and areas of further research studies suggested.
4.2 RESEARCH OVERVIEW
As stated in paragraph 2.2 curriculum development is, for the purpose of this study regarded as
an umbrella and an ongoing process in which planning figures strongly starting from design to
evaluation. This process is characterised by various possible phases from design, dissemination,
implementation and evaluation as discussed in paragraph 2.2.2. An integration of students'
relevant responses show how students perceive their roles during curriculum development.
As already discussed in paragraph 3.4 all respondents want to be involved in curriculum
development. But they did not make any explicit reference to the various phases of curriculum
development which are curriculum design, curriculum dissemination, curriculum implementation
and curriculum evaluation. References to these phases by the researcher has been based on the
inference from what the respondence has said and the exposition on curriculum development by
experts as discussed in chapter two of this study.
4.2.1 Curriculum design
Curriculum design is perceived as a phase in which a new curriculum is planned and reviewed. It
is characterised by several components which include situational analysis, contents, methods,
learning experience and evaluation. Students response show that they want to be involved during
decision-making with regard to the principles of curriculum designed as briefly reported here.
76
4.2.1.1 Situational analysis
Students feel that situational analysis is necessary in curriculum development. Such an analysis
includes the review of the relevancy of subjects, the needs of learners and the community like
economic demands as well as cultural factors. Students need to participate so that their needs and
those of the community are met. Various strategies for conducting needs analysis are suggested.
These ways are only mentioned here without further discussion as they are discussed as part of
responses to question three, paragraph 6.3. These methods include questionnaires, interviews
seminars, observations and projects or research studies in communities .
4.2.1.2 Aims
All education should be goal emulating. Curriculum designers must have a clear understanding
of educational and teaching goals as well as the objectives of the curricula or subject. Students
viewed the aims and objectives of the current college curriculum from different perspectives.
Firstly, the aims and objectives must suite the needs and the aspirations of the learners and the
community. Secondly, they must also suite the culture of the society. Thus students have singled
out culture as one of the most important source for the formulation of aims and objectives.
Therefore students felt a need to be involved so that they can voice their needs and interests in
the development of a new curricula. Hence the present goals and objectives of the existing
curriculum is felt to be based on foreign culture alien to the majority of the people of this country
as paragraph 6.2.1.1 shows. This view indicates that students want to be involved during the
determination of aims and objectives at all levels of curriculum development: the national,
provincial, institutional and classroom levels.
4.2.1.3 Teaching strategies
Most students highlighted teaching activities that can make the curriculum more relevant to the
needs of the students and the entire community. Students mentioned methods that include
problem-solving techniques like project methods and technology-based approaches.
77
Students interviewed also identified a number of learning experiences and opportunities more
suitable to colleges of education. Visits to industries, internship and visit to other institutions of
higher learning; for example can create a learning opportunity which can ensure meaningful and
practical experience to students as discussed in paragraph 6.2.5.
The type of teaching and learning strategies advocated by learners seem to be experience-based
and self-activity orientated as opposed to lecture methods characterised by time mismanagement
and rote learning as mentioned in paragraphs 6.1.3 and 6.1.4 respectively. It is notable that
student's role during the determination of teaching and learning strategies seems to be more
appropriate at classroom level as discussed in paragraph 2.7 above.
4.2.1.4 Evaluation
The literature studies have shown the need for students to participate during evaluation of the
didactic activities as discussed in chapter two. The literature analysis has shown that students can
negotiate with their educators about how classroom activities will be monitored and evaluated.
From the students' responses it became clear that they are unaware of the role that they can play
during evaluation in the classroom context or that they are not interested in participating during
the various phases of curriculum development.
Lecturers are therefore challenged to create opportunities for students to be involved during
formative evaluation like peer-group assessment, project assessment and self-assessment
procedures. Specific instruments such as oral/written questioning, observation and interviews can
also be utilised.
In concluding this sub-section it needs to be indicated that students should accept the challenge
and be active participants during curriculum design. The quality of curriculum development will
depend on the quality of the design. In order to establish a dynamic design whether at national
level where a broad curriculum and /or core syllabi are designed, or at micro-level where the
lecturer design a lecture, it requires that students like other stakeholders possess thorough
curriculum theory, knowledge and skills.
78
4.2.2 Curriculum dissemination
Effective curriculum development implies change and renewal based on decisions taken due to
the available information. Curriculum dissemination implies the preparation of curriculum utilizers
through the distribution of information, thoughts and concepts as already highlighted in paragraph
2.2.2.2.
Curriculum dissemination for colleges of education is initiated at macro-level. The curriculum is
drawn at head office with schools or colleges as passive recipient. Students and teachers have no
control over this process as curriculum packages are distributed from national ministry of
education to the colleges .
It should also be noted that students do not play any role in the dissemination of curriculum even
at college level because the college curriculum comes from head office as discussed in paragraph
2.4 above. Students have no role in this process of distributing the curriculum. However lecturers
assist in the dissemination through the interpretation of textbooks and syllabi within the
framework of the national norms and standards.
Although students did not specify dissemination by name, it has been inferred that they want to
participate in curriculum dissemination. Students indicated that more opportunities for
participatory decision-making should be provided in the form of discussions, participation in
community projects, media, workshops as well as partnership with other institutions like
universities.
4.2.3 Curriculum implementation
In paragraph 2.2.1 it has been stated that the college curricula emanate from the macro-level or
the head office. Curriculum implementation for colleges is also determined by curriculum
authorities, distributed and applied country-wide in all colleges of education. For example,
reference was made to the number of subject, grouping of subjects and language policy which
are solely determined by the national ministry of education as the national norm and standard for
79
teacher training in South Africa. College students are therefore not involved at this level of
curriculum implementation.
Students are of the opinion that there should be consultation and discussions between colleges
and the department of education. The provincial ministry has to interact with the students. Such
interaction will then be at the meso-level. At this level students will participate through the SRC
and the academic desk which have to facilitate implementation. Curriculum committees and
subject committees in which students and lecturers can be involved mus be formed so that
curriculum decisions can be well implemented as discussed in paragraph 3.7.1 and 3.7.4
respectively. The need for such involvement is not only to make the curriculum relevant but to
make it legitimate (ownership) and so that they can be willing to implement it as discussed in
paragraph 6.2.1.3.
Curriculum implementation also occurs within the classroom or micro-level. Decisions about
aims , subject matter or content, methods and evaluation can be negotiated with students. A need
for co-operation between students and teachers at the classroom level is necessary for effective
implementation.
It also emerged from the study that effective implementation can be accelerated through provision
of support service like contact opportunities with lecturers, ongoing discussions about lessons
and feedback. Other supporting factors which are not available at colleges are lack of materials
and equipments as well as lack of time and qualified lecturers as responses to question one reveal.
There are therefore elements which are initiated during curriculum dissemination which continue
to play a role during implementation phase.
4.2.4 Curriculum evalluation
Curriculum evaluation is that process during which value judgement of the standard and the
outcome of the relevant curriculum is made as already mentioned in paragraph 2.2.2.4. In this
study the following objects for evaluation were mentioned by students interviewed: aims and
objectives of the curriculum, subjects or content, methods and the utility or relevance of the
80
curriculum to individual student and the community as a whole. These then can become the major
components of a curriculum that might be evaluated.
Curriculum evaluation as conducted in colleges of education occurs in the form of data gathered
from tests or examination. Curriculum evaluation can also happen during curriculum development
using interviews, questionnaires and involvement in community projects as discussed in paragraph
2.5.4. Student references to the irrelevancy of the curricula and other problems identified in
paragraph 3.5.2.1 indicate that students want the whole college curricula to be evaluated in terms
of student's needs and those of the community. Methods for evaluating the curricula were also
suggested. Amongst others interviews, meetings, visits to other institutions and internship were
identified as discussed in chapter three.
It should be noted that the phases indicated above are not separate phases as there is a
continuation of and interaction amongst the various phases. Some factors like support provisions
which can be initiated during dissemination but continue to play a role during the implementation
phase. The most important implication of the interrelationship between the components of the
curriculum is that curriculum development cannot be directed at a single component of the
curriculum. All components of the curriculum must be considered. This premise is used in the next
few paragraphs for a discussion on the findings of the research.
4.3 AN INTEGRATION OF THE EMPIRICAL DATA AND THE THEORIE1 ECAL
FRAMEWORK
In order to arrive at the findings of the study, the researcher compared the empirical data and the
conceptual framework. The researcher employed a comparative table so that similarities and
differences can be made. Conclusions which will serve as the guidelines for student involvement
will then be made as done in the following paragraphs. This is necessarily so because without a
clear image as to what principles/guidelines are valid as point of departure, curriculum
development may not be accountable to the stakeholders in general and students in particular. The
table is as follows:
81
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a)
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cd cd cd
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a a) E E a) 1::). a) 0
"-15, (3) C•11 O "0
O • +.4 •-• ■
Q t.0 • a) 1—
5
Ti a)
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Ti• 00
From the above table in which the empirical data and the theoretical framework are given, the
researcher arrived at several conclusions. Although the empirical data and the experts appear to
be in agreement the nature and extent of student involvement in curriculum development, in some
cases divergent cases views exist. This will be discussed in terms of the various phases of
curriculum development, namely, curriculum design, curriculum dissemination, curriculum
implementation and curriculum evaluation.
4.3.1 Curriculum design
The empirical data show that students must be involved to ensure that the curriculum is relevant
to the needs and aspirations of the students. Quite similarly, the theoretical framework as availed
by experts show that students must be involved as they are part and parcel of the client system.
Students as consumers of the curriculum must be involved. On this basis, it can be concluded that
students must be involved to ensure that the curriculum is relevant to their needs as they are the
people who have to utilise the curriculum.
The importance of students's needs and interests implies that students must participate during
decision-making on the principles of curriculum design from situational/need analysis up to
evaluation of the didactic activities. The significance of the issue of relevancy lies in that it shows
that curriculum development must have a clear and communicable purpose which is relevant to
the students. Relevance therefore becomes one of the vital guideline in curriculum development.
An interesting observation from the empirical data is that students view themselves as
professionals and included professional consideration as one of the reasons for involvement as
already discussed in paragraph 3.4.2. However this issue is not corroborated in the column where
the conceptual framework is summarised. Students are rather perceived as potential initiators and
reactors to curriculum than as professionals. Professionalism is confined to teachers and experts
who have received thorough training and have experience in curriculum theory and practice
already discussed 3.4 above. It can be concluded that the basic demand for curriculum
development at colleges of education is that a particular level of curriculum theory, ability and
knowledge is necessary for all participants, students in particular. The research is based on initial
85
teacher training which can hardly be expected to develop the mastery of specialised theoretical
and practical knowledge fundamental to rational curriculum development. This requires a specific
level of empowerment in terms of curriculum theory and practice for successful implementation
at both the college and classroom levels. Thus, the other guiding principle derivable from the
comparative table above is that the level of development and maturity of students must be taken
into cognisance during their involvement in curriculum development
Both the empirical data and the theoretical framework appear to be in agreement about the
importance of consultation during curriculum development. However the empirical data and the
theoretical framework mention interviews and questionnaires as the effective means of consulting
students about curriculum affairs indicates. The experts, as depicted in the framework identify
observation of student behaviour as a form of determining student's needs and aspirations.
Consultation through mere observation is more unlikely to render students to be passive
participants. It can be concluded that curriculum development demands consultation in which
students will be active role-players than passive sources of information.
4.3.2 Curriculum dissemination
There is an apparent agreement between the empirical data and what the experts say in that in
both cases curriculum committees are taken as one of the viable way for involvement in
curriculum development. The difference lies in that the empirical data stresses student involvement
through curriculum committees. The experts in curriculum studies on the other hand confine the
role of curriculum committees to skilled persons in representative committees. Students are still
trainees who lack the necessary experience and knowledge for curriculum development. It can be
concluded that students can make meaningful contributions during curriculum dissemination
through committees provided that they are empowered with theory and practice about curriculum
issues. Such knowledge about the curriculum theory and practice is fundamental for effective
curriculum dissemination like in the preceding phase of curriculum development.
86
The empirical data shows that curriculum development must occur through subject committees.
The experts on the other hand emphasise the importance of general group involvement
comprising lecturers, educational authorities, students and parents as well as other members of
the community. Thus, subject committees are limited to knowledgable and skilled people, of
which students are not. It is therefore deduced that curriculum development cannot be confined
to professional people only. Curriculum development is a group activity comprised of both the
experts and the ordinary non-professional people. Such group activity is more likely to occur at
the meso-level.
The empirical data also indicates the importance of workshops, seminars and conferences as a
way of student involvement, especially during curriculum dissemination. The theoretical frame-
work also considers seminars, workshops and conferences as a means of involving participants
in curriculum development but such participation is limited to teachers and experts. Therefore
workshops, seminars and conferences can be taken as some of the possible ways through which
student involvement can be accelerated, especially as a way of disseminating information about
the envisaged curriculum.
In addition, both the empirical data and the theoretical framework allude to the fact that students
must participate through the student representative councils. The student representative councils
must make contributions on behalf of the students. This is more likely to takes place at the meso-
level.
4.3.3 Curriculum implementation
The empirical data refers to inclusive decision-making as one of the driving force behind student
involvement. The theoretical framework on the other hand articulates the development of sound
relationships between students and lecturers as a rationale for student participation in curriculum
development at colleges of education. The quality of co-operation during decision-making on the
objectives, content, methods or evaluation will necessarily influence the quality of curriculum
development. Curriculum development is therefore an inclusive process which promotes sound
relationships amongst the participants during the implementation phase. This then become another
87
critical guideline for effective and efficient curriculum implementation for colleges of education.
The issue of inclusivity and co-operation amongst participants is therefore an important factor
for successful curriculum implementation at colleges of education.
The empirical data raises the question of legitimacy and ownership in curriculum development.
The theoretical framework has constitutional obligations as some of the critical issues in
curriculum development. On the basis of this comparison it can be concluded that curriculum
development must be characterised by active and democratic involvement by all stakeholders,
especially students. This is necessarily so, so that students can accept the curriculum as theirs.
Hence students have constitutional obligations to participate so that they can conceive of the
curriculum as their product that they have to support and defend at all costs. Students will be
bound to accept the curriculum as legitimate and theirs. It therefore flows from the table that
curriculum development must meet the criterion of legitimacy and ownership for a successful
implementation phase. Column C bears testimony to this commonality between the research data
and the theoretical framework.
Student involvement in the form of apprenticeship is reflected in both the column for the empirical
data and the column the theoretical framework. It can be inferred from both the empirical data and
the theoretical framework that curriculum development includes both the theory and practice.
Thus, the hands-on experience acquired during apprenticeship and internship is likely to enhance
the theory and vice-versa. In short curriculum development encompasses both theory and practice
which can be integrated during the implementation phase.
4.3.4 Curriculum evaluation
The empirical data emphasises the formation of partnership with other institutions of higher
learning. The reasons for partnership is to ensure that there is vertical and horizontal articulation
among institutions. The theoretical framework on similar note, shows that curriculum develop-
ment must ensure flexibility and responsiveness to societal needs. It can therefore be concluded
that curriculum evaluation is a never-ending and a comprehensive process that demands constant
assessment of college curriculums in terms of what other institutions are doing.
88
Curriculum evaluation never stops and ongoing evaluation is imperative as it leads to adaptations
and improvements to suite the rising needs among institutions themselves. The need for
partnership is directly related to curriculum evaluation as it will promote acceptance,
accreditation and recognition of courses undertaken in a particular institution by the other.
Curriculum evaluation begins with a critical look of the existing curricula and reorganisation
follows when new partnership is formed.
The theoretical framework shows that curriculum developers are mainly researchers. Students
are viewed as researchers who are busy identifying strong and weak points which serve as a base
for feedback (evaluation phase) or adaptation and improvement, especially during the
implementation phase. Students are therefore engaged in problem-solving as they are involved in
curriculum debates. This observation is never raised in the empirical data in column A; which
shows that they are unaware of their role as researchers in curriculum. It is therefore becomes
acceptable in this study that students have to assume the role of being researchers during the
evaluation phase.
From the integration of the empirical data and the theoretical framework above, it emerged that
curriculum development is an ongoing and dynamic process within which there are a variety of
role-players. Those having an interest in the curriculum have consciously or unconsciously
followed a particular framework in regard to curriculum development which may also determine
the nature of their involvement.
4,4 FINDINGS
The findings of the study are solely based on questions two and three as stated in chapter one
and are as follows:
Question two: Would you like to be involved in improving college curricula and why ?
Question three: How would you like to be involved in improving college courses?
In comparing the student responses and literature review the researcher arrived at the following
89
conclusions based on these questions.
4.4.11 Reasons for student involvement in canrricuflum development
All students show that they want to be involved in curriculum development and several reasons
were forwarded which are:
ensuring relevancy in terms of student and community needs.
ensuring ownership and legitimacy of the college curricula.
forging cooperation and negotiation between students and lecturers.
for inclusivity as part of the client system.
professional considerations.
These categories have been discussed in detail in 3.5.2.2 above and will not be repeated here.
Despite some arguments against student participation, it has become acceptable in many circles
that like all other stakeholders, students have to be involved as consumers; as people who can
make valuable judgement and as part of their constitutional rights as guaranteed in the new
constitution of the Republic of South Africa as already discussed in chapter two, paragraph 2.3
of this study.
An interesting finding in this study is that students also view themselves as professionals and
included professional considerations as another reason for their involvement. It has been
discovered that students perceive themselves as having some professional obligations that
necessitate their participation in curriculum matters as already discussed in paragraph 3.4.2.2.
Although this issue is not corroborated by other literature studies on participants in curriculum
development, it nevertheless reflect how contestable, competitive and emotional are the various
stakeholders with regard to the roles of one another. Thus, it has been discovered in this study
that students can also make contributions like all other people as long as their level of
development and maturity are taken into cognisance.
4.4.2 Guidelines for student involvement during curriculum development
90
With regard to the question " how " students want to be involved during curriculum development,
various guidelines are suggested.
(I) It has emerged from this study that students are not of part curriculum committees at colleges
of education and therefore they do not participate in curriculum development and where they do
they are merely consulted especially in peripheral and social issues as discussed in paragraph
3.4.2.3. It is in this context that students want to be represented in curriculum committees which
can serve as a way of their involvement during curriculum development, especially during the
curriculum dissemination phase as discussed in paragraph 4.3.2 above.
The study also show that students do not take part in seminars, conferences and workshops
about curriculum issues. In South Africa, at least up to now, seminars, conferences and
workshops are conducted for departmental officers, specialists and other professionals with the
total exclusion of college students. On the contrary, students are of the opinion that they need to
attend workshops, conferences and seminars on curriculum development at colleges of education
as alluded to in paragraph 3.4.2.3. This will afford them with avenues to take part during the
dissemination phase.
It is also revealed in this study that the system of apprenticeship has not yet been established
in colleges of education in the Northern Province. Students feel that they can be involved through
apprenticeship or internship so that they can have experience of the real work environment. The
practical experience that is likely to be gained will be utilised as reservoir for debates and inputs
in the later curriculum evaluation process at colleges of education in the Northern Province. In
this way students became involved during the implementation phase.
Another observation of the study is that student participation can be initiated and accelerated
through consultation amongst all stakeholders including students themselves. It also emerged from
this study that there is no formal consultation of students when curriculum is developed. The
study reveals that effective consultation should be in the form of questionnaires or interviews
than mere passive observation of individual students. Students are willing to participate actively
during the design phase as discussed in paragraph 4.3.1 above.
91
The study also indicates that curriculum development can be enhanced through institutional
visits whereby students will acquire new and divergent experiences in curricular issues as
discussed in the preceding paragraphs. As of now, visits to other institutions of higher learning
is largely limited to social and political activities, with no attention to curriculum issues. Students
need to visit other institutions so that they be able to compare and contrast the curriculums of at
colleges education and other institutions of higher learning.
It is also shown in this study that the students view the student representative council (SRC)
as a vehicle for disseminating information.
On the bases of these findings and observations from the study, recommendations are made on
student involvement during curriculum development at colleges of education in the Northern
Province.
4.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations for this study are based on the sub-problems as stated in chapter one,
which are:
(I) Would you like to be involved in improving college courses and why?
(ii) How would you like to be involved in improving college courses?
The first finding of the study is that students want to be involved in curriculum development at
colleges of education and various reasons were advanced as discussed in paragraphs 3.4.2.1 and
3.4.2.2 respectively. This implies that students are ready to accept the challenge of participating
during curriculum development. It is therefore recommended that students must be involved in
all phases of curriculum development which are curriculum design, curriculum dissemination,
curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. Scoutt states that " There should be some
measure of agreement with students about what to learn, how to learn it, how to assess and how
well it has been learnt " (Scoutt;1995: 100).
Such involvement should occur at national level , provincial level, regional level, institutional
92
level (college) and the classroom levels.
The second recommendation is that students must receive training on curriculum development as
part of their pre-service or initial training. Teacher training programmes must include curriculum
development as one of its integral component. Students must be trained in the theory and practice
of curriculum development as part of their professional development. Initial teacher training must
also be seen as part of continued teacher education and training. There must be a link between
pre-service teacher-training and in-service training. The Preset and the Inset must be linked in a
continuum of professional development. Curriculum development must be viewed as part of the
professional induction of students. Teacher training must be linked with the actual teaching
practice at various schools or world of work.
The third recommendation is that students should be provided with opportunities and channels
for active participation in a more formal and planned ways at all levels of curriculum development.
The ministry of education and other educational authorities both within colleges and outside
colleges. The ministry of education and educational authorities at colleges must be ready to afford
students with avenues for active participatory decision-making through the formation of
curriculum committees, seminars, meetings, conference, internship, partnership with other
institutions and media communication.
Thus, efforts should be made to ensure that students participate at all levels of curriculum
development which are the macro-level, the macro-level and the micro-level. However as
discussed in paragraph 2.7, student participation should be at the level of development of the
student. It is therefore becomes advisable for colleges that student participation be initiated and
intensified at classroom and college contexts so that the same can be done gradually to culminate
into participation at provincial and national levels.
The fourth recommendation is that student should be provided with a good support system like
clear communication, finance, infrastructure and materials for real student involvement. A support
system must also include continuous mutual contacts with the consumers to receive help, advice
and new ideas. This will help to create a climate within which security and trust figure strongly.
93
The provision of support service is therefore a pre-condition for effective student involvement
during curriculum implementation at colleges of education
The fifth recommendation is that students must be motivated to participate in research on
curriculum development with specific focus on the various phases like curriculum design,
curriculum dissemination, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. In this way
students will be able to acquire skills, knowledge and experience in curriculum development.
Students like lecturers should be accorded the right to analyse and comment critically on their
classroom experience in a process of shared inquiry. Students will have their own concerns
regarding the relevance of the content and the appropriateness of the form of their education.
Action research opens up the space for them to voice these interests and for lecturers to develop
the means to give them pedagogical expression. Building trust and partnership in classrooms may
well impact positively on wider curriculum development at the macro-level and the micro-level,
making possible collaborative partnership in schools and the wider community. Nor should we
forget that students have their own entrenched understandings concerning the nature of college
and classroom work which may well undermine lecturers attempts to develop new curriculum
forms unless students are partners in the process of change.
Finally, it is also recommended that students must participate through the SRC at the whole
college when the entire college curriculum is developed. This will allow college curriculum
developers to discuss and negotiate on curriculum development. This means that curriculum
must be decentralised to allow for students to participate at both the meso-level and the micro-
level, especially during the dissemination phase as discussed in paragraph 43.2.
4.6 LIMRTATIONS OF T II! E STUDY
This research studies like all other researches also suffer from certain limitations derived from the
nature and scope of the work at hand.
The study is limited to the Northern Province and four group interviews were conducted within
94
this area. This is also due to economic consideration and limited time as this is a mini-dissertation
This led to limited time for capturing data and analysing data as well as writing the final report.
The study has some weaknesses in that it is confined to Blacks. The reason being that there is no
this area. This is also due to economic consideration and limited time as this is a mini-dissertation
This led to limited time for capturing data and analysing data as well as writing the final report.
The study has some weaknesses in that it is confined to Blacks. The reason being that there is no
teacher training college for mixed racial groups in the Northern Province.
The study is also limited by the fact that the research literature on student participation in
curriculum development is rather scarce and such work that has been published is concerned
primarily with student participation in social, cultural and political issues. Student participation
in curriculum development at colleges of education has on the whole received little attention
from academic researchers. The study relied much on international literature as the major source
of information on student participation.
4.7 STRENGTHS OF THE STUDY
The significance of this study lies in that it is the first type of research on student participation in
curriculum development at colleges of education in the Northern Province .
The strength of the study also lies in that it is qualitative research which rely on respondents' own
words and focuses on meaning than mere numbers of frequency distribution of answers to
research questions.
Another positive contribution of this study to research studies on participants in curriculum
development is that it challenges educational authorities at national, provincial and college levels
to provide opportunities for students to participate in curriculum development so as to empower
them for professional and social development as well as economic advancement of their own
country.
The study is also valuable in that it is also applicable to all students in South African colleges of
education and indeed to other parts of the world rather than the Northern Province only.
95
The research is also a contribution to research methodology as discussed in chapter two and
shows the interrelationship between theory and practice in curriculum development. The research
also demonstrates how to infuse theory into practice through curriculum development.
The research is also valuable in that it cuts along ethnic divides as colleges appeared to be ethnic
sensitive and distributed on ethnic-geographical patterns of the former homelands and self-
governing territories in the Northern Province.
More importantly, the research can also serve as a source for curriculum development. The
student may be involved in classroom curriculum development as well as being an intelligent
consumer of the curriculum. It therefore behoves the college students to recognise this and
connect their curriculum knowledge to their daily classroom activities.
4.8 RECOMMENDATIONS (FOR FURTHER STILJN]ES
Three recommendations are provided for further studies .
It is recommended that further studies on student participation at colleges of education in
curriculum development be conducted in and across all provinces in South Africa.
In addition, further study has to be made on student involvement in curriculum development in
higher institutions like universities and technicons.
One of the additional questions that urgently needs to be researched is the one matching the
conceptual demands of the curriculum to the conceptual development of college students. The
reservation informing this perception lies in the concern that the nature and extent of student
participation lies in the level of the development and maturity of the students.
4.9 CONCLUSION
It has emerged from this study that students want to be involved in curriculum development.
96
Students who want to improve the college curriculum will find a range of approved practices in
the educational literature. There is a number of practices on which recognised authorities agree.
Providing learners with opportunities for applying skills in a variety of meaningful situations is one
of approved practice. Another acceptable practice will be to involve learners in curriculum
design, dissemination, implementation and curriculum evaluation as long as that participation is
in accordance with the level of development and capacity of the students.
Educational authorities are therefore challenged to open up channels of student involvement
whereas students are also challenged to participate in order to develop college curricula relevant
to their needs and those of the new democratic society. Otherwise this clarion call will just remain
a rhetoric amongst all role players in curriculum development.
97
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