Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescence

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Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescence

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OUTLINE• Biological theories

– Hall

• Organismic theories– Freud, Erikson, and Piaget

• Learning theories– Skinner’s Behaviorists– Social learning theories

• Sociological theories• Historical and anthropological approaches

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1. 生物学取向的青少年发展理论• 从个体生理的发生发展过程出发，认为人的心

理发展是生理成熟的结果。个体发展表现出的类型差异和年龄差异是由生物遗传因素决定的，不受或极少受环境的影响

• 个体生理和心理成熟所经历的阶段对每个人来说具有普遍性 (universal/common to people in different cultures and social contexts)

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霍尔的复演说• 个体心理发展是一系列或多或少复演种族进化

历史的过程，个体心理的发展层次与种系发生的进化层次在本质上是对应的、平行的

• 个体心理发展完全由生物因素决定• 心理发展按照一个普遍的、固定的模式进行，

极少受环境的影响• 与人类物种进化的历史相对应，将个体心理发

展划分为四个阶段：婴幼儿期、儿童期、少年期和青年期

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霍尔的复演说• 婴幼儿期（ 0-4 岁）

– 复演了种族进化的动物阶段；主要活动方式是爬行；感知觉能力发展并获得感知运动技能以进行必要的自我保护

• 儿童期（ 4-8 岁）– 与进化史上的渔猎期相对应。主要活动方式是捉迷藏、

使用玩具器械、钻洞、搭建临时小屋或其他避身场所• 少年期（ 8-12 岁）

– 复演了农业时期的生活。个体想亲自实践、训练自己，特别是想学语言、数学、绘画、写作、音乐等

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霍尔的复演说• 青年期（ 12-25 岁）

– 与两千年前人类历史处在骚乱的过渡阶段相一致 – 个体从青春期向成年期发展过程中，其心理动荡起

伏、充满了矛盾冲突 “狂风暴雨” (storm and stress)

– P32-33

– 霍尔认为青少年在这一时期的发展一方面是复演了种族的进化历史，另一方面也是生物生长发展的自然规律。在矛盾和冲突之中，个体的心灵可以在尽量大的范围内探索人类的经验，不断地达到新的成熟，以更好地适应生活

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霍尔的复演说• 评价：

– 撰写了第一本青少年心理发展的著作，首次将发展心理学的研究范围拓展到青少年期，开始了青少年心理发展的科学研究

– 从各个领域（青少年发展的生理基础、社会基础、青少年的品德不良与犯罪等）对青少年进行了研究，对后人研究青少年的心理发展具有重要的指导作用

– 复演的思想使我们了解到个体心理发展在一定程度上重复着动物和人类心理发展的历史，但是将个体发展史与种族发展史完全等同起来是错误的，在认识到生物因素对个体心理发展的影响的同时，不应忽视社会文化环境和个体主观能动性的作用

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格塞尔的成熟论• 个体生理发展与心理发展经历了一个有规律的顺序过程，这一过程由物种和生物的进化顺序决定

• 个体发展变化的本质是结构性的，基本结构的变化在生物因素 (如成熟 ) 的影响下有规律地发展着，从而控制着外显行为特征的差异

• 环境只是起着支持和沟通各发展阶段的作用，而不能产生或改变发展的基本形式和顺序

• 没有足够的成熟就没有真正的发展变化，在结构得以发展之前，特殊的训练是没有多少成效的– 双生子爬梯实验

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格塞尔的成熟论• 青少年期是指从童年向成人的过渡时期，具体是指十一岁到二十一岁，其中前五年尤为重要

• 对 165名个体进行长达 12 年研究，描述了每个年龄青少年的生理成熟、兴趣和行为特征（ P34-35 ）– 如， 11 岁时，个体开始出现生理变化，并引起心理变化，如变得好冲动、情绪经常不稳定、与同龄人吵架、顶撞父母等

– 16 岁开始出现稳定状态，焦躁被活泼乐观所代替，内心自主性、情感稳定性、爱好交际和向往未来的特点都大大增强了

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格塞尔的成熟论

• 评价：– 格塞尔从有机体内部的过程出发，提出其发展

的成熟论，尤其是其经典实验使我们认识到生理成熟对个体心理发展的重要作用

– 但生理成熟只是为心理的发展提供了一种可能性，而要将这种可能性转变成现实则取决于环境、教育等外部条件和个体的主观能动性

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2. 精神分析学派的青少年发展理论

•精神分析学派主要从心理发展的动力来分析、探讨青少年心理发展的一般规律

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弗洛伊德的精神分析理论 • 将无意识作为研究对象，从人格结构入手来探讨

心理发生、发展的深层动因• 心理发展的基本动力是性本能——力比多 (libid

o)

• 人格结构：– 伊底、自我和超我

• 力比多贮存在伊底里。它是无意识的、非道德的。遵循快乐原则活动，以追求快乐和满足本能的需要、欲望为目的

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弗洛伊德的精神分析理论• 根据力比多集中投放的部位不同，将个体心理发

展划分为五个阶段，即心理性欲发展理论– 口唇期（ 0-1 岁）– 肛门期（ 1-3 岁）– 性器期（ 3-5 岁）– 潜伏期（ 5-12 岁）– 青春期（ 11-20 岁）

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弗洛伊德的精神分析理论• 青春期

– 随着青春期生理变化的发生，儿童期（潜伏期）的平静状态被打破

– 俄底普斯情结再次出现• 与异性接触• 摆脱父母的权威

– 青春期俄底普斯情结的解决不好，可能会出现同性恋– 青春期生理变化带来行为变化及适应困难，青少年易产生精神机能障碍

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安娜 · 弗洛伊德的精神分析理论• 认为青春期在个性形成中起更重要的作用，更多

地对青少年发展的动力问题进行了研究• 在探讨青春期的发展，更多地强调伊底、自我和超我间的关系– 青春期随着性功能的成熟，伊底的力量超过超我，先

前建立起来的伊底与自我间的平衡被打破，从而产生了新的内在冲突

– 超我通过逐渐内化父母或权威的道德价值观念也得到了发展，自我与当前超我中内化的道德标准发生冲突

– 青春期的任务之一是重新获得内在平衡

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安娜 · 弗洛伊德的精神分析理论

• 青春期再次产生俄底普斯情结– 防御机制：

• 禁欲、理智化

• 安娜认为伊底、自我和超我可以达到真正的协调与平衡，这种平衡将促进青少年健康发展

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埃里克森的心理社会发展理论• 重视社会文化因素对发展的影响• 将心理发展阶段扩展至老年，提出了心理

社会发展阶段理论 (psychosocial theory of human development)– 每一阶段都有一个普遍的发展任务– 这些任务是由成熟与社会文化环境、社会期望间不断产生的冲突所规定的

– 心理社会发展阶段见表1

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表 1 埃里克森的心理社会发展阶段

年龄

发展任务

/ 心理社会危机品质有重要影响的人婴儿期 (0-1.5 岁 )

儿童早期 (1.5-3岁）

学前期 (3-5 岁 )

学龄期 (5-12 岁 )

青年期 (12-18 岁 )

成年早期 (18-25岁 )

成年中期 (25-65岁 )

老年期 (65 岁以后 )

信任对不信任

自主对羞怯疑虑

主动对内疚

勤奋对自卑

同一性对同一性混乱

亲密对孤独

繁殖对停滞

完善对绝望

希望

意志

目的

能力

忠实

爱情

关怀

智慧

母亲

父母

家庭

邻里、学校、教师同伴、理想人物

朋友、异性伙伴

配偶、子女

自我与他人的对比

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埃里克森的心理社会发展理论• 由于身体发育并逐渐成熟、性意识的觉醒，青少年

特别关注自己的身体形象• 社会对青少年提出了新的要求，给青少年分配了新

的角色，要求青少年承担新的责任• 形式运算思维使能够在一切可能的和可以想象得到

的关系中对个人的、职业的、性别的和意识形态等方面所承担的义务做出越来越窄的选择（埃里克森，1998 ）

• 青少年心理发展的主要任务——同一性的获得，以及完成这一任务的可能性

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埃里克森的心理社会发展理论• 自我同一性 (self identity)

– 与他人的分离感– 自我本身的统一（时空连续性）

• 自我同一性的发展不仅是青春期才开始出现的，而是每个阶段都存在的

• 青少年期个体自我同一性危机的解决依赖于以前各阶段危机的解决程度

• 不能成功获得自我同一感，就会产生同一性混乱或消极的自我同一性

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3. 行为主义和社会学习理论的青少

年发展观• 未专门研究发展问题

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华生的行为主义理论

• 环境决定论–否认遗传的作用–片面夸大环境和教育的作用

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斯金纳的操作行为主义理论• 行为的强化控制原理

– 人类从事的绝大多数有意义的行为都是操作性的– 操作性行为的结果作为强化，使得该种行为得以继续

保持• 遗传与环境的关系

– 认为应尽可能同时考虑遗传和环境的影响– 认为人类的根据行为的结果而进行学习的能力是从遗

传能力中获得的重要一部分• 心理发展上持非阶段的观点，认为发展是一个连续的、渐进的过程，不存在明显的、质的不同

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斯金纳的操作行为主义理论

• 认为结构主义者仅限于描述发展过程中各阶段的特点是不正确的，心理学学家应在发展的过程中来研究各个阶段的心理规律

• 此外，斯金纳还重视理论的应用

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班杜拉的社会学习理论• 主要探讨社会如何影响个体使其掌握社会规范、

向着社会要求的方向发展的• 认为不仅环境决定人的行为，人的认知因素也影

响个体的行为，同时人们也可以通过行为来改变环境，即行为、环境和认知因素间存在相互作用

• 观察学习是人类主要的学习方式

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班杜拉的社会学习理论

• 观察学习 (observational learning)– 又称替代性学习 (vicarious learning)– 通过观察他人（榜样）的行为及其结果而进行的学习– 直接强化、替代性强化和自我强化– 注意、保持、动作复现、强化和动机过程

• 社会化研究– 攻击性、性、自我强化、亲社会行为等

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图 1

观察学习过程

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班杜拉的社会学习理论• 评价：

– 班杜拉的社会学习理论发掘了被前人所忽视的一种学习形式——观察学习

– 在研究的过程中，班杜拉吸收了认知心理学的研究成果，强调认知因素和社会因素在学习中的重要性

– 其理论建立在设计精巧、操作严密的实验室实验的基础之上，有较强的说服力，而且也引导后人在此基础上进行了大量的研究

– 但其实验的外部效度，即推广性受到了一定的限制；基本上还是环境决定论的观点

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4. Lewin’s Field Theory

• 在格式塔心理学 (Gestalt Psychology) 理论的基础上，将拓扑学的原理运用于心理学，试图用数学方式来处理心理学问题

• 人的心理活动是在一定的心理场或生活空间中进行的– “Behavior (B) is a function of the Person (P) and the

Environment (E), i.e. B=F(P, E)”

– The sum total of all environmental and personal factors in interaction is called the “life space” (LSp) or “psychological space” , i.e. B=F(LSp)

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• 心理场包括个体和环境– person ： individual’s physical and mental fa

ctors, including physical status, needs, motives, and goals etc.

– environment ：个体意识到的或虽未意识到但对个人心理活动有影响的准物理、准社会和准概念事实组成的心理环境 (environment conceived by an individual)

• “ 我们不是在讨论警察对于孩子的实际的法律的和社会的权威，而是在讨论孩子所看到的警察的权威” (勒温 , 1997)

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• 每一心理事件或行为既取决于个体的状态，也取决于环境，还取决于两者的相互作用

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Figure 1 An individual’s life space in a conflict situation

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• Actual behavior would be determined by the strength of the forces, including positive or negative valence of goals, forces of barriers ， etc.

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4. Lewin’s Field Theory• Evaluation:

– Since person and environment are seen as a constellation of interrelated factors, this theory achieves harmony among the many aspects of development by combining biological, sociological, environmental, and psychological factors in the concept of life space

– As a consequence of the emphasis on the combination of a person’s biological, psychological, and environmental factors, Lewin preferred to explain development in terms of individual, rather than in terms of group

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Lewin’s Ideas about development

• 从场论出发描述并解释了心理与行为发展变化的动力– 认为个体发展 (development of individual) 的一个

主要特征是随年龄的增长，生活空间中尚未分化、较松散的区域开始逐渐分化，且在分化的同时个体对各子领域也进行着重新建构

– 分化有快有慢

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• In infancy, a child’s life space is unstructured and undifferentiated, and the child depends on outside help and external structuring of the environment by other people

• As the child groups up, his/her life space increases in structure and differentiation, and the child learns to be more and more self-reliant

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• Lewin held the notion that an individual’s space of free movement is limited by “a. what is forbidden to a person; b. what is beyond his/her abilities” (Lewin, 1936, p. 217)

• As the child matures, fewer restrictions were placed on his/her freedom to move, in addition, the ability to deal effectively with the increased life space grows

Figu

re 2 Com

parison

of the

life space of free m

ovemen

t of ch

ild(a) an

d ad

ult(b

)

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• Lack of freedom of movement will place restriction on the child’s attempt to expand his/her life space, and psychological rigidity may result

• However, if the life space, especially in early childhood, remains unstructured, the personality will lack integration and organization, as a result, the individual will develop personality confusion

• So that, not only independence and freedom are needed for positive development, but also certain kind of dependency is necessary

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Figure 3 The space of free movement of the adolescent

• As the adolescent’s life space increases, many more regions become potentially accessible

• But often it is not at all clear to adolescents whether or not they are supposed to enter these regions ‘uncertainty’

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Lewin’s Ideas about development• Adolescents are not sure whether they are

allowed or forbidden to enter certain regions• The uncertainty or difficulty arises because

these regions are no longer “beyond their ability”, and these regions are not explicitly allowed nor explicitly forbidden

• Consequently, the definition and redefinition of the space of free movement in the adolescents’ life space may take innumerable hours of discussion and argumentation between them and their parents

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• Differences between developmental stages as a function of increasing age manifest themselves in the following ways, i.e. Lewin’s view of point about developmental stages– 1. An increase in the scope of the life space in

regard to • a. What is part of the psychological present• b. The time perspective in the direction of the psych

ological past and the psychological future

– 2. An increasing differentiation of every level of the life space into a multitude of social relations and area of activities

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• Differences between developmental stages as a function of increasing age manifest themselves in the following ways, i.e. Lewin’s view of point about developmental stages– 3. An increasing organization– 4. A change in the general fluidity or rigidity of

the life space

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Figure 4 the life space of two developmental stages

• life space of a younger child (a) and life space of a older child(b) in regard to the present situation, the reality-irreality dimension, and the time perspective

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• From figure 4, you can see:– 1. The main difference between young child’s life s

pace and that of adolescent’s is the increased differentiation

• Change in the differentiation of the LSp occurs slowly at certain times and more rapidly at other times

• Slow differentiation results in relatively harmonious periods of development, while rapid changes are more likely to result in periods of crisis

• Adolescence is characterized by a relatively rapid change in the structure of the LSp, and changes occur in several different domain: cognitive, physical, emotional, and interpersonal


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• From figure 4, you can see:– 2. The time perspective has expanded

• The time perspective of the older child includes an awareness of a more distant future and a more distant past

• Which has far-reaching consequences for education, the curriculum, and vocational planning

– 3. The reality-irreality level also takes on new dimensions

• Better in distinguish between reality and irreality

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Lewin’s Ideas about adolescent development

• Fundamental to Lewin’s theory of development is the view that:– adolescence is a period of transition durin

g which adolescents must change their group membership

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• Adolescent is experiencing biological and physical changes, which make he or she is not sure who he/she is, child or adult?

• People around the adolescent, e.g. parents and teachers, may treat the adolescent at one time like a child or like an adult at another time– Certain childish forms of behavior are no longer

acceptable (such as washing clothes by mother), and at the same time, some of the adult forms of behavior are not yet permitted (such as car driving)

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Figure 5 The adolescent as a marginal man

• During childhood and adulthood, the ‘adults’ (A) and ‘children’(C) are viewed as relatively separated groups

• Adolescent belonging to a group (Ad), which can be viewed as an overlapping field of the children’s and the adults’ group belonging to both of them, or as standing between them, not belonging to either one

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• The adolescent is in a state of “social locomotion”, moving through an unstructured social and psychological field– Goals are no longer clears, and the paths to them

are ambiguous and full of uncertainties

• Since the adolescent does not have a clear understanding of his or her social status, expectations, obligations, or how to cope with rejection, his or her behavior reflects this uncertainty

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• The adolescent is confronted with several attractive choices that are at the same time have relatively impervious boundaries, e.g. driving a car, smoking

• Since the adolescent is moving through a rapidly changing field of life, he/she does not know the directions to specific goals and is open to constructive guidance, but is also vulnerable to persuasion, seduction, and group pressure– Unfamiliar situations cause crises that can produce

withdrawal, sensitivity, and inhibition as well as aggression, inappropriate emotional outbursts, rebellion, and radicalism

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• Because of a lack of cognitive structure, the adolescent frequently is not sure whether certain behavior can help in moving toward or away from a particular goal nor what its consequences may be

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• During adolescence changes in body structure, body experience, and new body sensations and urges are more drastic, so that even the well-known life space of body image becomes less familiar, unreliable, and unpredictable

• As a result, adolescents are very concerned about their body image, and they will spend considerable time studying their body image in mirror, and are concerned about the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics

• Negative feelings about one’s own body are related to a negative self-concept and may lead to emotional instability that can change one’s orientation toward life

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• The change in a child’s life space from being limited in scope but relatively structured to the increased but less structured and often unknown regions of the adolescent’s life space may generate insecurities

• But it includes also more extensive social relationships, a new body image, and expanding geographic surroundings, as well as an increased perception of the future and a better understanding of the past

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• In sum, Field theory defines adolescence as a period of transition from childhood to adulthood

• The possibility of moving from one social group to the other is determined informally by one’s physique: looking like an adult makes it easier to get adult privileges

• Formally, adult privileges and responsibilities are determined by law and come at legally established ages

• This transition is characterized by deeper and far-reaching changes, a faster rate of growth, and differentiation of the life space as compared with the preceding stages of late childhood

• The transition is also characterized by the fact that the individual enters a cognitively unstructured region that results in uncertainty of behavior

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• Transition from childhood to adulthood is a universal phenomenon, since children change their social roles and eventually become mature adults in all societies

• However, the shift from childhood to adulthood can occur in different patterns– It can take the form of a sudden shift, as has been

observed in primitive societies in which the puberty rites end childhood and signify the beginning of adulthood

– There can also be a gradual shift, especially if the child group and the adult group are not as clearly separated and defined as they are in our society

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• In modern societies, adolescents find themselves in a social situation in which their group membership is not clearly defined

• The adolescent in such an in-between situation is referred to by Lewin as the “marginal man”, and the adolescent’s in-between standing is represented in Figure 5 by the overlapping area (Ad) of the child region (C) and the adult region (A)

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• Being a marginal man implies that the adolescent may at times act more like a child, often when he/she wants to avoid adult responsibilities; at other times he/she may act more like an adult and request adult privileges

• Parents and teachers, too, may interpret the marginal-man situation in their own way: they are more likely to remind the adolescent to be mature, grown-up, and adultlike when the issues involve responsibilities, chores, work, and study; then perceive their charges as “still too young” and “immature” when it comes to adult rights and privileges

• Such a situation is partly responsible for some of “adolescent difficulties” in modern societies

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• From these basic assumptions about the nature of human development, Lewin (1939) derives a number of statements that describe, explain, and if the the field forces are known, predict adolescent behavior:– 1. Adolescents may show shyness and sensitivity bu

t at the same time aggressiveness, mainly because of the unclearness of the situation and the disequilibrium in their life space

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Lewin’s Ideas about adolescent development– 2. As a marginal man, the adolescent experiences a

continuous conflict among different attitudes, values, ideologies, and life-styles, since he/she is shifting his/her orientation from the childhood group to the adult group, but he/she really does not belong to either. Therefore, he/she experiences lack of social anchorage except in relationship to his/her peer group

– 3. These conflicts in values, attitudes, and ideologies result in increased emotional tension

– 4. There is a predisposition in the adolescent to take extreme positions and to change behavior drastically; consequently, one can find radical, rebellious attitudes and actions side by side with sensitivity and withdrawal tendencies

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– 5. “Adolescent behavior” can be observed only if and to the extent that the structure and the dynamics of the life involve the following: (1)expansion and differentiation of the life space; (2)marginal-man standing in relationship to childhood and adult groups; (3) biologically determined changes in the life space as a result of body changes. The particular type of behavior that emerges and the degree of “adolescent behavior” depend greatly on the strength and nature of these conflicting forces. Above all in importance is the amount of difference between– and the factors that separate– adult society and child society in a particular culture

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5. 斯普兰格的人格理论

• 理解青少年自我的发展理解心理学• 研究青春期的一系列心理发展变化，认为一个人只有以一种发展的眼光来认识青少年的种种心理现象，才能了解其价值

• 关注青少年发展中结构变化的个体差异• 根据价值取向的不同，将人格划分为 6 种类型• 青少年在发展变化的过程中逐渐形成了一种明确

的、持久的、占主导地位的价值观，这成为个体人格形成和发展的决定力量

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5. 斯普兰格的人格理论• 青少年可能经历不同的发展过程（或发展模式）

– 与霍尔的观点相一致，个体在达到成熟的过程中体验到种种冲突、压力、紧张和危机，这最终导致人格的改变

– 发展表现为一种连续、缓慢的过程，个体逐渐地接受各种文化价值观念和社会意识形态

– 个体积极参与的成长过程：青少年有意识地发展和完善自己，通过自己的力量和有意识的活动来克服各种困扰和危机

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5. 斯普兰格的人格理论

• 青少年期是人格形成和发展的时期，也是自我意识蓬勃发展、精神生活发展巨大变化的时期：“第二次诞生”– 发现自我：

• 探索自己的内心世界，关注自己的精神生活和个性特点– 设想未来生活：

• 表现为对职业的选择以及对未来的生活态度，自觉地建立起自己的生活目标

– 扩大生活领域

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6.Piaget’s theory: Basic concepts

• 心理发展的实质– 主体通过动作对客体的适应 (adaptation)– 通过同化 (assimilation) 和顺应 (accommodation) 两种

方式实现– 图式 (schema) 、同化、顺应、平衡 (equilibrium)

• 影响心理发展的因素：– 成熟 (maturation)– 物理经验和数理经验 (physical and symbolic logic kno

wledge)– 社会经验 (social knowledge)– 平衡 (equilibrium)

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6. Piaget’s theory: Basic concepts

• Schema 图式– A generalized or established pattern of meaningful a

nd repeatable behavior patterns, such as the sucking schema, the grasping schema

• Equilibration 平衡– Equilibration refers to the balance between the dev

eloping child and his/her physical and social environment

• Operation 运算– Interiorized actions than one performs in one’s mind,

which allow the subject to mentally perform actions that previously had to be performed physically

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6. Piaget’s theory: Developmental stages

• Developmental stages:– A sequential progression in the cognitive structures, w

hich underlie problem-solving operations, takes place– Stages emerge in an orderly, invariant sequential patte

rn, and no stage can be skipped– Stages are characterized by a “whole structure”: “Eac

h stage is characterized by an overall structure in terms of which the main behavior patterns can be explained” (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969, p. 153)

– The earlier stages provide essential building material that the individual integrates and transforms in the process of moving to the next higher level

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6. Piaget’s theory: Developmental stages

• Four stages of cognitive development ：– Sensorimoter stage （ 0-2 years old ）– Preoperational stage （ 2-7 year old ）– Concrete operational stage （ 7-11 years old ）– Formal operational stage （ from 11 years old on)

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6. Piaget’s theory: Formal operational thought

• Formal operational thought:– Distinction between operational thought of the c

hild and the formal operations of adolescence:• the former can deal with problems that are presente

d concretely, while the later can deal with abstract ideas and use more involved logical processes

– Four major components of formal operations:• Conception of possibilities• Hypothetical deductive reasoning• Interpropositional thinking• Combinational or systemic thinking

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• Adolescents’ thought– Becomes more abstract and shows a more

sophisticated mastery of formal operations: adolescents gain the ability “to reason in terms of verbally stated hypotheses and no longer in terms of concrete objects and their manipulation”

– Be able to integrate all of the specific operations, a process which results in a “structured wholeness” of the thought processes

– Can make hypothetical deductions and entertain the idea of relativity: “adolescent, unlike child, is an individual who thinks beyond the present and forms theories about everything, delighting especially in consideration of what is not”

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• Adolescents’ thought:– Analytically reflect about their own thinking: “thinking

about thinking”, “statement about statement”: so that adolescents begin to have theories about nature, person, and social items: such as “implicit personality theory” and “political idealism”. The ability of reflective thinking also contribute partly to the re-emergence of adolescent egocentrism

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• 青少年 :– 发展了一种真正的、在抽象和假设的水平上有条理地

进行思维的能力– 把逻辑运算结合成各种系统，并根据可能的转化形式去解决脱离了对具体事物的观察所提出的有关命题或根据掌握的资料，进行科学实验，从而发现规律

– 形式运算思维使青少年脱离具体现实并从具体现实中解放出来，使个体在青春期后再次出现自我中心状态• 相信反省思维是万能的，似乎世界应该服从于一个观念的格

式，而不应服从于现实的系统。是一个典型的形而上学的年龄时期；自我十分强壮，足以改造宇宙，而且十分巨大，足以吸收宇宙 (皮亚杰 , 1982)

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• 青少年– “ 与形式运算的构成和思维结构的完善完全平行的是

青春期通过人格的发展及其参与成人社会所表现出来的情感”（皮亚杰， 1982）• 青少年的生活既充满了高尚的情操和利他的打算，同时又有令

人不安的妄自尊大和过分夸大自己的情绪情感以及过分体验情绪情感的特点

• 虽有许多雄心壮志，但常常是统购想象来参加和实现各种社会活动，而非现实的

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7. Cultural anthropological perspectives on adolescence

• Emphasis on the role of culture on adolescent development

• “Human behavior could be explained in exclusively cultural terms” or “human behavior is understandable primarily in the context of social and cultural patterns”

• “Cultural determinism” or “Cultural relativism” on development

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• The question that Margaret Mead explored:– “Are the disturbance which vex our adolescents due

to the nature of adolescence itself or to the civilization? Under different conditions does adolescence present a different picture?” (Mead, 1928/1950, p. 17)

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• 玛格丽特 ·米德的观点– 《萨摩亚的成年》 (Coming of Age in Samoa, 1928)

• 在萨摩亚这块土地上，人们“能够以一种随和的态度对待人生，……对任何冲突、任何强烈的情境都能顺利地回避。”

• 萨摩亚岛上的青少年几乎没有体验到不可避免的冲突和压力，也没有“暴风骤雨”现象的存在，他们相对地远离心理混乱。“已达到青春期的萨摩亚姑娘同她们尚未成年的妹妹们的主要区别，仅限于在姐姐身上已经表现出的某种生理变化尚未在妹妹身上出现而已。除此之外，在那些正经历青春期的姑娘们与那些还要过两年才达到青春期的少女们、或那些两年前就达到青春期的女性之间，并不存在着其他巨大的差异。”

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• 玛格丽特 ·米德的观点– 因此，青春期并非必然是一个危机四伏的紧张时期，任何心理紧张都来自于文化条件，也即原先我们“归诸于人类本性的东西，绝大多数不过是我们对于生活于其中的文明施加给我们的种种限制的某种反应。”( 玛格丽特 ·米德 , 1988)

– 认为如果社会文化能够像萨摩亚岛一样为青少年从儿童期向成人期的过渡提供一种平稳、渐进的环境，那么青少年将较少地体验到应激事件

– 后来，玛格丽特 ·米德修正了其理论，认为个体发展的某些方面存在着跨文化的普遍性

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• Ruth Benedict’s theory of cultural conditioning– 《社会条件的连续性和不连续性》 (Continuities and

Discontinuities in Cultural Conditioning)(1938) 、《文化模式》 (Patterns of Culture)(1934)

– Believe that human beings show far greater plasticity and modifiability than animals, and humans were from the time of birth on conditioned by the cultural setting, so that human species has made great progress and there are wide intercultural differences

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• Ruth Benedict’s theory of cultural conditioning– Growth was a gradual, smooth, and continuous

process, if natural growth is uninfluenced by social-environmental forces

– However, to the extent that social groups introduce requirements, restrictions, differential treatment, and expectations, discontinuities would emerge

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• Ruth Benedict’s theory of cultural conditioning– In modern societies, the difference between a child and

an adult– and even between adolescents of different ages– is delineated sharply, by legal definition, by different schools, and different grades for different ages

– Because of the differences or discontinuities between childhood to adulthood, adaptation difficulties or problems were resulted

– In contrast, children in some primitive societies follow a relatively continuous growth pattern

– Three specific aspects of discontinuity versus continuity in cultural conditioning: responsible versus nonresponsible status role; dominance versus submission; contrasted sexual roles

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8. Ecological perspectives of human development

• 布朗芬布伦纳的人类发展生态学模型– 环境 / 生态– 四种生态

• 微系统 (microsytem)• 中间系统 (mesosystem)• 外层系统 (exosystem)• 宏系统 (macrosystem)• 历史年代系统 (chronosystem)

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Ecological model of human development

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• Life Course theory by Glen Elder Jr– Emphasis on the life course or time-dimensi

on of development– Believed that human life span can be best un

derstood by considering lives in their historical time and place, the timing of social roles and life events, the interdependence or connections among lives, and the role of human agency and social constraints in decision making

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• Life Course theory– Human lives in historical time and place: family

obligation of current adolescents and their parents, grandparents; perspectives on consumptions of current adolescents and their parents; morality and values of current adolescents and their parents

– Linked lives: such as parental divorce, unemployment, parental conflicts, etc.

– The timing of lives: whether or not a person experiences certain events at a given time

– Human agency and social constraints: people’s choice and planning of life

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Summary理论主动 / 被动连续 / 非连续天性 / 教养世界观精神分析理论

主动的。儿童受本能驱动引导其发展

非连续的。心理性欲发展或心理社会发展

都强调。生物因素促进了性心理和社会心理发展；父母

有机体模型

学习理论

被动的。儿童受环境塑造

连续的教养机械主义

皮亚杰的认知发展观

主动的。儿童积极地建构对有关自我、他人及环境的理解

非连续的都强调。儿童适应环境；神经成熟（脑）影响发展

有机体模型

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Summary理论主动 / 被动连续 / 非连续天性 / 教

养世界观

勒温的场论

主动连续都强调有机体模型

生态学理论

主动与被动连续与非连续：不断变化的个体和环境的互动导致了发展的量的变化。然而，非连续个人或环境事件（如父母离婚）带来质变

教养背景主义

文化人类学

主动与被动连续与非连续教养背景主义

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Questions:• What kind of implications can be drawn from the

theoretical perspectives for the development of adolescents

• Or, what kind of picture you can draw for a typical adolescent based on the theoretical perspectives and the related evidence

• What kind of implications can be drawn from the theoretical perspectives for empirical research on adolescents, either in terms of research issues or in terms of implications for research design

• What is the relationship between theories and real development of adolescents

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评价理论的标准• 1. 准确• 2. 清楚• 3. 可预测：

– 不但能够解释已知的心理发展事实，而且能够预测。不但能预测一组儿童的一般的发展模式，而且能够预测某一儿童的特定发展

• 4. 对儿童发展与教育实际的指导意义• 5. 内部一致性• 6. 经济 /简约

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评价理论的标准• 7. 能被证伪• 8. 有可靠的证据支持• 9. 对新的事实仍实用• 10. 新颖、与众不同• 11. 能为所有儿童心理发展现象提供答案• 12. 能够产生新的研究技、激发产生新知识• 13. 在很长时间内仍能为研究者所关注• 14. 令人满意 (explain things in a way that mak

es good sense)

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• The purpose of the overview of the theoretical perspectives on adolescence is to demonstrate how each of the views has helped us to gain a better understanding of the nature of adolescence,

• And if possible, what research issues will be produced from the theoretical perspectives

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• 不同的理论强调了发展的不同方面，而对于解释人类发展的原因和复杂性来说，多种理论知识是必需的

– David R. Shaffer (2004)

Documents

Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescence