Title Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods ...okinawa-repo.lib.u-ryukyu.ac.jp/bitstream/20.500.12001/...40. Productivity (Coded by ASU Job Language Training Program members

Title Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods

Author(s) Ohyama, Nakakatsu

Citation 沖縄短大論叢 = OKINAWA TANDAI RONSO, 9(1): 19-45

Issue Date 1995-03-01

URL http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12001/10663

Rights 沖縄大学短期大学部

Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods*

N akakatsu Ohyama

No matter what else we do, we must remember that if data are

inadequate, there is always the danger that the theory and conclu

sions drawn from them could be unrelaible and misleading. (Wolfson,

1986, p. 689)

Multiple methods of data collection and analysis permit a more

complete view of the research object and reveal at the same time the

relative potential of different methods. (Grotjahn and Kasper, 1991, p.

l11)

Contents

I • Introduction

II. Sociolinguistic Qualitative Data Analysis in the Past

Organizing Qualitative Data

Breaking Qualitative Data

Synthesizing Qualitative Data

III. Recent Computer-Assisted Qualitative Analysis

Inputting Qualitative Data

Coding and Subcoding Qualitative Data

Retrieving Qualitative Data

IV. Modern Technologies in the Mechanical Phase of Field Work

1) Formatting the Text

2) Numbering the Line

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Nakakatsu Ohyama

3) Coding Segments of the Text

4) Sorting out Coded Segments

Advantages and Disadvantages

V. Summary

Bibliography

I . Introduction

This paper discusses the various strategies for organizing sociolinguis

tic qualitative data analysis. It will cover sociolinguistic data analysis of

the past, recent computer-assisted qualitative data analysis, and modern

technologies in the mechanical phase of field work. An effective computer

software program will be introduced along with a discussion of the numer

ous advantages and obstacles that may result from advanced technologies.

The Need for This Study

In recent times, sociolinguists tend to collect qualitative information for

their study. This inclination has dramatically increased during these years.

Due to this phenomenon, some of them are having difficulties in examining

their information. They need a research method facilitating high efficiency,

reliability, and flexibility (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Grotjahn & Kasper,

1991). There is a great demand to facilitate modern technologies for

examining qualitative information (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

But for a knowledge of computer-assisted qualitative data analysis,

sociolinguists will face an obstacle in trying to manage a large amount of

information. It goes without saying that the computer, through the mass

production, is accessable to all individuals and is a useful machine for

examining sociolinguistic qualitative information because of its mechanical

storage. There is a need to know how to examine complex information

quickly, inexpensively, and accurately.

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Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods

II. Sociolinguistic Qualitative Data Analysis in the Past

Before the computer was available, sociolinguists had to process and

examine information in the form of field notes, official information, news

paper articles, subjects' written memoranda, and interview transcripts_

Those who have not studied research methods might consider that qualita

tive data analysis seems to be an insurmountable task They occasionally

fail in properly managing the information after collecting it_ Those who

studied research methods might develop their research strategies so that

they can examine their information by organizing, breaking data into

manageable units, and then synthesizing it_

Organizing Qualitative Data

Organizing qualitative information entails reading all the information

and numbering it sequentially and/or systematically_ This process helps

the researcher understand the variety of incidents, events, and categories of

the data_ The qualitative researcher, through observing and examining the

information, can accumulate the same type of incidents_

Glaser and Strauss have stated that:

The analyst starts by coding each incident in his data into as

many categories of analysis as possible, as categories emerge

or as data emerge that fit an existing category_ While coding

an incident for a category, compare it with the previous inci

dents in the same and different groups coded in the same

category_ (Glaser and Strauss, 1967, P- 105-106)

As the sociolinguist keeps accumulating information, " ___ the previous

incidents in the same and different groups coded in the same category" also

starts to appear from the qualitative information organized on the specific

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Nakakatsu Ohyama

topic.

Breaking Qualitative Data into Manageable Units

Breaking qualitative information into manageable units entails creat

ing a small number of coding classifications. Furthermore, it entails

developing more coding classifications due to the fact that the small number

of coding classifications is occasionally too inaccurate to indicate specific

incidents. According to Glaser, researchers need to ask many questions of

the qualitative information, such as "What is the purpose of the data study?"

and examine each sentence.

The second rule is to analyze line by line, constantly coding

each sentence. This may seem somewhat painstaking, but as

codes emerge and saturate, it becomes easier and faster. It is

necessary for achieving a full theoretical coverage which is

thoroughly grounded. (Glaser, 1978, p. 57)

Synthesizing Qualitative Data

Synthesizing qualitative information usually involves splitting up a

large amount of qualitative information to be coded in classifications, each

with more than one labeled code. It facilitates sociolinguists to organize

their qualitative information sequentially and/or systematically.

Needless to say, it is time-consuming to cut and paste manually without

computer assistance. The sociolinguists spend their time cutting and

pasting by using scissors, glue, scotch tape, and index cards. In order to

sythesize qualitative information, they make many xeroxed copies of the

field notes that include the raw information. Furthermore, due to the fact

that qualitative data analysis involves endless tasks of coding and recoding,

they are confronted with the difficulty of keeping track of all the informa·

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tion. With computers, this complex problem can be solved.

III. Recent Computer-Assisted Qualitative Analysis

The computer has become more friendly and much easier to use. It has

eased the qualitative data analysis and facilitated workable kinds of analy

sis which were not previously achievable. Sociolinguists, using word proces

sors, have developed research strategies to examine their qualitative infor

mation, including inputting, coding, subcoding, and data retrieval.

Inputting Qualitative Data

In order to examine qualitative information, sociolinguists use word

processors to input the qualitative information, containing field notes,

interview transcrips, and written memoranda. It is much easier to read

information on a printed hard copy than on a screen. Reading the collected

data is an essential part of the data analysis. Hammersley and Atkinson

have stated that:

The first step in the process of analysis, then, is a careful

reading of the data collected up to that point, in order to gain

a thorough familiarity with it. At this stage the aim is to use

the data to think with. (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983, p.

178)

This data inputting process allows the sociolinguist to gain familiarity with

the information.

Coding and Subcoding Qualitative Data

After the preparation process is complete, the sociolinguist must begin

the step of coding and subcoding qualitative information. Glaser has stated

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Nakakatsu Ohyama

that:

The analyst codes for as many categories that might fit; he codes

different incidents into as many categories as possible. New cate

gories emerge and new incidents fit existing categories. He may even

code for what is not obviously stated. This maximizes allowing the

best fit, the most workable ones and the core relevancies to emerge

on their own. (Glaser, 1978, p.56)

Sociolinguists start with a process called open coding, coding the data

every possible way. For determining classifications, they typically begin

with a small amount of codes from the theoretical background. Then they

develop coding categories that have emerged from their data and subse

quently group the classifications.

For example, a coding system was developed by Arizona State Univer

sity's (ASU) Job Language Training Program members, including myself.

Grouped codes involve the collection of codes which were in the same type

of category (See Table 1: an example of the coding system used by ASU

Language Training Program). The ASU Job Language Training Program

groups twenty five codes into six different categories. First, in the situation

category, there are five codes; 1) situation-physical, 2) situation-social, 3)

situation-temporal, 4) critical event, and 5) job change. Second, the follow

ing four codes are in the environment category; 1) quality improvement

team, 2) temporary, supplement, and other job status, 3) job advancement,

and 4) company policies. Third, there are three codes in the job category;

1) job tasks, 2) job coordination, and 3) job performance. Fourth, the next

four codes are grouped as participants; 1) participants/limited English

proficient workers, 2) participants/group leaders and trainers, 3) partici

pants/managers, and 4) participants/other workers. Fifth, there are four

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Computer-Assisted Sociolinguistic Research Methods·

codes in the attitudes and values category; 1) cultural values, 2) age and

value gap, 3) attitudes, and 4) productivity. Sixth, the following five codes

are in the training category; 1) sleeting participants, 2) scheduling classes, 3)

other program ideas, 4) learning the job, and 5) training.

It is necessary to choose a specific code and analyze how to subcode

data. For example, the ASU Job Language Training Program uses the

major code "15" for limited English proficient (LEP) workers (See Table 1).

In a page of interview transcripts, the first and fourth paragraphs are coded

as "15" and other categories because they referred to LEP workers (See

Table 2). The researchers do this coding first in pencil and then enter it

into the computer.

Table 1

AN EXAMPLE OF THE CODING SYSTEM USED BY OUR ASU JOB

LANGUAGE TRAINING PROGRAM

SITUATION:

17. Situation-physical

18. Situation-social

19. Situation-temporal

41. Critical event

48. Job change

ENVIRONMENT:

26. Quality improvement team

TRAINING:

23. Sleeting participants

24. Scheduling classes

25. Other program ideas

32. Learning the job

35. Training

27. Temporary, supplemental, and other job status

28. Job advancement

42. Company policies

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THE JOB:

30. Job tasks

38. Job coordination

50. Company performance

PARTICIPANTS:

15. Participants/limited English proficient workers

34. Participants/group leaders and trainers

39. Participants/managers

43. Participants/other workers

ATTITUDE, VALUES:

29. Cultural values

36. Age/value gap

37. Attitudes

40. Productivity

(Coded by ASU Job Language Training Program members in 1985)

Table 2

DOCUMENT A

GROUP LEADER INTERVIEWS

< 1 > A : 15,9, 14, B : Y au have one person working for you from

Africa, don't you? When you tell him some

thing, does he understand your oral instruc

tions?

C: Yes.

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< 1 > A : 44, 45,

< 1 > A : 20,


B What about reading the planning packs?

C : He doesn't seem to have any trouble reading

English at all. He is very bright.

C : I just think it is hard for me to understand him

sometimes. He has such a strong accent.

B So is his pronounciation the problem?

C Yes, and he is very shy, too. He speaks very

quietly. You practically have to put your ear on

his mouth to hear what he is saying. That is a

big problem.

< 1 > A : 15, 18, 37 B How does he interact with the other workers?

C He stays by himself. He eats lunch with us but

he will not say a word the whole time.

B : Do you think that is because he is worried

about his English?

C I think he is just shy. His brother is very quiet,

too.

(Interviewed by one of our project members in 1984)

Retrieving Qualitative Data

After the coding process, the researchers get a page from the query of

everything coded "15" in their data. According to Glaser (1978), sorting data

should involve the following procedures:

1 • Start to sort anywhere.

2. Begin sorting all categories and properties that relate to one

core concept. This rule forces focus, selectivity, and delimiting

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Nakakatsu Ohyama

of the core concepts.

3 . Promote one core idea at a time to the center and demote the

others to sub-core ideas.

4 . Memo any new ideas and then sort the memo into the outline.

5 • Carry forward to subsequent sorts any concepts that might

need to be used again.

6 . Integrate ideas; all ideas must fit somewhere in the outline or

the outline must be changed.

7 • Sort in stages; it is necessary to resort and constantly correct

and confirm the outline.

8 . Cut off rules including running out of memos, saturation of

core concepts, and personal saturation and completeness.

9. Cut up memos as often as necessary to increase sortability.

Write "pass on" notes on memos to be carried forward and

used again in other ideas.

10. Pace sorting. One good rule is to have a flexible but regular

schedule for sorting. {p. 111-112)

The ASU Job Language Training Program shows us that computers

can be used for the mechanical part of sorting. Their queries are done by

the computer such as the Word II computer. (However, other software is

available. They also use software called the Ethnograph, which will be

described in a subsequent section.) Then, they subcode a major code of "15"

into twenty-three categories (See Table 3).

Subcodes of the participants-LEP workers, consist of nine major sub

categories; 1) potential students, 2) attitudes of workers, 3) qualifications

and job performance of LEP workers, 4) work history, 5) language ability,

6) personal interests, 7) years in the country, 8) family, and 9) age. In

subcoding a major code of the participants-LEP workers, the researcher

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also needs to see the other five codes; 1) isolation of LEP workers, 2) other

workers who help LEP workers, 3) attitude toward the role of managers, 4)

attitudes toward work associated with age, and 5) attitudes towards

project-associated with age_ An example of subcoding is shown in Table 4_

The previous sentence "You have one person working for you from Africa,

don't you?" is subcoded into 103 and 108 because this sentence is indicating

nationality and specific individuality_

Table 3

SUBCODES OF (15)

102 _ potential students-number

103 _ potential students-langauge background and/or nationality

108 _ potential students-specific individuals

112 _ potential students-job position or status

115 _ potential students-other background characteristics (including educa-

tion)

110_ attitudes & participation of LEP workers in learning English

104 _ attitudes of others towards LEP workers-other workers

105 _ attitudes of others towards LEP workers-managers

109_ attitudes of others towards LEP workers-group leaders

113 _ attitudes of others towards LEP workers-trainers

127 _ attitudes of others towards LEP workers-liason

202_ qualifications & job performance of LEP workers

206 _ work history

214 _ language ability

218 _ personal interests

219 _ years in the country

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N akakatsu Ohyama

242. family

225. age

SEE ALSO:

107. (18) isolation of LEP workers

111. (43) other workers who help LEP workers

116. (39) attitudes towards the role of managers

119. (36) attitudes towards work-associated with age

192. (36) attitudes towards project-associated with age

(Subcoded by the ASU ] ob Language Training Project member in 1985)

Table 4

A : 15, 103, 108, B You have one person working for you from Africa,

9, 14 don't you? When you tell him something, does he

understand your oral instructions?

A: 15,18,37 B : How does he interact with the other workers?

C : He stays by himself. He eats lunch with us but he

will not say a word the whole time.

B Do you think that is because he is worried about

his English?

C I think he is just shy. His brother is very quiet, too.

(Interviewed by one of our project members in 1984)

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In summary, the ASU project organizes detailed sociolinguistic qualita

tive data systematically with the help of computers. The researchers, using

the data coded, can more effectively evaluate the participants and keep the

data much more organized. It is more advantageous for sociolinguists to

operate computers based on modern technologies, when sociolinguistic

qualitative data needs to be studied, examined and stored for future refer

ence. The next section presents a set of computer software programs for

data management and demonstrates how modern technologies can ease and

hasten steps for analyzing qualitative data.

IV. Modern Technologies in the Mechanical Phase of Field Work

This section briefly describes four steps involved in using the computer

software program called THE ETHNOGRAPH based on an article "THE

ETHNOGRAPH: A Computer Program for the Analysis of Qualitative

Data" (Seidel and Clark, 1984). The four steps are: 1) formatting the text,

2) numbering the lines of the text, 3) coding segments of the text, and 4)

sorting out coded segments.

1) Formatting the Text

In order to prepare files for THE ETHNOGRAPH, the researcher

must use a word processor such as W ordStar. He needs to convert the files

prepared by W ordStar into a special file called an ASCII text file. This file

has modified margins to assist in sorting out text by THE

ETHNOGRAPH. For the text file it is necessary to choose a root name

which ends with the extension ETH.

The text file stores the data in specific columns. The left margin is

eight spaces from the left and the right margin is forty four spaces from the

left. The text will be aliened according to these margins except in the case

of the file and section/speaker identifiers.

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In order to more easily recognize these identifiers, both the file and

section/speaker identifiers begin at six spaces from the left instead of eight,

and will be indicated by a plus sign in the left margin. The file identifiers

end at column forty-two and consist of up to thirty-five characters including

letters, numbers, and spaces. Their function is to represent the general

topics of the file. The section/speaker identifiers end at column sixteen and

are limited to ten characters. At the end of the section/speaker identifiers,

there must be a colon (The colon indicates the end of the section/speaker

identifiers). The extracted segment can be easily identified when all seg

ments are separated into categories. Formatting example is on Table 5.

Table 5

ID: Interviewing a manager of ABC company

+ Interviewing a manager of C area

EI: I went through the first and last

pages of the agenda with Tom and in

general he agreed that most of the

areas cited in the agenda were true at

ABC company, however Tom had some

specific concerns he wanted to raise

with me and a good part of the

interview dealt with these.

For example, he wanted to tell me

about what he called the new culture

of workers who want to run the shop

but really are not ready for it.

During work hours they waste time joking

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around. They are young. They are not

used to having much responsibility. Tom

talked about one new worker who was from

Germany. This worker had a hard time

accepting the way the young workers

behaved at ABC company.

Tom said this was especially true of

the supplemental and contract workers.

The supplemental workers said this

program was particularly aimed at

college students and housewives who had

never worked or had worked a long time

ago, and so they have a lot of trouble

getting used to the work environment.

(Intereviewed by one of our project members in 1984)

2) Numbering the Lines of the Text

THE ETHNOGRAPH software autimatically formats the data file

into a standard ASCII text file. But in order to select and manipulate text,

it is important to number the lines of the text. To number the lines of text,

use the "Number A File Procedure" of the "ETHNOGRAPH PROCEDURE

MENU." When numbering lines, remember that the ETHNOGRAPH

program disk must be in drive A, and the target disk containing the data file

must be in drive B.

This system for numbering the lines of text is an interactive program.

It requires the user to input information as the computer prompts. In order

to begin the program, type "B>A: ethno A; xnumber." Then the researcher

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Nakakatsu Ohyama

needs to enter the already existing formatted file's name and the desired

name of the numbered file at the computer's request. Then the computer

will request the researcher to respond whether or not the file names are

correct. If the user confirms the information, the computer will request

what number to begin numbering by and then begin numbering the lines. If

the user indicates that the file names are incorrect, the computer will ask

him to enter the correct names. Through this step, any typographical errors

can be corrected. After the name has been correctly entered, the computer

will continue to the next step. For example, in the first file the researcher

can begin from number one and 201 for the following file. Numbering

example is on Table 6.

3) Coding Segments of the Text

After completing the numbered data file, the researcher must input

codes on a screen or on a printed hard copy. Coding segments on a hard

copy is much easier than on screen. First, it is necessary to separate the

printed copy into sections by category and mark these sections with the

desired code. These categories will form the basic outline of the final menu.

When coding on a hard copy, he uses pencil. This process is called

"code mapping." The coded information is put into the computer through

the "CODE A FILE" program on the "ETHNOGRAPH PROCEDURE

MENU." Like the "NUMBER A FILE," the "CODE A FILE" program is

also an interactive program.

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Table 6

NUMBERED VERSION OF FILE A: KUNI

ID: Interviewing a manager of ABC company 1

+Interviewing a manager of C area 2

EI: I went through the first and last 3

pages of the agenda with Tom and in 4

general he agreed that most of the 5

areas cited in the agenda were true at 6

ABC company, however Tom had some 7

specific concerns he wanted to raise 8

with me and a good part of the 9

interview dealt with these. 10

For example, he wanted to tell me 11

about what he called the new culture 12

of workers who want to run the shop 13

but really are not ready for it. 14

During work hours they waste time joking 15

around. They are young. They are not 16

used to having much responsibility. Tom 17

talked about one new worker who was from 18

Germany. This worker had a hard time 19

accepting the way the young workers 20

behaved at ABC company. 21

Tom said this was especially true of 22

the supplemental and contract workers. 23

The supplemental workers said this 24

program was particularly aimed at 25

college students and housewives who had 26

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N akakatsu Ohyama

never worked or had worked a long time 27

ago, and so they have a lot of trouble 28

getting used to the work environment. 29


The program will ask the researcher to specify each category's bound·

ary in terms of number of lines and the number of codes to be contained

within that boundary. The program allows the user any length of combina

tions extending up to three seperate codes per category. Any single code

may be a combination of one to ten characters including spaces. The

computer can call up any one of the categories according to that code.

Typographical errors can be corrected through a program called

"CODE SUMMARY." Within the "CODE SUMMARY," the coding seg

ments of the text can be changed through reentering the code name and

resetting the length of the coded segments. Coding example is on Table 7.

4) Sorting out Coded Segments

After all the text is coded, the researcher can search for coded seg

ments from the file by typing specific codes he wants to collect. When

searching, the "SEARCH A FILE" procedure on the ETHNOGRAPH can

be used. The "SEARCH A FILE" is also an interactive program.

First, the researcher must enter the file name to use it through the

"CODE A FILE" program. Then the computer will call up and display that

file.

The researcher will have a second opportunity to alter the code as

mentioned in the previous "CODE SUMMARY" section. In order to identify

segments, the new name must be used through the "SEARCH A FILE"

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program.

The researcher may enter the code words for sorting out (e.g.,

"SEARCHING FOR SEGMENTS DEFINED BY CODE WORD:

WORKER"). Sorting example is on Table 8.

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES

1) Advantages

Some of the more major reasons why modern technology will simplify

the task of qualitative data analysis and magnify the effect of qualitative

analysis are: efficiency, reliability, and flexibility.

Table 7

CODED VERSION OF FILE A: KUNI



#-RAPPORT

EI: I went through the first and last 3-#

pages of the agenda with Tom and in 4

general he agreed that most of the 5

areas cited in the agenda were true at 6

$-WORKER

ABC company, however Tom had some 7-#-$

specific concerns he wanted to raise 8

with me and a good part of the 9

interview dealt with these. 10 -$

#-CULTURE

For example, he wanted to tell me 11-#

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Nakakatsu Ohyama

about what he called the new culture 12

of workers who want to run the shop 13

but really are not ready for it. 14

!-SOCIAL !-JOKE

During work hours they waste time joking 15-!

#-AGE-DIFF #-WORKER

around. They are young. They are not 16-#

used to having much responsibility. Tom 17

talked about one new worker who was from 18

Germany. This worker had a hard time 19

accepting the way the young workers 20

behaved at ABC company. 21-#

#-SUPP-CONT

Tom said this was especially true of 22-#

the supplemental and contract workers. 23

The supplemental workers said this 24

program was particularly aimed at 25

college students and housewives who had 26

never worked or had worked a long time 27

ago, and so they have a lot of trouble 28

getting used to the work environment. 29


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Efficiency


Table 8

SORTED VERSION OF FILE A: KUNI



$-WORKER

ABC company, however Tom had some

specific concerns he wanted to raise

with me and a good part of the

interview dealt with these.

#-AGE-DIFF #-WORKER

around. They are young. They are not

used to having much responsibility. Tom

talked about one new worker who was from

Germany. This worker had a hard time

accepting the way the young workers

behaved at ABC company.

7-#-$

8

9

10 -$

16-# '

17 :

18 : '

19 :

20 :

21-#

Sociolinguists, using WordStar, can effortlessly type, delete, and edit

research memos. The qualitative information, having been input, can be

examined effectively through useful features such as editing text. This

software program also provides a simple method to save research memos.

Through this, sociolinguists can save many hours which might have been

spent transcribing research memos by hand and spending their time typing,

correcting, and editing them. This word processing system shortens the

turn-around time between accumulating the information and preparing the

information for examination.

In addition to WordStar, the Ethnograph provides the capability to

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Nakakatsu Ohyama

format, number, and sort information files effortlessly. Without this type of

software, the sociolinguists would have to reread research memos every

time they need to retrieve the coded segments. In addition to this tedious

task, they also waste their time on continuous copying, splitting, pasting,

and filing for each code analysis. This software provides solutions to those

monotonous tasks by saving the researcher's time. Furthermore, it can sort

information queried by classifications including many pages of data since it

does not require the whole text to be input. As a result, the Ethnograph can

manage a large quantity of research memos, audio tapes, or video cassette

tapes, and efficiently retrieve queried information in those files.

Reliability

Another major strength of computer-aided sociolinguistic data analysis

is that the sociolinguist may effortlessly identify the coded segments and

sort those that satisfy some conditions without losing information (Conrad

and Reinharz, 1984). If sociolinguists examine qualitative information

without utilizing any software, they might make a mistake or miss various

potential linkages while splitting, pasting, copying, and filing in an effort to

analize the series of research data.

In contrast, Seidel and Clark (1984) say the most dependable measure of

the Ethnograph is its ability to do data retrievals based upon the co

occurence (or mixture) of classifications in each sentence. It enables one to

check all the relevant information without losing any data coded on the

same classification. Even if the researcher inputs additional classifications

for data retrieval, it enables them to be accessible to the researcher by

selectively sorting the classifications.

Flexibility

W ordStar facilitates the sociolinguist with deleting and altering

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research memos without any restrictions. The Ethnograph additionally

provides for the suitable coding and recoding of research memos as the

perception of the information alters. This has major strengths for meeting

the needs of sociolinguistic qualitative information analysis including the

accessibility of the raw information and the capability to sort information

selectively. It consistently allows the sociolinguist to do essentially any

thing involving research memos that can be done on paper, but much more

flexibly.

Additional Addvantages

Additional strengths of the advanced technology are: portability, in

expensiveness, ease of mastering, and confidentiality (Becker, et al., 1984).

The computer has been improved based on the modern technology and has

been created into a more powerful machine. The computer has been formed

in a smaller shape so that it can be moved around to anywhere the

researcher wants to carry it.

With regard to cost, the advanced technology has also brought costs

down due to mass production. In today's society, inexpensive computers

are available to most researchers.

Regarding the ease of mastering, the modern technology has provided

effortlessly mastered systems and an integrated data base system for the

convenience of the researcher. Namely, difficult and sophisticated opera

tions have been improved and simplified for the researcher.

With regard to protecting confidentiality, much effort has been made to

protect the researcher's right and obligation toward the qualitative informa

tion analysis. The computer protects confidentiality by prohibiting any

unauthorized use. The authorized researcher typically uses an ID number

for this purpose.

Upon examining advantages described above, the following comments

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N akakatsu Ohyama

can be made. The mechanical aspects of qualitative analysis are more

effortlessly done with the Ethnograph than contrasted to how they were

achieved in the past without this computer software. The computer

assisted qualitative research strategy can simplify and quicken the task of

the researcher and accelerate each step of the data analysis. This advanced

technology will release researchers from monotonous tasks in typing,

copying, pasting, and shuffling the data and allow them to concentrate on

the more analytic task of qualitative information.

2). Disadvantages

In spite of various promised strengths, computer-assisted sociolinguistic

data analysis must still conquer its weaknesses. Some of them are: the time

consumed for typing research memos, limited storage capacity, strict

directions for each margin space, and operation limitations. These follow

ing comments will focus on the weaknesses and the research for future

studies.

The major weakness of the Ethnograph is that the data must still be

input into the computer by hand. For the purpose of removing this

weakness, voice input to a word-processing software might be developed

(Becker, et al., 1984). For example, the sociolinguistic qualitative

researcher could transcribe the qualitative data without scretarial tasks,

utilizing the mechanical aspects of voice input. This mechanical task might

increasingly simplify the preparation of raw research notes.

Another weakness of the Ethnograph is that converting, numbering,

coding, modifying, and sorting program occupy a considerable percentage

of its memory. Also, the Ethnograph has strict directions about the size of

each margin space (Seidel and Clark, 1984). Since the text file stores the

qualitative information in limited columns (through eight to forty four

spaces from the left margin), the memory of the file quickly exceeds the

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storage capability of the Ethnograph. This software can store about 320k

per drive in its memory at each time. More qualitative information is

needed by most sociolinguistic studies and hence more memory storage

space is required.

The third weakness of this software is that it _also has rigid rules

concerning the length of combinations extending up to only three separate

codes per category_ Since any individual portion of information can only be

marked by up to three codes, information can only be retrieved three ways.

If the maximum number of possible codes per piece of information was

increased, the manipulation of these codes would also increase allowing for

a more complete retrieval of the input information.

The fourth weakness of this software is that sociolinguistic researchers

are asked to do analytical tasks in the process of coding, modifying, and

sorting the qualitative information. Its weakness stems from its incapabil

ity of analytic operation (Seidel and Clark, 1984). It only manages the

mechanical operation of data analysis. For example, it can neither code the

classification nor examine their continuing suitability. This software

constantly requires researchers to input information based on their analyti

cal thinking_ It, then, provides its prompt to do the mechanical operation of

qualitative data analysis. Its role for the qualitative researcher is to sort

and display the raw information for a certain classification coded by the

researcher. In no distant future, this is the area where artificial intelligence

might be applied (Gerson, 1984). A computer software might identify

incidents, concepts, or ideas, and it may be able to be utilized in making

rational data deductions. If it is possible, computer-assisted qualitative data

analysis can manage not only the mechanical application but also the

intelligent tasks for the qualitative researcher. Namely, the advanced

computer software could organize the qualitative information in place of a

research assistant or as a secretary_

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Nakakatsu Ohyama

V. Summary

Computer-assisted sociolinguistic analysis has achieved considerable

tasks for qualitative researchers. The computer software has unbound

them from many tedious tasks and allowed them to concentrate their effort

on more analytic objectives. The Ethnograph, in spite of its some weak·

nesses, has made contributions to sociolinguistic qualitative information

analysis. It helps researchers to locate segments of the information and

code classifications. After classifying incidents, concepts, and ideas,

researchers can effortlessly and efficiently make rational deductions so that

they can generate interpretations of the qualitative data with this advanced

computer software.

*This paper used the data which had been collected by Arizona University

] ob Language Training Program members, including the author. This

paper is the revision of the oral presentation in the TESOL'86 conference

held in Los Angels.

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