Tribology and dynamics of engine and powertrain: Fundamentals

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010

Contributor contact details xix

Preface xxv

Foreword xxviiD. Dowson Introduction R. Parry Jones xxix

Part I Introduction to dynamics and tribology within the multi-physics environment

1 An introduction to multi-physics multi-scale approach 3 H. Rahnejat, Loughborough University, UK

1.1 Introduction 31.2 Newtonian mechanics 61.3 Lagrange’s equation and reduced configuration space 91.4 Multi-body mechanical systems 121.5 Engine as a multi-body system 201.6 Elasto-multi-body dynamics analysis 221.7 References and further reading 261.8 Nomenclature 281.9 Appendix: multi-physics analysis for investigation of

manual transmission gear rattle – drive/creep rattle 29

Section I.I Fundamentals of tribology and dynamics

2 Mechanisms and laws of friction and wear 41 D. Arnell, University of Central Lancashire, UK

2.1 Introduction 41

Contents

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2.2 The nature of engineering surfaces 412.3 Surface topography and contact 422.4 The contact of rough surfaces 482.5 Friction 502.6 Wear 602.7 Future trends 712.8 Sources of further information and advice 712.9 References 72

3 Surface phenomena in thin-film tribology 73 P. Prokopovich and H. Rahnejat, Loughborough University, UK

and M. Teodorescu, Cranfield University, UK

3.1 Introduction 733.2 A question of wetness 753.3 Meniscus action: surface tension 773.4 Contact angle of liquids 793.5 Estimation of interfacial tension between a liquid and a

solid 813.6 Adhesion of rough surfaces 843.7 Intermolecular interactions and near-surface effects 923.8 van der Waals forces 933.9 Other near-surface effects 993.10 Conclusion 1003.11 References 1003.12 Nomenclature 103

4 Fundamentals of impact dynamics of semi-infinite and layered solids 105

M. Teodorescu, Cranfield University, UK; V. Votsios, Atos, Spain; P. M. Johns-Rahnejat, (formerly) Imperial College London, UK and H. Rahnejat, Loughborough University, UK

4.1 Introduction 1054.2 Basic aspects of contact mechanics for elastic solids 1074.3 Hertzian theory 1114.4 Analytical treatment of contact mechanics of layered solids 1144.5 Impact dynamics 1164.6 Contact mechanics based on action of deformation potential 1234.7 References 1294.8 Nomenclature 130

5 Fluid film lubrication 132 R. Gohar, Imperial College London, UK and M. M. A. Safa,

Kingston University, UK

5.1 Lubricant properties 132

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5.2 Reynolds equation 1375.3 The energy equation 1485.4 The Navier–Stokes equations 1515.5 Free surface behaviour of lubricant films 1535.6 Externally pressurised (EP) gas journal bearings 1545.7 Approximate design of oil thrust bearings 1575.8 Thermal design of finite length bearings 1625.9 Review of some unusual and recent applications of fluid

film lubrication 1675.10 References 1685.11 Appendix: Design coefficients for plane thrust bearing pairs 170

6 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication 171 F. Sadeghi, Purdue University, USA

6.1 Introduction 1716.2 Conformal and non-conformal contacts 1756.3 Regimes of lubrication 1766.4 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) minimum film

thickness equations 1776.5 Experimental film thickness and corroboration with

analytical results 1826.6 Thermal effects in elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL)

contacts 1836.7 Non-Newtonian fluid model 1846.8 Boundary lubrication 1856.9 Mixed elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) 1856.10 Surface roughness 1916.11 Contact and internal stress 1926.12 Application of elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL)

theory to machine components 2016.13 References and further reading 2136.14 Nomenclature 220

7 Measurement of contact pressure under elastohydrodynamic lubrication conditions 222

R. Gohar, Imperial College London, UK and M. M. A. Safa, Kingston University, UK

7.1 Introduction 2227.2 Gauge manufacturing process 2237.3 Applications using pressure gauges 2277.4 Alternative methods of measuring contact pressure 2417.5 Conclusions 2447.6 References 245

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Part II Engine and powertrain technologies and applications

Section II.I Overview

8 Tribological considerations in internal combustion engines 251

D. R. Adams, Ford Dagenham Development Centre, UK

8.1 Introduction 2518.2 Issues of cost, competition, and reliability in internal

combustion (IC) engine tribology 2538.3 Drivers for tribological design and innovation 2548.4 A systems view of the piston/ring/cylinder bore interface 2558.5 The development process in internal combustion (IC)

engines 2588.6 The piston in internal combustion (IC) engines 2648.7 Piston rings in internal combustion (IC) engines 2708.8 The cylinder bore surface 2748.9 Design validation of internal combustion (IC) engines 2798.10 Future trends 2818.11 References 282

9 Predictive methods for tribological performance in internal combustion engines 284

I. McLuckie, AIES Ltd, UK

9.1 Introduction 2849.2 Integrated knowledge-based tribology systems 2859.3 Application of integrated knowledge-based systems (IKBS)

and elastohydrodynamics (EHD) to a race engine crank pin 2899.4 Application of integrated knowledge-based systems (IKBS)

and right-hand drive (RHD) to piston and liner 3029.5 Application of integrated knowledge-based systems (IKBS)

and right-hand drive (RHD) to turbocharger bearings 3139.6 Engine friction: building a better understanding 3319.7 Conclusions 3379.8 Acknowledgements 3399.9 References 339

Section II.II Tribology of piston systems

10 Fundamentals of lubrication and friction of piston ring contact 343

V. D’Agostino and A. Senatore, University of Salerno, Italy

10.1 Introduction 343

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10.2 Piston ring: history and basics 34410.3 Piston rings classification 34710.4 Lubrication models 35010.5 A brief analysis of the main assumptions on the boundary

conditions 35610.6 Simplified two-dimensional Reynolds equation for oil ring 35910.7 The contact between the asperities: mixed-lubrication

regime 36110.8 The multi-physics approach to ring friction 37110.9 Ring flutter and collapse 37810.10 Bore distortion in lubrication models 38010.11 Laser-textured surfaces 38010.12 Warm-up effect 38110.13 Future trends 38110.14 References and further reading 38210.15 Notation 385

11 Measurement techniques for piston-ring tribology 387 I. Sherrington, University of Central Lancashire, UK

11.1 Introduction 38711.2 Measurement of lubricating film thickness 39211.3 Measurement of piston-ring friction 40111.4 Measurement of piston-ring movement 40711.5 Measurement of piston-ring wear 40911.6 Measurement of ring zone temperature 41111.7 Observation and measurement of lubricant movement and

consumption 41311.8 Future trends 41711.9 Sources of further information 42111.10 References 422

12 An ultrasonic approach for the measurement of oil films in the piston zone 426

R. S. Dwyer-Joyce, University of Sheffield, UK

12.1 Introduction 42612.2 Ultrasonic measurement of oil film thickness 42912.3 Ultrasonic measurement equipment 43312.4 Case study: measurement from a piston skirt 43712.5 Case study: piston rings in a test bench 44512.6 Overview 45212.7 Conclusions 45412.8 Acknowledgements 45512.9 References and further reading 455

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13 Surface texturing for in-cylinder friction reduction 458 I. Etsion, Technion, Israel

13.1 Introduction 45813.2 Laser surface texturing (LST) for friction reduction in

engines 46113.3 Summary 46713.4 References 467

14 Optimised textured surfaces with application in piston ring/cylinder liner contact 470

R. Rahmani, Loughborough University, UK and A. Shirvani and H. Shirvani, Anglia Ruskin University, UK

14.1 Introduction 47014.2 Surface texturing 47214.3 Application of surface texturing in tribology 47314.4 Surface texturing methods 47414.5 The mechanisms behind tribological improvements

through surface texturing 47614.6 Debates surrounding surface texturing 47814.7 Surface texturing technology and internal combustion

(IC) engines 48114.8 The basic equations of tribology 48214.9 Modelling of the textured surfaces 48514.10 Solution methods 49014.11 Optimisation of textured surfaces 49314.12 Application of the optimum results in the piston

ring/cylinder liner contacts 50414.13 Conclusions 50814.14 References 50914.15 Nomenclature 514

15 Transient thermo-elastohydrodynamics of rough piston ring conjunction 518

P.C. Mishra, H. Rahnejat and P. King, Loughborough University, UK

15.1 Introduction 51815.2 A brief review 52115.3 Compression ring cylinder liner conformability 52415.4 Tribology of ring–bore conjunction 52615.5 Results and discussion 53215.6 Future trends 53815.7 Acknowledgements 53915.8 References 53915.9 Nomenclature 540

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Section II.III Valve train systems

16 Tribological issues in cam–tappet contacts 545 M. Kushwahu, Ford Motor Company, UK

16.1 Introduction 54516.2 The cam geometric profile 54616.3 Lubrication analysis of the cam and tappet conjunction 54816.4 The solution procedure 55616.5 Simulation conditions 55816.6 Results 55816.7 Conclusion 56316.8 References 565

17 A multi-scale approach to analysis of valve train systems 567

M. Teodorescu, Cranfield University, UK

17.1 Background 56717.2 Aspects of valve train geometry and construction 56917.3 Valve train as an integrated problem 57117.4 Valve train kinematics: cam-to-flat follower contact 57317.5 Valve train dynamics 57417.6 Valve lift and cam profile 57617.7 Cam–tappet tribology: lubricant reaction 57817.8 Tribology of rough surfaces 58117.9 Applications 58317.10 References 58517.11 Nomenclature 586

Section II.IV Engine bearings

18 Fundamentals of hydrodynamic journal bearings: an analytical approach 591

S. Balakrishnan, Mercedes Benz High Performance Engines, UK; C. McMinn, Ford Motor Company, UK and C. E. Baker and H. Rahnejat, Loughborough University, UK

18.1 Introduction 59118.2 Bearing geometry 59218.3 Simple analytical solutions for journal bearings 59318.4 Simple bearing selection 59518.5 Determination of bearing loads 59718.6 Thin shell or soft overlay bearings 60218.7 Thermo-hydrodynamics 608

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18.8 Tribological conditions 61018.9 Concluding remarks 61218.10 References 61318.11 Nomenclature 613

19 Practical tribological issues in big-end bearings 615 S. Boedo, Rochester Institute of Technology, USA

19.1 Introduction 61519.2 Bearing duty for big-end bearings 61619.3 Geometry of big-end bearings 61919.4 Cyclic minimum film thickness 62019.5 Oil flow in big-end bearings 62419.6 Power loss in big-end bearings 62619.7 Sample application of design charts: four-stroke

automotive engine 62719.8 Experimental results pertaining to big-end bearings 62819.9 Future trends 63019.10 References 63119.11 Principal nomenclature 633

20 Tribology of big-end bearings 635 P.C. Mishra and H. Rahnejat, Loughborough University, UK

20.1 Introduction 63520.2 Brief review of the literature 63620.3 Bearing geometry 63820.4 Lubricant rheology 63920.5 Bearing load 64520.6 Method of solution 64620.7 A case study 64820.8 Effect of surface roughness and pattern 65020.9 Tribological problems in big-end bearing 65220.10 References 65720.11 Nomenclature 658

Section II.V Drivetrain systems

21 An introduction to noise and vibration issues in the automotive drivetrain and the role of tribology 663

M. Menday, Loughborough University, UK

21.1 Introduction to drivetrain noise, vibration, harshness (NVH) 663

21.2 The application of multibody dynamics (MBD) analysis 664

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21.3 Noise, vibration, harshness (NVH) characteristics 66521.4 Summary of tribological contacts 66621.5 Airborne and structure-borne noise 66721.6 Noise and vibration paths from the driveline into the body 66721.7 Signal analysis 66821.8 Examples of high-energy impacts in the drivetrain 66821.9 Shuffle 67621.10 Whoop (clutch in-cycle vibration) 67621.11 Summary of drivetrain noise, vibration, harshness (NVH)

issues 67821.12 Future trends 67821.13 References 678

22 Friction lining characteristics and the clutch take-up judder phenomenon with manual transmission 680

M. Menday and H. Rahnejat, Loughborough University, UK

22.1 Introduction 68022.2 Background 68022.3 Description of clutch take-up judder 68122.4 Judder and shuffle 68322.5 Multi-body dynamics analysis of judder 68422.6 Results and discussion of numerical findings of

multi-body dynamics analysis of judder 69222.7 Vehicle studies and design of experiments for

multi-body dynamics analysis of judder 69622.8 Overall conclusions of multi-body dynamics analysis of

judder 69722.9 Considerations for judder elimination/resolution 70022.10 Future trends 70122.11 References 70122.12 Nomenclature 702

23 Contact mechanics of tyre–road interactions and its role in vehicle shuffle 703

G. Mavros, Loughborough University, UK

23.1 Introduction 70323.2 Shuffle as a drivetrain error state 70423.3 Basic model of vehicular driveline 70623.4 Results of driveline simulation 71123.5 Tyre modelling for shuffle analysis 71423.6 Steady state tyre modelling 71523.7 A brush-type model for shuffle analysis 71623.8 Relationship between the brush model and the magic

formula 721

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23.9 Transient tyre response: a first approach 72223.10 Further tyre modelling possibilities 72623.11 Case study: the influence of transient tyre behaviour on

shuffle 72823.12 References 73123.13 Notation 733

24 Tribology of differentials and traction control devices 735 S. K. Mohan, Magna Powertrain, USA

24.1 Introduction 73524.2 Vehicle drivetrain architecture 73624.3 The basics of vehicle propulsion and dynamics 73824.4 The need for differentials and slip control devices 74424.5 Types of slip control device 74724.6 Advantages of electronically controllable ‘active’ slip

control devices 75824.7 Tribological considerations in the design and development

of slip control devices 75924.8 Modelling and simulation of traction control devices 76424.9 Future trends 76724.10 Sources of further information and advice 76824.11 Acknowledgements 77024.12 References 77024.13 Notation 772

25 Non-linear dynamics of gear meshing and vibro-impact phenomenon 773

S. Natsiavas and D. Giagopoulos, Aristotle University, Greece

25.1 Introduction 77325.2 Mechanical model and equations of motion of example

gear pair 77525.3 Typical numerical results from mechanical model and

equations of motion of example gear pair 77925.4 Future trends 78725.5 Conclusions 78825.6 References 78925.7 Nomenclature 791

26 Rattle and clatter noise in powertrains – automotive transmissions 793

S. N. DoĞan, Daimler AG, USA

26.1 Introduction 79326.2 Significant noises in automotive transmissions 794

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26.3 Investigation strategy for rattling and clattering noises in automotive transmissions 800

26.4 Automotive transmission lubricants 80626.5 Peripheral instruments for measuring drag torque 81126.6 Automotive transmissions investigated 81326.7 Automotive transmission lubricants studied 81426.8 Automotive transmission measurement results 81426.9 Parameter studies for rattle and clatter noises in

automotive transmissions 82026.10 Correlation of measurement and calculation results in

automotive transmissions 82426.11 Noise reduction measures in automotive transmissions 82826.12 Engineering design catalogue for low rattle and clatter

automotive transmissions 83026.13 Conclusions 83126.14 References 83626.15 Nomenclature 836

27 Various forms of transmission rattle in automotive powertrains 839

P. Kelly, Ford Werke GmbH, Germany and M. Menday, Loughborough University, UK

27.1 Introduction: history of powertrain torsional vibration issues 839

27.2 Noises in the powertrain 84027.3 Definition of rattle phenomenon in automotive

powertrains 84127.4 System dynamics of automotive powertrains 84527.5 Types of rattle and their causes within automotive

powertrains 84627.6 Traditional rattle palliations in automotive powertrains 84827.7 Experimentation and evaluation method of rattle

sensitivity in automotive powertrains 85227.8 Simulation of rattle phenomenon in automotive

powertrains 85327.9 Future trends 85327.10 References 855

28 Dual mass flywheel as a means of attenuating rattle 857 P. Kelly, Ford Werke GmbH, Germany and B. Pennec,

R. Seebacher, B. Tlatlik and M. Mueller, LuK GmbH & Co. oHG, Germany

28.1 Basic dual mass flywheel (DMF) 857

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28.2 Dual mass flywheel (DMF) interactions at different operating points 861

28.3 Dual mass flywheel (DMF) interactions with engine environment 867

28.4 Future trends 87228.5 Consequences on damper development 87528.6 References 877

29 Multi-physics approach for analysis of transmission rattle 878

S. Theodossiades, O. Tangasawi and H. Rahnejat, Loughborough University, UK

29.1 Introduction 87829.2 Theoretical formulation for analysis of transmission rattle 88029.3 Experimental set-up for analysis of transmission rattle 88629.4 Parametric studies for analysis of transmission rattle:

discussion 88729.5 Conclusions 90629.6 Acknowledgements 90829.7 References 90929.8 Nomenclature 910

30 High-energy impact-induced phenomena in driveline clonk 914

M. Gnanakumarr, Loughborough University, UK

30.1 Introduction 91430.2 Impact-induced noise and vibration 91530.3 Fundamentals of impact-induced noise 91730.4 Lashes in vehicular drivetrain 91830.5 An experimental rig for driveline clonk 91930.6 Results and discussion of driveline clonk experiment 92130.7 Some methods of palliation of driveline clonk 92530.8 Acknowledgements 92630.9 References 926

31 Tribo-elasto-multi-body dynamics of a single cylinder engine under fired condition 928

M. S. M. Perera, S. Theodossiades and H. Rahnejat, Loughborough University, UK

31.1 Introduction 92831.2 Engine model with flexible components 93031.3 Tribological conjunctions in the models 93131.4 Conjunctional friction in the engine model 934

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31.5 Temperature effects in lubricated contacts 93831.6 Parametric study – crankshaft offset 94031.7 Concluding remarks 94131.8 References 94231.9 Nomenclature 943

Part III Micro-systems and nano-conjunctions

32 Microengines and microgears 947 M. Teodorescu, Cranfield University, UK and H. Rahnejat and

S. Theodossiades, Loughborough University, UK

32.1 Introduction 94732.2 Impact dynamics in microelectromechanical systems

(MEMS) gears 95032.3 Concluding remarks 95632.4 References 95632.5 Nomenclature 958

33 Small-scale surface engineering problems 960 F. W. DelRio, National Institute of Standards and Technology, USA

and C. Carraro and R. Maboudian, University of California at Berkeley, USA

33.1 Introduction 96033.2 Interfacial forces between two flat plates 96433.3 Experimental methods 96833.4 Physical modification of surfaces 97533.5 Chemical modification of surfaces 97933.6 Future trends 98433.7 References 985

Index 990

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Tribology and dynamics of engine and powertrain: Fundamentals