TRM Guzunov Vladimir

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ACADEMY OF ECONOMIC STUDIES OF MOLDOVA

Report

Discipline: Tourist Resource Management

Theme: The plan of TRM and report about Republic of Moldova

Teacher: Roman LivandovschiAuthor: Guzunov Vladimir

Group: T-105


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Chisinau, 2011

Contents

Subject no. 1. The Object of Study of the Tourist Resource ManagementCourse.

1. Introductory notions42. The place in the system of the economic and geographical sciences..73. Principles, methods and means of study104. The categories of theTourist Resource Managementcourse125. The primary factors of the tourism phenomenon...15

Subject no. 2. History of Tourist Development

1. The stage of tourism in antiquity...172. The stage of tourism in the Middle Ages until the Renaissance183. The stage of tourism in the late Middle Ages, during the Renaissance and the

great geographic discoveries, until in the mid-20th century...19The period of modern and contemporary tourism...21

Subject no. 3. Tourist Resources and Tourist Potential

1. Natural tourist resources.232. Forms of relief as natural tourist resources28

2.1. Mountainous sides and escarpments292.2. Crests and peaks...352.3. Passes and quays..362.4. Gorges, defiles and canyons.392.5. Caves45

2.6. Geological structures49

Subject no. 4. Natural Tourist Resources.

1. Climate as a tourist resource..512. Hydrography as a tourist resource.573. Vegetation as a tourist resource.624. Fauna as a tourist resource.645. Tourist landscapes..68

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Subject no. 5. Man-made Tourist Resources.

6. The tourist attributes of the man-made resources72

7. Historic erections.748. Religious erections..759. Cultural and sports erections...7710.Economic erections intended for tourist activities..8111.Monuments, statues, commemorative plaques9012.Purely tourist erections94

Subject no. 6. Human Tourist Activities.

13.Carnivals.9514.Fairs, exhibitions, religious pilgrimages and shrines.....9715.Artistic festivals and sporting events10116.Tourist resources of an ethnographic nature....105

Subject no. 7. Natural Tourist Resources of the Republic of Moldova.

17.Relief as tourist resource..10718.Climate as tourist resource...10819.Hydrography as tourist resource...11020.Tourist landscapes112

Subject no. 8. Man-made Tourist Resources of the Republic of Moldova.

21.Historic erections..11322.Religious erections...11423.Cultural, sports and economic erections...11624.Monuments, statues, commemorative plaques.121

Conclusion ..........124

Bibliography 125

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Subject no. 1. The Object of Study of the Tourist Resource ManagementCourse.

Introductory notions

Surprisingly, today, as it once was, very few people are aware thattourism is the largest affair in the world economy, the "receiving" morethan two trillion dollars for both forms of tourism (national andinternational), it slightly exceeding 12% annual maintenance ofbusinesses in the global economy. Tourism has overpassed worldmilitary spending, for several years estimated at over one trillion dollarsannually, even before agriculture, considering that a large part of itsproduction is subsistence production for underdeveloped countries, notbeing a part of the Gross National Product of the consuming countries.Indeed, guessing the upcoming tourist boom, futurists Herman Kahn,cautiously optimistic, not too much mistaken, in 1976, by his predictioninserted in the study "The next 200 years, " the fact that "towards theend of the century, tourism will be one of the largest industries in theworld. In fact, it is the largest today. In the international trade of goodsand services, tourism comes second, after oil, and there is always thepossibility of moving to the first place, if the world could enjoyreasonable conditions of peace, extinguishing in the not too distantfuture even limited "local war breakouts", but which, unfortunately,seem unavoidable today. "Tourism - a passport to peace, " the long-known call of the World Tourism Organization, succinctly expresses theassociation of peace with tourism. Currently, the words "peace - apassport for tourism! is equally true.

Countries and peoples of the world sign in the world touristlandscape by certain natural features, economic - social, historical,religious, language, culture and civilization, which place their footprinton the heritage of the tourism. The natural conditions are imposed byhigh scenic attractions, being present everywhere on Earth, from the

highest mountains to the most arid plains and deserts, from the U.S.,

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African, Australian etc. national parks, to the sea and oceans coasts orthe largest areas of eternal icecaps.

Each nation's own history and civilization not only enrich the naturalvalues of that country but require a certain " cultural - touristic brand

unmistakable in the world. We refer only to what it means for culturalinternational tourism, for the awareness and understanding of theappearance of each of the nations, cultures and civilizations created bythem throughout the millennia. Many artistic creations, scientific,architectonical, technical - engineering, etc. have revolutionized thethen-world amaze our contemporaries minds. We touch upon whatmeans for tourism the remains of Hellenistic, Roman, Aztec, Inca,Hebrew, Arabic, Buddhist and African etc. civilizations and closer to usin Europe, Renaissance, Medieval Art, Byzantine, Ottoman, etc..

Geography and ecology deals with spatial and environmental systems(ecosystems), that is the interaction of phenomena in the space, and theinteraction between society and environment. These subjects havebesides the economical sciences, a special place in the touristic studies,because the natural sciences and social sciences are interwoven.Therefore, geographers, economists and ecologists have an almost anunique coverage in both groups of sciences, are the most skilled andknowledgeable, as integrators and synthesizers in the scientific domainof tourism which combines also the nature and the social sciences.Geographers, especially because of their background, have the bestpotential to assess and coordinate different points of view. Thisgeneralizing - synoptic method of the geography as the Americanresearcher considers previously mentioned - is a large private value forthe interdisciplinary field of tourism.

International statistics since 1998 have been registered about 625.2million tourists, with 133.7% more than in 1989. These flows have beenperceived differently by the Earth's major destinations, namely: Europe372,5 million tourist arrivals (59.6% of total), America 120.2 million(19.2%), East Asia and Oceania 86.9 million (13.9%), Africa 24 million(4%), Middle East 15.6 million (2.5%) and South Asia 5.1 million(0.8%). Although, there is the same hierarchy in the allocation ofaccommodation at the 1998 level. Out of the approximately 29 millionbeds in hotels and similar establishments built on the world, Europe has11.3 million (39.3%), Americas 9.3 million (32.2%) and East Asia and

Oceania, 6,7 million (23.2).

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In the world ranking top of the first countries receiving tourists are:France 11.2%, Spain 7, 6%, U.S. 7.5%, Italy 6.8%, UK 4.1%, China 8%,Mexico 3.1% Poland 3% Canada 3%, Austria 2.8%, etc.

At the global scale tourism resources are of great wealth, variety and

complexity and therefore can not be an exhaustive overview, but aselective one, emphasizing those which give originality and specificityto the area or the country.

One of the biggest milestones in Tourism Management is the selfmanagement and location of the hotels you actually choose. Today'sworld is dominated with travel, tourism being the largest industry,however most travelers don't think about accommodation that much! Buteverybody who enjoys travel should. These are five rules who should

help you decide what's important in hotel planning:

Location Budget Star (s) Amenities Brandnames or independent.

Cultural resources management in the heritage context is mainlyconcerned with the investigation of sites with archaeological potential,the preservation and interpretation of historic sites and artifacts and theculture of indigenous people. The subject developed from initiatives inrescue archaeology, sensitivities to the treatment of indigenous peopleand subsequent legislation to protect cultural heritage.

Tourism and recreation, as well as other aspects of human life can notremain outside the scope of impact-induced changes, the most importantaspect is how we use your free time that has evolved to the volume andquality, due to change in societal values, the the importance of marginalto a central phenomenon in human life. Thus, the structure of free timeand costs incurred by the party's unity in diversity and were lost once theexisting lush flavor and has become an essential part of existence, atleast for developed countries.

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The place in the system of the economic and geographicalsciences

The economic science is concerned with achieving an optimal use oflimited resources, many of them rare or unique. This principle alsoworks in the case of an individual request aimed at psychologicalbenefits from a journey, or a business aiming at making profits - byproviding substantial goods and services to tourists, or even if a host

community which overlooks tourism in terms of economic benefits andprosperity of the area they represent. Business agents are seeking tomeet physical and psychological demands. How to allocate these scarceresources to meet a variety of needs and desires? That is the questionthat economic theory and practice of tourism tries to give an answer asacceptable as possible.

From this perspective may be nominated at least three importantpurposes of tourism:

1. maximizing of the importance of the psychological experienceto tourists;2. maximizing of the profits of the companies providing material

goods and services to tourists;3. maximizing of the effects - primary and secondary - induced

by touristic investments in a community or region.These objectives are often compatible, maximizing the psychological

experience, creating a happy customer, which makes him return, spend

money, and satisfy each bidder from the tourism industry and from acertain region. In some cases, however, these goals are incompatible. Anobjective such as maximizing the profit made in a small tourist area maycause the development of the capacity over the availability of the place,which leads to overutilization and the decline of psychological pleasure.The exaggerated emphasis of tourism as a factor in economicdevelopment can have the same results. There may also occur conflictsbetween the use of tourism resources and the potential of their use forother forms of socio-economic activity. To better define our image ofthe place and role of tourism in the economy and life of the inhabitants

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of a territory, we should approach synthetically the motives andimplications of this specific activity.

There are 8 things that are included and used in economy of tourism:

Optimization experiences

Optimization benefits Optimization of local economy Exports and imports of tourism Tourism and Balance of Payments Leveraging investments Tourism and taxation Inflationary pressure

The natural factors (relief, climate and hydrography), oftenparticipate proportionally in the setting up of the tourist resources:potential of many regions of the world, determining the rhythm and theintensity of tourist phenomenon.

Tourism is a dynamic activity taking up a lot of space and risks. Forexample, if you have overdeveloped tourism industry in the economy,land prices will increase enormously. We invest only 1% into the groundof tourism and if land prices will increase about 20% of costs, we havelow income from tourists and so we have a total inflation of worldtourism.

Tourist activity has a lot in common with such sciences as geology,history, biology, which also participate in the setting up of touristpotential of a given region.

As Table 1 indicates, the evolution of international tourism issteadily increasing. This increase is characteristic of all regions asillustrated in Table No. 2.

Period

Average annualgrowth rate of

international touristarrivals (%)

1950-70

9,90%

1970-80 5,70%

1980-90 4,70%

1950-90 7,50%

1990-95 3,20%

1995-2000 4,40%1990-2000 3,80%

2000-2010 3,50%

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Table Nr.1

2,7

44,6

5

6,16,8

3,8

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

The dynamics of international tourist arrivals by

region and around the world: Annual growth rate

(%) 1990-2000

Europe

Middle East

Americas

Africa

South Asia

East Asia and Pacific

Total World

Table Nr.2

Europe 2,7; Middle East 4; Americas 4,6; Africa 5;South Asia 6,1; East Asia and Pacific 6,8; Total World -3,8.

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Principles, methods and means of study

Tourist activity uses a series of principles, methods, and

means of study such as:

Principle of spatiality-according to this principle the

research of tourist phenomena,uses as a method

observation,and as a mean of representation

description.And the final part of this process is the

elaboration of the descriptive model,thatis widely

used inform the potencial tourists.

Principle of causality-which aim is the study of

appearance,assertion,and development of tourist

process.As activity method it has recourse to the

detailed analysis of phenomena,carries out by means

of explanation that can be accomplished by a

mathematical model(equation,formula).From this

perspective a primary place it is offered in detail to

the geographical areas of reception, especially of

how tourist phenomenon environment and human

communities are articulated.Tourism disturbes the

populations of the visited regions,influence on

environment, changes the most beautiful places in

nature to create a certain idea of authenticity.It

disturbs the scientists that are working in studying

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the touristic phenomenon .And is added the issues

and operation of tourism infrastructure

management.

Principle of integration-of characteristic phenomenain logistical structures,designed to show the

objective aspect(activity method-

synthesis),operation means-graphic

representations(cartographic models).

Between the principles there is a close link.The first

principle serves as a basis for the second one,while

the latter for the third one.

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The categories of the Tourist Resource Management course

The tourist phenomenon is defined by a series of notions. The mostused are: tourist, tourism, tourist infrastructure, tourist potential, tourist

product, tourist supply and demand.Tourist , Tourism, Travel

There is a correlation between this terms. Tourism

may also be defined as people taking trips away from

home, and it embraces the entire range of

transportation ,lodging, food service, and other activities

relating to and serving the traveler. The WTO has taken

the concept of tourism beyond a stereotypical Image of

holiday-making. The officially accepted definition

is:Tourism comprises the activities of persons travelling

to and staying in places outside their usual environmentfor not more than one consecutive year for leisure,

business and other purposes. Consequently a tourist is

someone who travels away from home and whose main

purpose of visit is other than the exercise of an activity

remunerated from within the place visited. There are also

other words describing the people traveling, such as:

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national tourist, domestic tourist, internal tourist, visitor,

traveler, same-day visitor (excursionist) etc.

Tourist resources. They represent all the

attractive elements of a territory without taking

into account their origin and the connections

between them. There can be distinguished two

groups of objects that make up the tourist

resources, that is to say:

Tourist natural resources (relief, climate, etc.);

Tourist human resources (museums, religious

erections, etc.).

Tourist infrastructure. It consists of all the

tourist endowments, such as: accommodation

and catering capacity; tourist services network;spas and resorts; transport links; electricity

network and heating system; water supply and

mains; postal and banking services, etc., etc.

Tourist potential. It consists of tourist resources

and infrastructure.

Tourist flow. It represents the movement of the

visitors from their place of residence to the place

visited. It is a dynamic category, which considers

human factor by its number and financial

opportunities. The special features of the tourist

flows are:

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the direction;

the rhythm;

the intensity.

Tourist product. It represents all goods and

serves that facilitate the tourist activity.

Tourist market. It represents the place of

interference or contact of tourist product with its

consumers, in other words, of supply with

demand.

Internal tourism.Visits by residents of a country

to their own country

Travel.the action and activities of people taking

trips to a place outside their home communities

for any purpose except daily commuting to and

from work.

Recreation:the action and activities of people

engaging in constructive and personally

pleasurable use of leisure time.

Excursionist.Movement for 24 hours withovernight accommodation

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The primary factors of the tourism phenomenon

Factors that contribute to tourism development are the following:o Demographic factors-Tourism is a process in which

the human being is an important factor.The human

needs to physical and psychological recovery and

knowledge is the main cause of the emergence of

tourism.This factors act through the population

growth, increase in life expectancy, the growth ofyoung people.So if the number of population is

higher then logically the number of tourists is

higher.This growth of tourists is explained by the fact

that people want to rest from city busy

life(cars,noise,or the bigger number of population in

a country)

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o Economic factors-They are of great importance for

tourist phenomenon. Only people that have a certain

standard of living and savings can take part in tourist

activity.

This kind of people that saves money for resting have an importantinfluence : Labor productivity growth,rising incomes of populations sndthe growth of leisure time.o Political factors- They often contribute to the

development or the restriction of tourist activity

(different systems of government, armed conflicts,

etc.).This fact mean that can be a limitation to thetourist flow through the visa regime.Tourism is a

product of international atmosphere,of the

understandings between countries for iti

development.

o Psychological factors- They determine the need

for travel. It involves the mental activity of people

concerning its interest for nature, health and

beauty.This facors have a great importance for

tourism industry.They are generated by the usual

stress,the removal from nature.

o Social factors. They are the leisure time of

people.This term of leisure time appears in the time

of transition of economy to industrialization.The

development of the economy led to the development

of tourism throught the new technologies of firms

and so the interval of the labor force increased,and

they have more time to spend in recreation.

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Subject no. 2. History of Tourist Development

The stage of tourism in antiquity

We travel long roads and cross the water to see what we disregard whenit is under our eyes. This is either because nature has so arranged thingsthat we go after is far off and remains indifferent to what is nearby, or

because any desire loses its intensity by being easily satisfiedWealthy people have always travelled to distant parts of the world, tosee great buildings, works of art, learn new languages, and experience

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new cultures and to taste different cuisines. Long ago, at the time of theRoman Republic, places such as Baia were popular coastal resorts forthe rich. Early explorers, traders, and shippers laid the groundwork uponwhich our modern age of travel is based. Human needs to arrange trips

and facilitate movements have not changed over ages. Building roads,vehicles, and ships and providing overnight rest accommodations goback into antiquity. The brave explorers who went into the unknownmade available to their contemporaries knowledge of what the worldwas really like.

Over the centuries, inventions such as the sandglass to measure time,the log Line to measure distance, made possible successful seaexploration. The roads of early Persia and those of the Roman Empirewere used for exploration, for military purposes, for transporting tribute,and for pleasure trips and recreation. The emergence of humancivilization in China, India, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Romerepresented a favorable occasion for tourist movements. A direct sourceof many trips was at ancient cities like Rome, Alexandria, and Athens.During this stage appeared many problems in movement, people couldmove only within a particular city. But there were many attractiveplaces, cities, events such as Olympic Games that attract people totravel.

The stage of tourism in the Middle Ages until the Renaissance

Pseudo-tourist corresponds to the periodbetween medieval andRenaissance history in Europe. During this period all tourism activity isconfused due to religious fanaticism. People travel from one region toanother because of religious issues. Appear pilgrimages to Rome andJerusalem (are visited by the Christians), Medina and Mecca (by theMuslims), Lhasa by the Buddhists, Mount Fuji (is the pole of gravity for

touristic activities) by the Japanese. Convoys were led by monk guides.

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During this period appear first trade routes: Venice-Vienna-Krakow,Chernovtsy-Baltic Sea -Siren-Galati-Paris-Munich-Prague-Budapest.With the development of trade routes appears an extension of maritimelinks used in diplomatic purposes. The most important sea links were

those who united w the Mediterranean ports of East Asia and Southeast.The movement of merchants and dealers caused the emergence of

inns. During this period, with a halt of more than one hundred years, the

cultural tourism was developed, promoted by the emergence of the first

universities: Bologna (1119, the oldest), the Sorbonne (1200),

Cambridge (1209), Oxford (1214), Naples (1224), Prague(1348),

Cracow (Krakow) (1364), Vienna (1365), Cologne (Kln) (1380), etc.

Tourism in the Middle Ages revolved around aimless wandering and

'educational' wandering. Research material includes the sources of the

period: texts, chronicles, travelers accounts, literature (poetry and

prose), biographies, deeds, wills etc. Sociological analysis should focus

on country or region of origin, the traveler, and the destination visited.

Comparisons are made between tourism in the middle Ages and

contemporary tourism: tourism today is seen as a reaction to everyday

routine and a momentary escape from performing many roles in society;

religious tourism, e.g., pilgrimages is still popular; however, educational

tourism, which was popular in the Middle Ages, is quite rare today.

The stage of tourism in the late Middle Ages, during the

Renaissance and the great geographic discoveries, until in the

mid-20th century

The Late middle Ages is a term used by historians todescribe European history in the period of the 14th and

15th centuries (c. 13001499). The Late Middle Ageswere preceded by the High Middle Ages, and followed by

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the Early Modern era (Renaissance).Around 1300,centuries ofEuropean prosperity and growth came to ahalt. A series of famines and plagues, such as the GreatFamine of 13151317 and the Black Death, reduced the

population by as much as half according to someestimates. Along with depopulation came social unrestand endemic warfare. France and England experiencedserious peasant risings: theJacquerie, the Peasants'Revolt, and the Hundred Years' War. To add to the manyproblems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Churchwas shattered by the Great Schism. Collectively theseevents are sometimes called the Crisis of the Late Middle

Ages.Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time

of great progress within the arts and sciences. A renewedinterest in ancient Greek and Roman texts led to whathas later been termed the Italian Renaissance. Theabsorption of Latin texts had started in the twelfth-century Renaissance through contact with Arabs duringthe Crusades, but the availability of important Greektexts accelerated with the capture ofConstantinople bythe Ottoman Turks, when many Byzantine scholars had toseek refuge in the West, particularly Italy. Combined withthis influx of classical ideas was the invention ofprintingwhich facilitated dissemination of the printed word anddemocratized learning. These two things would later leadto the Protestant Reformation. Toward the end of theperiod, an era of discovery began (Age of Discovery). Thegrowth of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the fall ofConstantinople in 1453, cut off trading possibilities withthe east. Europeans were forced to discover new tradingroutes, as was the case with Columbuss travel to theAmericas in 1492, and Vasco da Gamascircumnavigation ofIndia and Africa in 1498. Theirdiscoveries strengthened the economy and power ofEuropean nations.

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The industrial revolution promoted the leisure industrytoo. The mass tourism could only emerged in anindustrialized society and not in an agricultural one. Thepopulation explosion in the West led to a strong

demographic growth and respectively to the increasednumber of tourists. The transportation links have beenmodernized and the first hotels, spas, and resortsappeared in Germany and France. Thomas Cookarrangedin 1841 the first organized trips, which later alsoestablished the first travel agencies. From the second halfof the 19th century the foundations for the touristinfrastructure have been laid (for instance, the tourist

areas on the French Riviera: Monte Carlo, San Remo,Nice, Saint-Tropez, etc.). The first tourist guide appearedin France in 1672. As from the second decade of the 20thcentury, tourism as subject of study is taught at theUniversities of Dsseldorf (1914), Rome (1925), andBerlin (1929). The institution of paid leave and thegeneral spread of passports promoted leisure activities.

The changes brought about by these developments havecaused many scholars to see it as leading to the end ofthe Middle Ages, and the beginning of the modern world.However, the division will always be a somewhat artificialone for other scholars, who argue that since ancientlearning was never entirely absent from Europeansociety, there is certain continuity between the Classicaland the Modern age. Some historians, particularly in Italy,prefer not to speak of the Late Middle Ages at all, butrather see the 14th century Renaissance as a directtransition to the Modern Era. Expansion continued asimprovements in transportation linked the resort to awider range of visitors markets with better roads andexpanded coach services reducing travel times

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The period of modern and contemporary tourism

The study of tourism and indeed the tourism industry is changing

constantly. Contemporary Tourism: an international approach presents a

new and refreshing approach to the study of tourism, considering issues

such as the changing world order, destination marketing, tourism ethics

and pro-poor tourism. In particular, it highlights the ongoing threats

from terrorism and health scares faced by the tourism industry today,

and discusses the related security and risk management strategies,

illustrating the potential implications for the patterns and flow of tourism

in the future. Divided into five sections, each chapter has a thorough

learning structure including chapter objectives, examples, discussion

points, self review questions, checklists and case studies. Cases will be

both thematic and destination-based and always international. They will

be used to emphasise the relationship between general principles and the

practice of tourism looking at areas such as business and special interest

tourism and the role of technology.

The period of mass tourism begins in middle of 20 th century. The

reasons why tourist movement intensified all over the world are:

The shortening of the working days and weeks;

The rise in the standard of living;

The intense development of links and means of transportation;

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The development and diversification of tourist supply on a

regional scale;

The increased need for relaxation with regard to city life.

The features of contemporary tourism are:

The growth of its mass nature;

The growth of travel distance;

The growth of tourist consumption;

The diversification of forms of tourism in accordance with

tourists needs;

The mobility due to the perfection of modes and links of

transportation;

The involvement in tourism of the low-income tourists;

The computerization, the automation, and robotization.

This factors of contemporary tourism determined a lot of changes intourism industry and in all industries of a specific country.Themodernization and the effect of free mobility of people caused thechange in contemporary tourism.

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Subject no. 3. Tourist Resources and Tourist Potential

Natural tourist resources

Tourism is an industry that depends on the physical environment. Recentresearch has emphasized the importance of the environment for tourismactivity and development. It has also been concerned with the impacts

that tourism has on natural resources (Green, Hunter and Moore, 1990).Most of the impact of tourism occurs in destination areas, around servicecenters, or along transportation routes. Impacts are caused by bothdevelopment of structures, such as roads and buildings, as well as by thetourists themselves (May, 1991).

Nearly all impact studies have been concerned with natural or semi-natural areas, with very little work focused on urban settings (Green et

al., 1990). These studies have examined specific sites, such as alpineareas (Goodman, 1989; Rodriguez, 1987), islands (Wilkinson, 1989),coastal areas (Martinez-Taberner, Moya, Ramon and Forteza, 1990), andother areas (Farfell and Runyon, 1991). Additionally, most research hasbeen reactionary and centered around the negative impacts that tourismhas on natural resources after the damage has taken place. Thus, it isdifficult to document the process of environmental change resultingfrom tourism activity. Tourism is often blamed to an unreasonable

degree for resource degradation (Farrell and McLellan, 1987). Whiletourism does at times result in negative environmental impacts, there arealso environmental benefits associated with tourism, including fosteringappreciation for the environment.

Nature, in the broadest sense, is equivalent to the natural world,physical world, ormaterial world. "Nature" refers to thephenomena ofthe physical world, and also to life in general. It ranges in scale from the

subatomic to the cosmic.

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The word nature is derived from the Latin word natura, or "essentialqualities, innate disposition", and in ancient times, literally meant"birth". Natura was a Latin translation of the Greek wordphysis, whichoriginally related to the intrinsic characteristics that plants, animals, and

other features of the world develop of their own accord. The concept ofnature as a whole, the physical universe, is one of several expansions ofthe original notion; it began with certain core applications of the wordbypre-Socratic philosophers, and has steadily gained currency eversince. This usage was confirmed during the advent of modern scientificmethod in the last several centuries.

Within the various uses of the word today, "nature" may refer to thegeneral realm of various types of living plants and animals, and in some

cases to the processes associated with inanimate objectsthe way thatparticular types of things exist and change of their own accord, such asthe weatherand geology of the Earth, and the matterand energy ofwhich all these things are composed. It is often taken to mean the"natural environment" orwildernesswild animals, rocks, forest,beaches, and in general those things that have not been substantiallyaltered by human intervention, or which persist despite humanintervention. For, example, manufactured objects and human interaction

generally are not considered part of nature, unless qualified as, forexample, "human nature" or "the whole of nature". This more traditionalconcept of natural things which can still be found today implies adistinction between the natural and the artificial, with the artificial beingunderstood as that which has been brought into being by a humanconsciousness or a human mind. Depending on the particular context,the term "natural" might also be distinguished from the unnatural, thesupernatural, or what is man-made (man-made).

Nature tourism responsible travel to natural areas, which conservesthe environment and improves the welfare of local people.

It is tourism based on the natural attractions of an area. Examplesinclude birdwatching, photography, stargazing, camping, hiking,hunting, fishing, and visiting parks. These experiential tourists areinterested in a diversity of natural and cultural resources. They want

what is real, and they want to be immersed in a rich natural, cultural, orhistorical experience.

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From the standpoint of conservation, nature-based tourism providesincentives for local communities and landowners to conserve wildlifehabitats upon which the industry depends it promotes conservation byplacing an increased value on remaining natural areas. As nature tourism

becomes more important to the local economy, communities haveadditional incentive to conserve their remaining natural areas for wildlifeand wildlife enthusiasts.

The nature-based tourism efforts in Texas will continue to focus onachieving habitat conservation by providing information and assistanceto private landowners, communities, businesses, and local communityleaders wishing to make nature-based tourism an integral part of theirbusiness and community. By empowering people at the local level, we

hope to build and provide guidance to a growing industry that holdsgreat promise for sustainable economic development and conservationof wildlife habitat.

Tourism is possible to experience almost every kind of environment thatAustralia offers, without leaving NSW. The states diverse areas ofnatural beauty range from off-shore islands and marine parks torainforests and deserts.

Sydneys spectacular harbour, beaches, national parks and climate are anintrinsic part of the citys charm. Without these it would be just anotherinternational city.

Some natural assets, such as Sydney Harbour and the Blue Mountains,are well known but there is much more that should be done to promoteall the states natural attractions. These attractions must also bedeveloped in ways that are sustainable and which conserve the veryqualities that visitors are seeking.

Tourism NSW published a Nature in Tourism Plan in 2004, whichprovides vision and leadership for the development, management andmarketing of nature in tourism in New South Wales. Our NaturalTreasures: a shared vision for NSW is a summary of the plan.

The Plan is a subset of the 'Towards 2020: New South Wales Tourism

Masterplan' and complements regional marketing and developmentplans. The Nature in Tourism Plan will play a vital role in increasing thenumber of visitors to regional NSW.

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The Nature in Tourism Plan:

explains what nature in tourism is and its value to NSW stresses the importance of sustainable practices promotes integrated planning and development encourages a cooperative partnership between government and

industry

The plan identifies opportunities in:

product development and visitor experiences tourism facilities and services market research

marketing business and industry development

It also provides:

strategic direction for Tourism NSW a guide for industry-initiated action

Tourism NSW's nature in tourism fact sheets are designed to assist

existing and potential operators with the important relationship betweennature and tourism. The fact sheets are the result of extensive researchundertaken as part of the development of the Nature in Tourism Plan.

Tourism more than any other sphere of activity (except of courseagriculture) depends on natural environment, which represents, we cansay, raw material of it, the subject and the field of activity.Relief, woods, rivers, lakes, seas, natural monuments, mineral waters are

components of natural environment; these are considered touristresources and provide activity of recreation tourism, healing, culturaltourism, hiking, etc.Natural resources are natural elements, such as: water, air, rocks and soon, and natural forces: wind, volcanism, earthquakes. After the sphere oftheir development, they can be industrial, agricultural and of recreation.Natural tourist resources comprise: primary resources, that are the touristpotential of relief, hydrography link, vegetation and fauna and resources

developed and arranged by men parks, zoological, botanical gardens.Lets discuss about natural tourist resources and their processes.Rivers except their activity of erosion, transportation, accumulation

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create diverse forms of river relief used widely in tourism, such as rivervalleys with meadow vegetation, natural beaches.Mountainous rivers create spectacular valleys of quays, canyons, defiles.I can give such examples even in our country: The quays of Rut

(Orhei), defile from Saharna (Rezina), the canyon of ipova. Known onthe world plan- the Great canyon Colorado (Arizona, USA).The rivers also create falls that serves as tourist attractions. The touristsare interested to see the force that makes to fall the water, its mysteriousnoise, mist and rainbows produced by fall. The most visited falls are:Niagara fall (50 m), Victoria (120 m), Angel waterfall (154m) andothers.Air masses moving create the wind, which on the other side createsbizarre relief forms, so attractive for tourists: stone castles, tunnels,pillars (in states of Arizona, Utah, Nevada). On the peak of Bugecimountains (Romania) wind created figures which make an impression oftwo old women talking; the figure like the Egyptian Sphinx. Also thisfactor creates landscapes of dunes in desert zones. Due to thisphenomena develop different kinds of tourism (especially exotic),notably in Mauritania, Sudan, Uzbekistan, Australia. Natural landscapesof dunes form also on the shores of Baltic sea, and promote tourist flowin Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Kaliningrad.In zones of shores and seacoasts waters create natural beaches. The mostextended are: the beach in Rio de Janeiro called Copacabana, in Florida Miami beach, Long beach, Beverly hills, in India Mombay, inFrance Cote dAzur, and others.Fluvial tourism, cruises are practiced on Danube, Volga, Dnieper, Odra,Siena, Mississippi, Geneva lake, Ladoga, Caspian sea, Baikal, in NorthAmerica on Manitoba, Winnipeg, Victoria, Chad.Vegetation creates natural landscapes of forests, steppes, savanna; theseare widely developed for hunting, safari, hiking and just for pleasure.Natural tourist resources arranged and developed by men are representedby naturalreservations, national parks, botanical and zoological gardens. Forexample, such national parks as Serengeti (Tanzania), Cruger (SouthAfrica), Corbet(India), Everest (Nepal), GrandParadisso (Italy),Retezat(Romania); natural reservations Juventas(Latvia), Sihotealin(Russia), Codru, etc.

So, the relations of tourism and nature environment are close and verysignificant. The tourist interest for tourist natural resources increase

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more if they are varied and complex, and particularly non-altered, iewith primary properties and as follows the activities that resourcesgenerates are more valuable and attractive.

Forms of relief as natural tourist resources

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Mountainous sides and escarpments

A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surroundingland in a limited area usually in the form of a peak. A mountain isgenerally steeper than a hill. The adjective montane is used to describemountainous areas and things associated with them. The study ofmountains is called Orography.

Exogeology deals with planetary mountains, which in that branch ofscience are usually called montes (singularmons). The highestmountain on Earth based from sea level is Mount Everest (8,848 m(29,029 ft)) in the Himalayas of Asia. The highest known mountain inthe Solar System is Olympus Mons on the planet Mars at 21,171 m(69,459 ft)

There is no universally accepted definition of a mountain. Elevation,volume, relief, steepness, spacing and continuity have been used ascriteria for defining a mountain. In the Oxford English Dictionary amountain is defined as "a natural elevation of the earth surface risingmore or less abruptly from the surrounding level and attaining analtitude which, relatively to the adjacent elevation, is impressive ornotable."

Whether a landform is called a mountain may depend on usage amongthe local people. The highest point in San Francisco, California, is calledMount Davidson, notwithstanding its height of 300 m (980 ft), whichmakes it ten feet short of the minimum for a mountain in Americanappellation. Similarly, Mount Scott outside Lawton,Oklahoma is only 251 m (823 ft) from its base to its highest point.

Definitions of "mountain" include:

Height over base of at least 2,500 m (8,202 ft).

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Height over base of 1,500 m (4,921 ft).2,500 m (8,202 ft). with aslope greater than 2 degrees

Height over base of 1,000 m (3,281 ft).1,500 m (4,921 ft). with aslope greater than 5 degrees

Local (radius 7,000 m (22,966 ft). elevation greater than 300 m(984 ft)., or 300 m (984 ft)1,000 m (3,281 ft). if local (radius7,000 m (22,966 ft). elevation is greater than 300 m (984 ft).

By this definition , mountains cover 64% ofAsia, 25% ofEurope, 22% ofSouth America, 17% ofAustralia, and 3% ofAfrica. Asa whole, 24% of the Earth's land mass is mountainous and 10% ofpeople live in mountainous regions. Most of the world's rivers are fedfrom mountain sources, and more than half of humanity depends on

mountains for water.

Mountain in Carbon County, Utah

Tall mountains reach into the colder layers of the atmosphere. They areconsequently subject to glaciation, and erosion through frost action.Such processes produce thepeakshape. Some of these mountains haveglacial lakes, created by melting glaciers; for example, there are anestimated 3,000 glacial lakes in Bhutan. Mountains can be eroded andweathered, altering their characteristics over time.

Mount Olympus in Greece

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Tall mountains have different climatic conditions at the top than at thebase, and will thus have different life zones at different altitudes. At thehighest elevations, trees cannot grow, and whatever life may be presentwill be of the alpine type, resembling tundra. Just below the tree line,

one may find subalpine forests ofneedleleaftrees, which can withstandcold, dry conditions. In regions with dry climates, the tendency ofmountains to have higher precipitation as well as lower temperaturesalso provides for varying conditions, which in turn lead to differing floraand fauna. Some plants and animals found in these zones tend to becomeisolated since the conditions above and below a particular zone will beinhospitable and thus constrain their movements ordispersal. On theother hand, birds, being capable of flight, may take advantage ofmontane habitats and migrate into a region that would otherwise notprovide appropriate habitat. These isolated ecological systems, ormicroclimates, are known as sky islands.

The reason mountains are colder than lowlands has to do with how thesun heats the surface of the Earth. Practically all the heat at the surfaceof the Earth comes from the sun, in the form ofsolar energy. The sun'sradiation is absorbed by land and sea, whence the heat is transferred intothe air. Air is an insulator, so conduction of heat from the ground to the

atmosphere is negligible. Heat is mainly transferred into the atmospherethrough convection and radiation. Warm air rises because of itsbuoyancy, leading to convective circulation, in the form ofthermals,within the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere. When heatradiates from the surface of the earth, it is released as long-waveradiation, which does not travel through the air efficiently. This radiantheat is absorbed temporarily by gasses in the atmosphere, such as carbondioxide and water vapor. Thus, the lower portion of the troposphere

more than 50% of all air lies below the altitude of the summit of Mt.Everestforms a blanket of air keeping the surface warm. This is theGreenhouse Effect. The higher one goes in altitude, the less of thisblanket there is to keep in the heat. Thus, higher elevations, such asmountains, are colder than surrounding lowlands.[11] Air temperature inthe lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, decreases with gainsin altitude. The rate at which the temperature drops with elevation,called the environmental lapse rate, is not constant (it can fluctuate

throughout the day or seasonally and also regionally), but a normal lapserate is 5.5C per 1,000 m (3F per 3,000 ft). The temperature continues

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to drop up to a height of about 916 km, where it does not decreasefurther. However, this is higher than the highest mountaintop.

Mountains are generally less preferable forhuman habitation thanlowlands; the weather is often harsher, and there is little level ground

suitable foragriculture. At very high altitudes, there is less oxygen in theair and less protection against solar radiation (UV). Acute mountainsickness (caused by hypoxiaa lack of oxygen in the blood) affectsover half of lowlanders who spend more than a few hours above3,500 metres (11,480 ft).

Many mountains and mountain ranges throughout the world have beenleft in their natural state, and are today primarily used forrecreation,

while others are used forlogging, mining, grazing, or see little use.Some mountains offer spectacular views from their summits, whileothers are densely wooded. Summit accessibility is affected by height,steepness, latitude, terrain, weather. Roads, lifts, ortramways affectaccessibility. Hiking,backpacking, mountaineering, rock climbing, iceclimbing, downhill skiing, and snowboarding are recreational activitiesenjoyed on mountains. Mountains that support heavy recreational use(especially downhill skiing) are often the locations ofmountain resorts.

Mountains are made up of earth and rock materials. The outermost layerof the Earth or the Earth's crust is composed of seven primaryplates.When two plates move or collide each other, vast land areas are uplifted,resulting in the formation of mountains.

Classified by the geological processes that shape them, there are fivemajor types of mountains:

Fold mountainsFold mountains are the most common type of mountains. They areformed due to collision of two plates, causing folding of the Earth'scrust. The fold that descends on both sides is called anticline;whereas, the fold that ascends from a common low point (on bothsides) is called syncline. Examples of fold mountains are theHimalayas of Asia and the Alps in Europe.

Fault-Block mountains

As the name suggests, fault-block mountains or fault mountainsare formed when blocks of rock materials slide along faults in the

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Earth's crust. There are two types of block mountains, namely thelifted and tilted. Lifted mountains have two steep sides; whereas,the tilted type has one steep side and a gentle sloping side.Examples of fault-block mountains are found in the Sierra Nevada

mountain range of the western United States.

Volcanic mountainsVolcanic mountains are formed due to volcanic eruptions wheremagma piles up on the surface of the Earth. Examples of volcanoesinclude Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in thePhilippines.

Dome mountainsDome mountains are formed when the hot magma rises from themantle and uplifts the overlying sedimentary layer of the Earth'scrust. In the process, the magma is not erupted, but it cools downand forms the core of the mountain. They are called domemountains due to their appearance that resembles a dome shape.Example of a dome mountain isNavajo Mountain in the U.S. stateof Utah.

Plateau mountainsPlateau mountains are pseudo mountains that are formed becauseoferosion. They usually occur near folded mountain ranges. Anexample of a plateau mountain is the Catskill Mountains in theU.S. state of New York.

Some mountains are formed as a result of several of the Earth's forces.Though the Rockies in North America is formed due to folding, thereare mountains in the same range that are formed by faulting and doming.In nature, there is a continuous process of glaciation, soil erosion, and

mechanical and chemical weathering, which altogether play a major rolein altering the shape and characteristics of mountains.

An escarpment is a steep slope or long cliff that results from erosion orfaulting and separates two relatively level areas of differing elevations.

Usually escarpmentis used interchangeably with scarp (from the Italianscarpa, shoe.But some sources differentiate the two terms, whereescarpment

refers to the margin between two landforms, whilescarp

issynonymous with a cliff or steep slope. The surface of the steep slope iscalled a scarp face. Scarps are generally formed by one of two processes:

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either by differential erosion ofsedimentary rocks, or by verticalmovement of the Earth's crust along a fault (faulting).

Table nr.1

Schematic cross section of a cuesta, dip slopes facing left, and harderrocklayers in darker colors than softer ones (table nr.1).

Most commonly, an escarpment is a transition from one series ofsedimentary rocks to another series of a different age and composition.

When sedimentary beds are tilted and exposed to the surface, erosionand weathering may occur differentially based on the composition. Lessresistant rocks will erode faster, retreating until the point they areoverlain by more resistant rock (see cross section schematic). When thedip of the bedding is gentle, a cuesta is formed. Steeper dips (greaterthan 30-40) form hogbacks.

Escarpments are also frequently formed by faults. When a fault displaces

the ground surface so that one side is higher than the other, a fault scarpis created. This can occur in dip-slip faults, or when a strike-slip faultbrings a piece of high ground adjacent to an area of lower ground.

More loosely, the term scarp describes the zone between coastallowlands and continentalplateaus which have a marked, abrupt changein elevation caused by coastal erosion at the base of the plateau.

Earth is not the only planet where escarpments occur. They are believed

to occur on other planets when the crustcontracts, as a result of cooling.On otherSolar System bodies such as Mercury, Mars, and the Moon, theLatin term rupes is used for an escarpment.

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Crests and peaks

The crests and the peaks represent lines and points of certain sides

of the mountains. The more unusual and higher the peaks are, the moretheir individuality grows, and the more they draw travelers attention.

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Passes and quays

The passes and the banks play a major part in the gathering of

tourists along certain destinations. They link different regions betweenthem. The passes intervene between the crests and the massifs. The

banks are along the river systems.

A mountain pass (also gap, notch, col, saddle, hause, bwlch (Welsh),brennig orbealach (Gaelic)) is a route through a mountain range orover a ridge. If following the lowest possible route, a pass is locally the

highest point on that route. Since many of the world's mountain rangeshave presented formidable barriers to travel, passes have been importantsince before recorded history, and have played a key role in trade, war,and migration.

Mountain passes are analogous to the mathematical concept of atopologicalsaddle surface, with a saddle point marking the highest pointbetween two valleys and the lowest point along a ridge. On a

topographic map, passes are characterized by contour lines with anhourglass shape, which indicates a low spot between two higher points.

Passes are often found just above the source of a river, constituting asort of "bridge" over to the headwaters of a different river. Passes maybe very short, consisting of steep slopes to the top of the pass, or valleysof many kilometres, whose highest point is only identifiable bysurveying.

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Roads have long been built, and more recently railways, through passes.Some high and rugged passes may have tunnels bored underneath toallow faster traffic flow throughout the year.

The top of a pass is frequently the only flat ground in the area, a high

vantage point, so it is often a preferred site for buildings. For countrieswhose borders are delimited by a mountain range, the pass is typicallypart of the border, and the facilities likely include aborder control orcustoms station, and possibly a military post as well, as relatively fewsoldiers are required to guard a pass. For passes with roads, it is alsocustomary to have a small roadside sign giving the name of the pass andits elevationabove mean sea level. An example of this is Argentina andChile that share the world's third longest international border,

5,300 kilometres (3,300 mi) long, running from north to the souththrough the Andes mountains, having a total of 42 mountain passesbetween them.

As well as offering relatively easy travel between valleys, passes alsoprovide a route between two mountain tops with a minimum of descent.As a result, it is common for tracks to meet at a pass; this often makesthem convenient routes even when travelling between a summit and the

valley floor.

There are thousands of named passes around the world, some of whichare well-known, such as the Great St. Bernard Pass at 2,473 metres(8,114 ft) in the Alps, the Khyber Pass at 1,027 metres (3,369 ft)between Afghanistan and Pakistan, and the Khardung La at 5,359 metres(17,582 ft) in Jammu and Kashmir, India. The Marsimik La at5,590 metres (18,340 ft) is a lesser-known pass; it is one of the world's

highest motorable passes and lies in India, on the northern-most tip ofthe Changthang Plateau, near the Chinese border.

There are many words forpass in the English-speaking world. In theUnited States,pass is very common in the West, the wordgap iscommon in the southern Appalachians, notch in parts ofNew England,andsaddle in northern Idaho. Scotland has the Gaelic term bealach(anglicised "Balloch"). In the Lake District of north west England, theterm hause is often used, although the termpass is also commonone

distinction is that a pass can refer to a route, as well as the highest part

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above_mean_sea_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_St._Bernard_Passhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khyber_Passhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khardung_Lahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsimik_Lahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appalachian_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idahohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above_mean_sea_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_St._Bernard_Passhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khyber_Passhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khardung_Lahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsimik_Lahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appalachian_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idahohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_District


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thereof, while a hause is simply that highest part, often flattenedsomewhat into a high level plateau.

On this topological saddle surface a red dot marks the saddle point and a green lineshows the route ofsteepest descent.

A mountain pass as appears on a contour map: Bwlch Maesgwm in Snowdonia,north Wales

A photo of the approach to the same pass as in the above map (looking from thenorth-northeast).

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Gorges, defiles and canyons

The gorges, the defiles, and the canyons constitute an imposing groupof natural resources. The gorges represent the first stage, the mostsavage, of the valleys. Sometimes their cross profile is so narrow thatmens access is very difficult, or even impossible. The defiles are moreevolved gorges.

Some examples of gorges that we know:

#The Verdon Gorge (in French: Gorges du Verdon orGrand canyondu Verdon), in south-eastern France (Alpes-de-Haute-Provence), is arivercanyon that is often considered to be one ofEurope's mostbeautiful. It is about 25 kilometers long and up to 700 meters deep. Itwas formed by the Verdon River, which is named after its startlingturquoise-green colour, one of the canyon's most distinguishing

characteristics. The most impressive part lies between the towns ofCastellane and Moustiers-Sainte-Marie, where the river has cut a ravineup to 700 metres down through the limestone mass. At the end of thecanyon, the Verdon river flows into the artificial lake ofSainte-Croix-du-Verdon.

Because of its proximity to the French Riviera, the canyon is verypopular with tourists, who can drive around its rim, rent kayaks orhike.

The limestone walls, which are several hundreds of meters high, attractmany rock climbers. It is considered an outstanding destination formulti-pitch climbing. There are routes encompassing cracks, pillars and

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seemingly endless walls. The climbing is generally of a technical nature,and there are over 1,500 routes, ranging from 20m to over 400m.

#Taroko Gorge is an impressive 19-km-long canyon, situated nearTaiwan's east coast. The area of the gorge is also identified as TarokoGorge National Park.

The Taroko Gorge is composed mainly metomorphic rocks, such asmarble,gneiss, "schist",etc. The name, Taroko, means the "magnificentand splendid" in the language ofTruku, the aboriginal tribe who residesin the area. The most phenomenal aspect of the park is the amazingrelief. In a single afternoon you can travel from rugged coastal cliffsthrough a maze of subtropical forested canyons to high elevation

subalpine coniferous forests.

In about 60 kilometers the landscape rises from sea level to some of thetallest peaks in Taiwan at over 3400 meters. That's steep!

The force behind the steep valleys and narrow canyons is a (geologicallyspeaking) relatively fast rate of uplift combined with ample water. Overthe last 70 million years, these two forces collaborated to form theworld's deepest marble canyon. The slot canyons here are remarkablewith narrows sections a thousand feet high and only a dozen yards apart,reminiscent of the Virgin River in Zion National Park in Utah, USA.Ignore the fact that Zion is in the desert, and made of sandstone andTaroko is subtropical and comprised of marble, and these two gorgeshave a lot in common.

#Todra Gorge (French: Gorges de Todra,) is situated on the remoteeast side of the High Atlas Mountains in Morocco. Both the Todra and

neighbouring Dades Rivers have carved out cliff-sided canyons on theirfinal 40 kilometres (25 mi) through the mountains. The last 600 metres(1,969 ft) the Todra gorge are the most spectacular as the canyonnarrows to a flat stony track as little as 10 metres (33 ft) wide in placeswith sheer and smooth rock walls up to 160 metres (525 ft) high on eachside. The tiny glacier stream is something of a misfit and the river whichonce filled the gorge can only be imagined. It is easy to hike in the gorge- there is a well-maintained dirt road to walk along. The scenery is

spectacular. Local people live in the area and can be seen with theirsmall donkeys, or herding camels.

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It is no longer as remote as it once was: there is a reasonably well-maintained asphalt road that leads up the valley from Tinerhirto thegorge. A concrete road continues on, past the hotels at the mouth of thegorge and up to the villages ofAt Hani, Tamtatouchte, and Imilchil.

List of gorges Aragvi River Gorge, Georgia (country)

Avon Gorge, Bristol, England Bog Walk Gorge, Saint Catherine Parish, Jamaica

Bued Gorge, Benguet, Philippines

Cataract Gorge, Launceston, Australia

Cheddar Gorge, Somerset, England Columbia River Gorge, Oregon/Washington USA

Corrieshalloch Gorge, Ullapool, Scotland

Galston Gorge, NSW, Australia

Gorropu, Sardinia, Italy Ironbridge Gorge, Shropshire, England

Kloof, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (The wordKloofmeans 'gorge' in Afrikaans)

Komati Gorge, South Africa

Lanner Gorge, South Africa Letchworth State Park(Genesee River Gorge),New York, USA

Linville Gorge Wilderness,North Carolina, USA

Manawatu Gorge, Manawatu, North Island, New Zealand

Montalban Gorge, Philippines

New River Gorge, West Virginia, USA

Niagara Gorge, Canada/USA

North and South Gorges ofNorth Stradbroke Island, QLD, Australia

Katherine Gorge ofNitmiluk National Parkin Australia

Pankisi Gorge, Georgia (country)

Pine Creek Gorge, Pennsylvania, USA

Quechee Gorge, Vermont, USA

Red River Gorge, Kentucky, USA

Rio Grande Gorge,New Mexico, USA

Royal Gorge, Colorado, USA

Samaria Gorge, Crete, Greece

Siq, Petra, Jordan

Talari Gorges, Mali Tallulah Gorge, Georgia, USA

Gorges du Tarn, France

Taroko Gorge ofTaroko National Park, Taiwan

Three Gorges, Hubei, China

Tiger Leaping Gorge, Yunnan, China

Verdon Gorge, Provence, France

Viamala, Graubnden, Switzerland

Vikos Gorge, VikosAos National Park, Greece

Defile is a geographic term for a narrow pass orgorge betweenmountains or hills. It has its origins as a military description of a passthrough which troops can march only in a narrow column or with a

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