Uexküll - Incursões pelos mundos animais e humanos (trechos, inglês)

8/10/2019 Uexkll - Incurses pelos mundos animais e humanos (trechos, ingls)

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J a k o b v o n U e x k i i l l

F O R Y I N T O T H E W O R L D S

O F N I M L S N D H U M N S

miWA THEORY OF MEANING

T r a n s l a t e d b y J o s e p h D . O ' N e i l

I n t r o d u c t i o n b y D o r i o n Sagan

A f t e r w o r d b y G e o f f r e y Wi nt hr op-Young

posthumanties 12

Un iversi ty of M innes ota Pr ess

Minneapolis London


2/49


3/49

F O R Y I N T O T H E W O R L D S

O F N I M L S N D H U M N S


4/49

FOREWORD

THE PRESENT BOOKLET does not claim to serve as the intro-

duct ion to a new sc ience . Rather , i t only conta ins what one

m igh t ca l l t h e desc r ip t ion o f a w a lk in to unk no w n w or lds .

These w or lds a re no t on ly unknow n; they a re a l so inv i s ib l e .

Fur the rm ore , t he jus t i f i ca t ion fo r t he i r ex i s t ence i s den ied by

many zoologis t s and phys io logis t s .

W hi l e th i s a s se r t ion w i l l sound odd to anyone f am i l i a r

wi th those wor lds , i t can be expla ined by the fac t tha t not ev-

eryone has access to those wor lds . Cer ta in convic t ions are able

to ba r t he en t r ance to those w or lds so secure ly tha t no t even

one r ay o f a l l t he sp lendor tha t sp reads ove r them can pen-

e t r a t e i t .

Whoever wants to hold on to the convic t ion tha t a l l l iv ing

th ings a re on ly m ach ines shou ld abandon a l l hope o f g l im ps ing

t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t s .

W h oever i s no t ye t an a dh er en t of t h e m a ch ine theory of

l iv ing beings might , however , cons ider the fo l lowing. Al l our

u t e n s i l s a n d m a c h i n e s a r e n o m o r e t h a n a i d s f o r h u m a n b e -

ings . Of course there are a ids to producing ef fec ts

[WirAe/t],

which one ca l l s tools [Werkzeuge], a c lass to wh ich a l l l a rg e

machines be long, such as those in our fac tor ies tha t process

n a t u r a l p r o d u c t s a n d f u r t h e r m o r e a ll t r a i n s , a u t o m o b i l e s , a n d

a i rc ra f t . B u t t he re a re a l so a ids to pe rcep t ion [Merken], which

one m igh t ca l l pe rcep t ion too l s [Merkzeuge]: te lescopes ,

eye-

glasses , microphones , radio devices , and so on.

F r o m t h i s o n e c a n r e a d i l y a s s u m e t h a t a n a n i m a l i s

no th i ng m o re th a n a se l ec t ion of su i t a b l e e f fec t- too l s an d

a


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42

A FORAY INTO THE WORLDS OF ANIMALS AND HUMANS

percep t ion- too l s , w h ich a re bound up in to a w ho le by a con t ro l

d e v i c e w h i c h , t h o u g h i t r e m a i n s a m a c h i n e , i s n o n e t h e l e s s

su i t a b le fo r exe rc i s ing th e v i t a l func t ion s o f an an im a l . Th i s

i s i n f ac t t h e v i ew of a l l m ac h in e theo r i s t s , w h e t h e r th ey a r e

th in k i ng of r ig id m ech an ics o r f lex ib le d yn am ics . A n i m al s

a re m ade the reby in to pure ob jec t s . In so do ing , one fo rge t s

t h a t o n e h a s fr om t h e o u t s e t s u p p r e s s e d t h e p r i n c i p a l f a c to r ,

n a m e l y t h e subject w ho us es th es e a ids , w h o a f fec ts an d pe r -

c e i v e s w i t h t h e m .

B y m ea ns o f t he im p oss ib l e con s t ruc t ion of a com bined

effec t -percept ion tool , i t i s not only in the case of animals tha t

one h as s t i t ched toge the r th e sen sory and m otor o rg an s l i ke

m a c h i n e p a r t s ( w i t h o u t t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i r p e r c e p t i v e

an d effective funct ion s) . O ne h a s also gon e so far as to m ech a-

n ize hum an be ings . A ccord ing to the behav io r i s t s , ou r sens ib i l -

i t y an d our w i l l a r e m ere ap pe a ra nc e . In th e bes t case , t he y a re

to be va lu ed on ly a s ba ck gro un d no i se .

W h o e v e r stiU h o l d s t h e v i e w t h a t o u r s e n s o r y o r g a n s

se rve pe rcep t ion and our m otor o rg an s se rve th e p ro duc t io n

of effects wHl a l so no t see in an im a l s s im p ly a m e cha n ica l a s -

semblage; they wi l l a l so d iscover th

.

tf t

3 7 3 6 4 9 0 0 1 3 7 36 4 9 2 7 8 6 5 0 4 7 7 4 93 9 0 0 1 0 5 1 BT 0 3 1 16 T cf 6 4 9 0 38 9 T 2 1 2 7 8 6 5 0 4 7 7 BT 9 9 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 4 3 3 8 2 7 1 4 4T mT T 1 1 T f T E T Q q 1 3 7 3 1 8 0 p 1 8 0 JE 3 7 9 9 T 2 1 2 7 8 6 5 04 7 7 y T E T Q q 1 3 7 3 6 4 9 0 0 1 3 7 3 6 49 2 7 8 6 5 0 4 7 7 4 9 3 1 9 0 0 1 0 3 7 3 BT 0 3 11 6 T c2 7 0 1 3 9 T 2 1 2 7 8 6 5 0 4 7 7 1 T f 6 4 97 7 T 3 6 4 T JE T Q q 1 3 7 3 64 9 0 0 1 3 7 3 6 4 9 2 7 8 6 50 4 7 7 4 9 3 17 c1 8 0 p 1 8 0 0 2 2 3 1 7 9 T 2 1 3 0 1 0 1 0 4 7 6 3 3

no


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FOREWORD

We begin such a s t ro l l on a sunny day before a f lower-

ing me ado w in wh ich ins ec ts bu zz an d but te r f l ies flu tte r, an d

w e m a ke a bub b le a ro un d eac h of t h e an im a l s l i v ing in th e

m e a d o w . T h e b u b b l e r e p r e s e n t s e a c h a n i m a l ' s e n v i r o n m e n t

and con ta ins a l l t he f ea tu res access ib l e to the sub jec t . A s soon

a s w e e n t e r i n t o o n e s u c h b u b b l e , t h e p r e v i o u s s u r r o u n d i n g s

of the subjec t a re comple te ly reconf igured. Many qual i t ies of

the co lo r fu l m eadow van i sh com ple te ly , o the r s

lose

the i r coher -

ence w i th one ano the r , and new connec t ions a re c rea t ed . A new

w or ld a r i ses in each bubb le .

Th e r ea de r of t h i s t r av e log ue i s ca l led upo n to com e a lon g

a s w e w a n d e r t h r o u g h t h e s e w o r l d s . T h e a u t h o r s h a v e s p l i t u p

the i r t a sks in such a w ay tha t one (U exku l l ) w ro te the t ex t and

the o the r (K r i sza t ) w as r e spons ib l e fo r i l l u s t r a t ions .

We hope tha t , wi th th is t ravelogue, we wi l l t ake a deci -

s ive s t ep fo rw ards and conv ince m any reade r s tha t such env i -

ronments exis t and tha t a new, inf in i te ly r ich f ie ld of research

i s open ing up . A t the sam e t im e , t h i s book shou ld a t t e s t t o the

sp i r i t of r e s ea rch sh a r ed by th e co l l eagues a t t h e In s t i t u t e fo r

E n v i r o n m e n t a l R e s e a r c h i n H a m b u r g .

1

We owe a specia l debt of gra t i tude to Dr . K . Lorenz ,

w h o g r e a t l y a d v a n c e d o u r w o r k b y p r o v i d i n g t h e i m a g e s t h a t

docum ent h i s r i ch exper i ence w i th j ackdaw s and s t a r l ings .

Pro fesso r Egger s k ind ly sen t us a t ho rough repor t on h i s ex -

p e r i m e n t s w i t h n o c t u r n a l b u t t e r f l i e s . T h e w e l l - k n o w n w a t e r -

co lor is t F ra n z H u th c re a t e d th e im ag es of t he room an d th e

oak . F ig ure s 42 an d 55 w ere c rea t ed by Th . von U ex ku l l . W e

w ould l i ke to exp ress our he a r t f e l t g r a t i t ud e to a l l of t he m .

J A K O B V O N U E X K U L L

Hamburg,

December

1933

43


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INTRODUCTION

ANY COUNTRY DWELLER who traverses woods and bush with

h i s dog ha s ce r t a in ly becom e ac qu a in ted w i th a l i t t l e a n im a l

who l ies in wai t on the branches of the bushes for h is prey , be

i t human or animal , in order to d ive onto h is v ic t im and suck

him self ful l of i ts blood. In so doing , th e one- to

two-millimeter-

l a rge animal swel l s to the s ize of a pea (Figure 1) .

A l though no t dangerous , t he t i ck i s ce r t a in ly an unw el -

com e gues t t o hum ans and o the r m am m als . I t s l i f e cyc le has

been s tud ied in such de ta i l i n

recen t w ork tha t w e can c rea t e a

vi r tua l ly comple te p ic ture of i t .

O ut of th e egg cra wl s a n ot

yet fu l ly developed l i t t le animal ,

s t i l l m iss ing one pa i r of legs as

wel l as geni ta l organs . Even in

th i s s t a t e , i t can a l r eady am -

bush co ld -b looded an im a l s such

as l izards, for which i t l ies in

wait on the t ip of a blade of

gra ss . Af ter m an y mo l t ings , i t

ha s acqu i re d th e o rg an s i t l acked an d can now go on i t s qu es t

fo r w arm -b looded c rea tu res . O nce the f em ale has copu la t ed ,

s h e cfimbs with her ful l count of eight legs to the t ip of a pro-

t ru d i ng b r an ch o f an y sh ru b in o rde r e i the r t o f a ll on to sm a l l

m a m m a l s w h o r u n b y u n d e r n e a t h o r t o l e t h e r s e l f b e b r u s h e d

off the branch by large ones . The eyeless crea ture f inds the

way to i t s lookout wi th the he lp of a genera l sens i t iv i ty to l ight

FIGURE 1. Tick

44


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INTRODUCTION

i n the sk in . The b l ind and dea f band i t becom es aw are o f t he

approach of i t s prey through the sense of smel l . The odor of

butyr ic ac id , which i s g iven of f by the sk in g lands of a l l mam-

mals , g ives the t ick the s ignal to leave i t s watch pos t and leap

off . I f i t then fal ls onto something warmwhich i ts f ine sense

o f t e m p e r a t u r e w i l l t e l l itthen i t has r eached i t s p rey , t he

w arm -b lood ed an im a l , an d ne eds on ly us e i t s s ens e of t ouch to

find a spot as free of hair as possible in order to bore past i ts

ow n hea d in to the sk in t i s su e of t he p rey . N ow , the t i ck p um ps

a s t re am of w ar m blood s lowly in to i t se lf .

E x p e r i m e n t s w i t h ar ti fi c ia l m e m b r a n e s a n d l iq u i d s o t h e r

than b lood have dem ons t ra t ed tha t t he t i ck has no sense o f

t a s t e , fo r, a f t e r bor ing th ro ug h the m e m bra ne , it t ak es in any

l iqu id , so long as i t has the r igh t t em pera tu re .

If , af ter sensing the butyric acid smell , the t ick fal ls onto

som eth ing co ld , t hen i t has m issed i t s p rey and m us t c l im b

back up to i t s lookout pos t .

The t ick ' s hear ty b lood meal i s a l so i t s las t meal , for i t

now ha s not hin g mo re to do th a n fa ll to th e groun d, lay i t s eggs ,

and die.

T he clea rly kn ow n li fe pro ces ses of th e t ick afford u s a

su i t ab le c r i t e r ion in o rde r to dem ons t ra t e the soundness o f t he

biologica l poin t of v iew as opposed to th e previo us ly com mo n

physio logica l t r ea tm e n t of th e subjec t . For th e phy s io logis t ,

every l iv ing th ing i s an objec t tha t i s loca ted in h is human

w or ld . H e inves t iga t e s the o rgans o f l i v ing th ings and the w ay

they w ork toge the r jus t a s a t echn ic i an w ould exam ine an un-

fam i l i a r m ach ine . The b io log i s t , on the o the r hand , t akes in to

account tha t each and every l iv ing th ing i s a subjec t tha t l ives

in i t s own wor ld , of which i t i s the center . I t cannot , therefore ,

be com pared to a m ach ine , on ly to the m ach ine ope ra to r w ho

gu ides the m ach ine .

W e ask a s im ple ques t ion : I s t he t i ck a m ach ine o r a m a-

chine opera tor? Is i t a mere objec t or a subjec t?

Physio logy declares the t ick to be a machine and says

45


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46 A FORAY INTO THE WORLDS OF ANIMALS AND HUMANS

t ha t one can d i f f e ren t i a t e r ecep to r s , i . e . , s ensory o rgans , and

effec tors , i . e . , ac t iv i ty organs , in the t ick . These are connected

w i t h o n e a n o t h e r t h r o u g h a c o n t r o l a p p a r a t u s i n t h e c e n t r a l

ne rvous sys t em . The w hole th ing i s a m ach ine , w i th no t r ace o f

a m a c h i n e o p e r a t o r .

"Exac t ly the re in l i e s t he m is t ake , " says the b io log i s t .

"N ot one pa r t of t he t i ck ' s body h a s the ch a r ac te r o f a m ach ine .

Th ere a r e m ac h in e op e ra to r s a t w ork a l l ove r th e p l ace ."

The phys io log i s t w i l l con t inue unper tu rbed : "Prec i se ly

in the t ick , i t can be shown tha t a l l ac t ions depend sole ly on

reflexes,

2

an d th e ref lex arc forms th e fou nda t ion of eve ry ani -

m al ma ch ine (F igur e 2). I t be gin s w i th a rece ptor , i . e ., w i th an

a p p a r a t u s t h a t a d m i t s o n l y c e r t a i n e x t e r n a l i n f lu e n c e s , s u c h a s

b u t y r i c a c i d a n d h e a t , a n d d i s r e g a r d s a l l o t h e r s .

"The a rc ends w i th a m usc le w hich se t s an e f f ec to r i n to

m o t i o n , w h e t h e r t h i s i s t h e a p p a r a t u s f o r l o c o m o t i o n o r f o r

bor ing .

"The sensory ce l l s , w h ich ac t iva t e sensory s t im ula t ion ,

and the m otor ce l l s , w h ich ac t iva t e the m ovem ent im pul se ,

a re on ly connec to r s w hich t r ansm i t t he com ple te ly phys ica l

w aves o f exc i t a t ion , p roduced

\ f \ ( j X by th e r ecep to r i n th e ne rve s in

D 77 \i7 r

r e s p o n s e t o a n e x t e r n a l i m p u l s e ,

FIGURE 2. Reflex

arc:

receptor,

sensory

cell,

motor

cell,

effector

r e s p o n s e

to the muscles of the effector .

The whole ref lex arc works wi th

the t r ans fe r o f m ot ion , j us t l i ke

any m ach ine . N o sub jec t ive f ac to r , a s one o r m ore m ach ine op-

e r a t o r s w o u ld be , i s a p p a r e n t a n y w h e r e . "

"Exact ly the oppos i te i s the case , " the b io logis t wi l l reply .

"Everyw here , i t i s a case o f m ach ine ope ra to r s and no t o f m a-

chin e p ar t s , for a l l th e ind iv id ua l ce l ls of th e ref lex a rc ac t by

t r ans fe r o f s t im ul i , no t by t r ans fe r o f m ovem ent . B u t a s t im u-

lus has to be noticed [gemerkt] by th e subjec t an d does no t ap-

pear at al l in objects ."

Any machine par t , for example the c lapper of a be l l , only


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INTRODUCTION

H

op era t e s in a m a ch ine - l ike m an ne r if i t i s sw un g bac k an d fo r th

in a ce r ta in way. Al l o t he r in t erv en t io ns , such as , for ex am ple ,

cold , hea t , ac ids , a lka l i s , e lec t r ica l cur rents , i t responds to as

any o the r p i ece o f m e ta l w ou ld . B u t w e know s ince Johannes

Mii l le r ,

3

however , tha t a muscle behaves in a comple te ly d i f fer -

en t w ay . I t r e sponds to a l l ex te rna l i n t e rven t ions in the sam e

w a y : b y c o n t r a c t i n g . A n y e x t e r n a l i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t r a n s f o r m e d

b y t h e m u s c l e i n t o t h e s a m e s t i m u l u s a n d r e s p o n d e d t o w i t h

the same impulse , by which i t s body of ce l l s i s made to con-

t r a c t . Jo h an ne s Mi i l l e r show ed fu r th e r t h a t a l l ex te rn a l e ff ec ts

tha t h i t ou r op t i c ne rve , w he the r these a re w aves in the e the r ,

p res su re , o r e l ec t r i c cu r ren t s , cause the sensa t ion o f l i gh t , i . e . ,

ou r s igh t - sense ce l l s answ er w i th the sam e "pe rcep t ion s ign"

[ Merkzeichen ].

4

From th is , we can conclude tha t every l iv ing ce l l i s a

m a c h i n e o p e r a t o r t h a t p e r c e i v e s a n d p r o d u c e s a n d t h e r e f o r e

possesses i t s own par t icular ( speci f ic ) percept ive s igns and im-

pulses or "effect s igns" [ Wirkzeichen ]. Th e com plex pe rcep t ion

an d pro du ct io n of e ffects in every an im al subjec t can th er eb y

be a t t r ibu ted to the coopera t ion o f sm a l l cellular-machine op-

era tors , each one possess ing only one percept ive and one ef fec-

t ive s ign.

In o rde r to m ake an o rde r ly coopera t ion poss ib l e , t he o r -

g a n i s m u s e s b r a i n c e l l s ( w h i c h a r e a l s o e l e m e n t a r y m a c h i n e

opera to r s ) , g rou p ing ha l f of t h em in

differently-sized

g roups

of "perc ept io n ce l ls" in the p ar t of th e b ra in th a t i s a f fec ted

by s t im ul i , t he "pe rcep t ion o rgan . " These g roups co r respond

to ex te r na l g rou ps of s t im u l i , w h ich p re sen t t hem se lv es to the

an im al sub jec t i n th e fo rm of qu es t io ns . The o rgan i sm u ses th e

other half of the brain cel ls as "effect cel ls" or impulse cel ls

and a r ra ng es th em in g roup s by m ea ns of w hich i t con t ro l s t he

m o vem ent s of t he e ff ec to r s, w h ich im pa r t t he an im a l sub jec t ' s

an sw ers to th e ou t s id e w or ld . Th e g rou ps of pe rcep t ion

ceUs

fill

up the "percept ion organs" of the bra in , and the groups of e f fec t

cel ls form th e "effect org an s" of th e br ai n.


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48

A FORAY INTO THE WORLDS OF ANIMALS AND

HUMANS

If w e m ay , on th i s ac coun t , im ag ine a pe rcep t ion o rg an

as the s i t e of cha ng in g g rou ps of t he se ce l l -m ach ine ope ra to r s ,

wh ich ar e th e ca r r ie rs of d i f ferent pe rcep t ive s igns , th ey ar e

s t i l l spa t i a l ly sepa ra t ed ind iv idua l s . The i r pe rcep t ive s igns

would remain i so la ted i f i t were not poss ib le for them to co-

a lesce in to new uni t s outs ide the spat ia l ly f ixed percept ion

org an . Th is poss ib i l i ty i s in fac t pres en t . The pe rcep t ive s ig ns of

a g rou p of pe rcep t ion ce l ls com e tog e th e r ou t s id e the pe rce p t ion

organ , i ndeed ou t s ide the an im a l ' s body , i n un i t s t ha t becom e

qual i t ies of the objec t tha t l ie outs ide the animal subjec t . We

are a l l qu i t e f am i l i a r w i th th i s f act . A l l ou r hu m a n sen sa t ion s ,

wh ich re pr es en t ou r specif ic perce pt io n s igns , jo in tog eth er to

fo rm th e qua l i t i e s of t he ex te rn a l t h in gs w hich se rve us a s pe r -

cep t ion m arks fo r our ac t ions . The sensa t ion "b lue" becom es

th e "b lueness" of t h e sky , t h e sen sa t io n "g reen" becom es th e

"gr een ne ss" of th e law n, an d so for th . We recogn ize th e sky by

th e f ea tu re "b lue" an d the l aw n by the f ea tu r e "g reen ."

Exac t ly the sam e th ing t akes p l ace in the e f f ec t o rgan .

He re , th e ef fect ce l ls p lay the ro le of th e e le m en ta ry m ac hi ne

o p e r a t o r s , w h i c h in t h i s c a s e a r e a r r a n g e d i n t o well-articulated

groups according to the i r impulse or product ive s ign . Here , too ,

i t i s poss ib le to group the i so la ted ef fec t s igns in to uni t s tha t ,

i n th e fo rm of se l f -con ta ined m otor im p ul se s o r rhy thm ica l l y

ar ra ng ed m elodies of im puls es , produc e ef fec ts in th e m usc les

subjec t to them. At th is , the ef fec tors ac t iva ted by the muscles

impress the i r "ef fec t mark" [ Wirkmal ] on th e objec ts th a t l ie

outs ide the subjec t .

T he ef fect m a rk th a t th e ef fec tors of th e subjec t im p ar t

to the ob jec t i s im m edia t e ly r ecogn izab le , j u s t l i ke the w ound

w hich the t i ck ' s

mouthparts

inf l ic t upo n the sk in of th e m am -

m al on w hich i t has l anded . B u t on ly the l abor ious sea rch fo r

the f ea tu res o f bu ty r i c ac id an d w a rm th com ple tes th e p i c tu re

of th e t ick as ac t ive in i t s en vi r on m en t .

F igura t ive ly speak ing , eve ry an im a l sub jec t a t t acks i t s

objec ts in a p incer

movementwith

one pe rcep t ive and one e f -

P


12/49

INTRODUCTION

fec t ive arm. With the f i r s t , i t impar ts each objec t a percept ion

m a r k [Merkmal] an d w i th th e second an eff ec t m ar k . C er t a in

qu al i t ies of th e object becom e th ere by ca r r i er s of perc ept io n

marks and o thers car r ie rs of e f fec t marks . Since a l l qual i t ies of

an ob jec t a re connec ted w i th each o the r t h rough the s t ruc tu re

of th e object , th e qua l i t ie s af fec ted by th e ef fect m ar k m us t

exe r t t he i r i n f luence th rough the ob jec t upon the qua l i t i e s t ha t

a r e c a r r i e r s of t h e p e r c e p t i o n m a r k a n d h a v e a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e

e f fec t on the pe rcep t ion m ark i t s e l f . O ne can bes t sum th i s up

th i s w ay : The e f fec t m ark ex t ingu i shes the pe rcep t ion m ark .

In add i t ion to the se l ec t ion o f s t im ul i t ha t t he r ecep to r s

a l low to pass and the order of muscles which g ive the ef fec-

tors cer ta in potent ia l s for ac t iv i ty , the decis ive fac tors for any

ac t ion by eve ry an im a l sub jec t a re above a l l t he num ber and

order of percept ion ce l l s tha t d is t inguish the objec ts of the en-

v i ronm ent by as s ign ing them fea tu res w i th the he lp o f t he i r

perc ept io n s igns , an d the nu m b er a nd ord er of th e effec t ce l l s

tha t fu rn i sh the sam e ob jec t s w i th e f f ec t m arks .

The objec t only takes par t in th is ac t ion to the extent tha t

i t must possess the necessary proper t ies , which can serve on the

one hand as fea ture car r ie rs and, on the o ther , as e f fec t s ign

ca r r i e r s , and w hich m us t

perception word be in conta c t wi th each

other through a rec iprocal

s t r u c t u r e .

The connect ion of

subject to object can be

most c lear ly expla ined by

th e sche ma of th e func-

t ional cycle (Figure 3) .

The schem a show s how

subjec t and objec t a re

in t e rconnec ted w i th each

o the r and fo rm an o rde r ly w hole . I f one fu r the r im ag ines tha t

subjects are l inked to the same object or different ones by

mul-

49

Percepon organ

Counersrucure

Effect organ

Recepor

Percepon-mark carrer

Couner

structure

Eec-mark carrer

FIGURE 3. Functional cycle


13/49


tiple

funct ional cycles , one can the reb y gain ins igh t in to th e fun-

da m en ta l p r inc ip l e of t he sc ience of t he e nv i ro nm ent : A ll a n im a l

subjec ts , f rom the s imples t to the most complex, a re inser ted

in to the i r env i r onm ent s to the sa m e degree of pe r fec t ion . Th e

s im ple an im a l has a s im ple env i ronm ent ; t he m ul t i fo rm an im al

has an envi ronment jus t as r ichly ar t icula ted as i t i s .

Now, le t us p lace the t ick in to the funct ional cycle as

a sub jec t and the m am m al a s i t s ob jec t . I t i s s een tha t t h ree

funct ional cycles take p lace , according to p lan , one af ter the

o t h e r . T h e m a m m a l ' s s k i n g l a n d s c o m p r i s e t h e f e a t u r e c a r r i e r s

of th e f irst cycle, s inc e th e s t i m u lu s of th e bu ty ric acid s et s off

ce r t a in pe rcep t ion s igns in the [ t i ck ' s ] pe rcep t ion o rgan , and

the se s igns a re t r a ns po sed o u tw ard as o l fac to ry f ea tu res . Th e

processes in the pe rcep t ion o rgan b r ing abou t co r respond ing

im p ul se s by indu c t ion (w e do no t know w ha t t h a t is ) i n t he

[ t ick ' s ] e f fec t organ which then br ing about the re leas ing of

the l egs and f a l l i ng . The f a l l i ng t i ck im par t s t o the m am m al ' s

ha i rs , on which i t l ands , the ef fec t mark "col l i s ion ," which then

ac t iva t es a t ac t i l e f ea tu re w hich , i n i t s t u rn , ex t ingu i shes the

o l fac to ry f ea tu re "bu ty r i c ac id . " The new fea tu re ac t iva t e s the

t i ck ' s ru n n i n g abou t , un t i l t h i s f ea tu re i s i n tu rn ex t in gu i s hed

a t t he first b a r e pa tch o f sk in by th e f ea tu re " w arm th , " an d the

dr i l l ing can begin .

This i s no doubt a case of three ref lexes , each of which

i s r ep laced by the nex t and w hich a re ac t iva t ed by ob jec t ive ly

ident i f iable phys ica l or chemical e f fec ts . But whoever i s sa t -

i s f i ed w i th tha t obse rva t ion , and as sum es he has the re fo re

so lved the p rob lem , on ly p roves tha t he has no t seen the r ea l

pro blem a t a l l . I t is not a qu es t ion of th e chem ical s t im ul u s of

th e bu ty r i c ac id an y m ore th a n i t i s of t he m ech an ic a l s t im ulu s

(ac t iva t ed by the ha i r ) o r o f t he the rm al s t im ulus o f t he sk in .

I t i s only a ques t ion of the fac t tha t , among the hundreds of e f -

f ec ts t h a t e m a n a t e fro m t h e m a m m a l ' s b o dy , o n ly t h r e e b e c o m e

fea tu re ca r r i e r s fo r t he t i ck . W hy these th ree and no o the r s?

I t i s not a ques t ion of a contes t of s t rength be tween two


14/49

INTRODUCTION

51

objects but , ra th er , of th e connect ion be tw een a liv ing subjec t

and i ts object . These take place at an ent irely different level :

be tween the subjec t ' s percept ion s igns and the objec t ' s s t imulus .

The t ick hangs iner t on the t ip of a branch in a fores t

c l ea r ing . I t s pos i t i on a l low s i t t o f a l l on to a m am m al runn ing

p a s t . F r o m i t s e n t i r e e n v i r o n m e n t , n o s t i m u l u s p e n e t r a t e s t h e

t i ck . B u t he re com es a m am m al , w h ich the t i ck needs fo r t he

product ion of of fspr ing .

And now something miraculous happens . Of a l l the ef fec ts

em ana t ing f rom the m am m al ' s body , on ly th ree becom e s t im ul i ,

and then on ly in a ce r t a in sequence . F rom the enorm ous w or ld

surrounding the t ick , three s t imul i g low l ike s ignal l ights in the

da rkn ess an d se rve a s d i rec t iona l s igns tha t l ead the t ick su re ly

to i t s ta rge t . In order to make th is poss ib le , the t ick has been

given, beyon d i t s body 's recep tors an d effec tors, th re e perce pt ion

s igns , which i t can use as fea tures . Through these fea tures , the

prog ress ion of th e t ick ' s ac t ions i s so s t r ic t ly prescr ibed t h a t th e

t ick can only produce very de terminate ef fec t marks .

The w hole r i ch w or ld su r round ing the t i ck i s cons t r i c t ed

a n d t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n i m p o v e r i s h e d s t r u c t u r e t h a t , m o s t

im po r t a n t l y o f a l l, con s i s t s on ly o f t h re e f ea tu r es an d th re e e f-

fect marksthe t i ck ' s env i ronm ent . H ow ever , t he pover ty o f

th i s en v i r on m en t i s needfu l fo r t he ce r t a in ty of ac t ion , an d ce r -

t a i n t y is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n r i ch e s .

A s one can see, t h e fu nd am en ta l a sp ec t s of t h e s t r uc tu re

of th e env i ro nm en t s th a t a re va l id fo r a l l an im a l s can be de -

r ived f rom t h e exa m ple of th e t ick . B ut the t ick h a s one m ore

r e m a r k a b l e c a p a b i l i t y t h a t a l l o w s u s a g r e a t e r i n s i g h t i n t o e n -

v i r o n m e n t s .

I t i s im m edia t e ly ev iden t t ha t t he happy occas ion tha t

b r i n g s a m a m m a l to p a s s b e n e a t h t h e b r a n c h o n w h i c h t h e t ic k

s i t s occur s m os t se ldom . Eve n the g rea t nu m be r of t i cks ly ing

in w a i t i n the bush does no t com pensa te fo r t h i s d i sadvan tage

in suc h a wa y as to sec ure th e repro du ct io n of th e species . In

orde r to inc rease the p robab i l i t y tha t i t s p rey w i l l pass by , t he


15/49

FT


t i ck m us t be capab le of l i v ing a long t im e w i tho u t no ur i sh m en t .

A nd the t i ck i s capab le o f t h i s t o an unusua l degree . A t the

Zoo log ica l Ins t i t u t e in R os tock , t hey kep t t i cks a l ive tha t had

gone hungry fo r e igh teen yea r s .

6

The t i ck can w a i t e igh teen

y e a r s ; w e h u m a n s c a n n o t . O u r h u m a n t i m e c o n s i s t s of a s e-

r i e s o f m om ent s , i . e . , t he shor t e s t s egm ent s o f t im e in w hich

the w or ld exh ib i t s no cha ng es . For a m om en t ' s du ra t ion , t he

w o r l d s t a n d s st il l. A h u m a n m o m e n t l a s t s o n e - e i g h t e e n t h of

a second.

6

W e sha l l s ee l a t e r t h a t t h e dur a t io n of a m o m en t i s

d i ff e ren t i n d i f fe ren t an im a l s , bu t , no m a t t e r w h a t num be r w e

ass ign to the t ick , i t i s s imply imposs ib le for an animal to en-

d u r e a n u n c h a n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t f o r e i g h t e e n y e a r s . W e s h a l l

the re fo re a s sum e tha t t he t i ck i s , du r ing i t s w a i t ing pe r iod , i n

a s t a t e s i m i l a r t o s l ee p , w h i c h a l so i n t e r r u p t s o u r h u m a n t i m e

for hours . But t ime s tands s t i l l in the t ick ' s wai t ing per iod not

jus t fo r hour s bu t fo r yea r s , and i t s t a r t s aga in on ly w hen the

s igna l "bu ty r i c ac id" aw akens the t i ck to r enew ed ac t iv i ty .

W h a t h a v e w e g a i n e d b y t h i s k n o w l e d g e ? S o m e t h i n g

very s igni f icant . Time, which f rames a l l events , seemed to us to

be the only objec t ive ly cons is tent fac tor , compared to the var -

i ega ted ch ang es of i t s con ten t s , bu t now w e see th a t t he sub-

jec t cont ro ls the t ime of i t s envi ronment . Whi le we sa id before ,

"There can be no l iv ing subjec t wi thout t ime," now we shal l

have to say , "Without a l iv ing subjec t , there can be no t ime."

W e sha l l s ee in the nex t chap te r t ha t t he sam e i s t rue o f

space : W i thou t a l i v ing sub jec t , t he re can be ne i the r space nor

t ime. With th is observat ion , b io logy has once and for a l l con-

nected wi th Kant ' s phi losophy, which b io logy wi l l now ut i l ize

t h r o u g h t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s b y e m p h a s i z i n g t h e d e c i s i v e r o l e

of th e sub ject .


16/49

FT

ENVRONMENT SPACES

53

ENVIRONMENT SP CES

JUST AS A GOURMET pic ks on ly th e r a is in s ou t of t h e ca ke , th e

t i ck on ly d i s t ingu i shes bu ty r i c ac id f rom am ong the th ings in

i t s s u r r o u n d i n g s . W e a r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n w h a t t a s t e s e n s a -

t ions the r a i s ins p roduce in the gourm et bu t on ly in the f ac t

t h a t t h e y b e c o m e p e r c e p t i o n m a r k s of h i s e n v i r o n m e n t b e c a u s e

th ey a re of spe cial biological s ignif ican ce for him ; w e also do no t

ask how th e bu ty r i c ac id t a s t e s o r sm e l l s t o th e t ick , bu t r a the r ,

we only regis ter the fac t tha t butyr ic ac id , as b io logica l ly s ig-

ni f icant , becomes a percept ion mark for the t ick .

W e con ten t our se lves w i th the obse rva t ion tha t pe rcep-

t ion ce l l s must be present in the percept ion organ of the t ick

th a t sen d ou t t he i r pe rcep t ion s igns , j u s t a s w e as su m e t he

sa m e for th e pe rcep t ion or ga ns of th e gou rm et . The only dif -

f e rence i s t ha t t he t i ck ' s pe rcep t ion s igns t r ans fo rm the bu-

ty r i c ac id s t im ulu s in to a pe rce p t ion m ar k of i t s env i ron m e nt ,

w h e r e a s t h e g o u r m e t ' s p e r c e p t i o n s i g n s i n h i s e n v i r o n m e n t

t r a n s f o r m t h e r a i s i n s t i m u l u s i n t o a p e r c e p t i o n m a r k .

The an im a l ' s env i ronm ent , w h ich w e w an t to inves t iga t e

now, is only a piece cut out of i ts surroundings, which we see

s t re tching out on a l l s ides around the

animaland

these su r -

round ings a re no th ing e l se bu t our ow n, hum an env i ronm ent .

The f irs t tas k of res ea rch on such env i ro nm en ts cons is t s in seek-

ing out the animal ' s percept ion s igns and, wi th them, to con-

s t ruc t t he an im a l ' s env i ronm ent . The pe rcep t ion s ign o f r a i s ins

does nothing for the t ick , whi le the percept ion mark of butyr ic

ac id p lays an except ional ro le in i t s envi ronment . In the gour-

met ' s envi ronment , on the o ther hand, the accent of s igni f icance

faUs

not on butyr ic ac id , but on the percept ion mark of ra i s ins .

Eve ry sub jec t sp ins ou t , l i ke th e sp ide r ' s t h re ad s , i t s r e l a -

t ions to ce r t a in qu a l i t i e s of t h ing s an d w eav es the m in to a sol id

web, which car r ies i t s exis tence .


17/49

54

A FORAY-NTO THE WORLDS OF ANIMALS AND HUMANS

T he re la t io ns of th e subjec t to th e objec ts of i t s su r ro un d-

ings , w ha tev e r the na tu re of t he se r e l a t ion s m ay be, p l ay th em -

se lves ou t ou t s ide the sub jec t , i n the ve ry p l ace w here w e have

to look fo r t he pe rc ep t ion m ark s . Pe rce p t ion s igns a re the re fo re

*

a lw ays spa t i a l ly bound , and , s ince they t ake p l ace in a ce r t a in

sequence , t hey a re a l so t em pora l ly bound .

We comfor t ourse lves a l l too eas i ly wi th the i l lus ion tha t

the re la t ions of another k ind of subjec t to the th ings of i t s en-

v i ronm ent p l ay ou t i n the sam e space and t im e as the r e l a t ions

t h a t l i n k u s t o t h e t h i n g s of o u r h u m a n e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s il-

lus ion i s fed by the be l ief in the exis tence of one and only one

w or ld , i n w hich a l l l i v ing be ings a re encased . F rom th i s a r i ses

the w ide ly he ld conv ic t ion tha t t he re m us t be one and on ly one

space and t ime for a l l l iv ing be ings . Only recent ly have phys-

i c i s t s r a i sed doub t s a s to the ex i s t ence o f one un ive r se w i th

one space va l id for a l l be ings . That there can be no such space

com es a l r e ad y of t h e f act t h a t eve ry h u m a n be ing lives in t h r ee

s p a c e s , w h i c h i n t e r p e n e t r a t e a n d c o m p l e t e b u t a l s o p a r t i a l l y

con t rad ic t each o the r .

E f f e c t S p a c e

W hen w e c lose our eyes and m ove our l im bs , t hese m ovem ent s

a re know n exac t ly by us in the i r d i r ec t ion and the i r ex tens ion .

U s ing our hand , w e f ind our w ay in a space tha t one can des -

ignate the f ree space of our movements , or , in o ther words , our

effect space [Wirkraum]. W e m e a s u r e t h e s e p a t h s o u t i n t h e

shor tes t s teps , which we wi l l ca l l d i rec t ional s teps , s ince the

d i rec t ion of each an d eve ry s t ep i s kn ow n exac t ly to u s th r ou gh

the sensa t ion o f d i r ec t ion o r directional sign. W e d i s t i n g u i s h

s ix d i rec t ions , in pa i rs of oppos i tes : to the le f t and to the r ight ,

u p w a r d a n d d o w n w a r d , f o r w a r d a n d b a c k w a r d .

T h o r o u g h e x p e r i m e n t s h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e s m a l l e s t

s tep we can execute , as measured by the index f inger of the

o u t s t r e t c h e d a r m , is a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w o c e n t i m e t e r s i n l e n g th .

A s one can see , t hese s t eps cons t i t u t e no p rec i se m easurem ent


18/49

ENVRONMENT SPACES

of the space in w hich they a re execu ted . A nyone can conv ince

himsel f of th is imprecis ion i f he a t tempts , wi th c losed eyes , to

m ak e h is f ingertips m ee t . He wou ld see th a t th is ge ner a l ly fa i ls

an d th a t th e fingertips m iss eac h o t he r by a d is tan ce of u p to

t w o c e n t i m e t e r s .

I t i s of th e u tm o st s igni f icance for us th a t we can re ta in

these pa ths , once execu ted , ve ry eas i ly in our m em ory , w hich

makes i t poss ib le to wr i te in the dark . This sk i l l i s ca l led "kin-

e s t h e s i a , " w h i c h a d d s n o t h i n g n e w .

Ho we ver , e ffec t sp ace i s no t ju s t a space of m ov em en t con-

s t ru c te d of a t h ou sa nd c r i s sc ross ing d i r ec t iona l s t eps . R a the r ,

i t possesses a sys tem by which i t i s cont ro l led , the wel l -known

coord ina te sy s t em , cons i s t ing of l eve l s t h a t a re ve r t i ca l ly a r -

ranged, one on top of the o ther . This serves as the bas is of a l l

s p a t i a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s .

I t i s of fu nd am en ta l im po r tan ce th a t everyone who i s con-

cerned wi th the problem of space persuade h imsel f of th is fac t .

N o th ing i s s im ple r . O neneedonly close one 's eyes an d m ove o ne 's

ha nd , he ld pe rpe nd icu lar to th e forehead, back and for th in orde r

to e s t ab l i sh w i th ce r t a in ty w h ere the bo un da ry be tw een r igh t

and left l i es. Th is bo un da ry prac t ica l ly coincides w i th th e body 's

median p lane . I f one moves one ' s hor izonta l ly he ld hand up and

down in front of one 's face, one can e asi ly esta bl is h w he re th e

bou nda ry be tw e en u p and dow n l ie s . Th i s bou nda ry i s l oca ted a t

eye level in most people . Nonetheless , a grea t number of people

p lace th i s boun da ry a t t h e he igh t o f t he u pp er l ip . Th e bou nda ry

between front and back differs the most ; i t can be found by mov-

ing th e forward-fac ing pa lm of th e han d. A larg e num be r of peo-

ple say th a t th i s p la ne i s loca ted a t the op enin g of th e ear , w hi le

o the r s des igna te the zygom at i c a rch a s the boundary p l ane , and

oth ers s t i l l place i t in front of th e t ip of th e nose. Ev ery nor-

m a l hum an be ing ca r r i e s a coord ina te sys t em a round w i th h im

tha t i s m ad e up of th es e thre e p la ne s and i s firmly connected

to h is hea d (Fig ure 4) an d the reb y confers a so l id f rame upo n

his effect space, in which these direct ional s teps lurch and

reel.

55


19/49

06


In to the sh i f t ing tangle of d i rec t ional s teps , which as e l -

ements of movement can g ive no sol id i ty to the ef fec t space ,

these r e s t ing p l anes p ro jec t a f i rm sca f fo ld ing tha t gua ran tees

th e or de r of th e effect spa ce.

I t w a s t h e g r e a t a c h i e v e m e n t o f [Elie von] Cyon

7

to at-

t r i b u t e t h e three-dimensionality of our sp ace to a sen se- org an

loca ted in the inne r ea r , t he so -ca l l ed sem ic i r cu la r cana l s

(F igure 5 ), t he loca t ion of w h ich co r resp ond s ap pro x im ate ly to

FIGURE 4. Coordinate system

ofa human being

FIGURE 5. Semicircular canals

ofa humanbeing

th e th re e p l an es of th e effec t space . Th is connect ion ha s be en

d e m o n s t r a t e d s o c l e a rl y b y n u m e r o u s e x p e r i m e n t s t h a t w e c a n

m ak e the fo l low ing as se r t io n : A l l an im a l s th a t ha ve thes e th re e

sem ic i r cu la r cana l s a l so have ava i l ab le a th ree -d im ens iona l e f -

fect space.

Figure 6 shows the semicircular canals of a f ish. I t is evi-

den t t ha t t hese m us t be o f g rea t im por t ance fo r t h i s an im a l .

The i r i nne r s t ruc tu re a l so suppor t s t h i s conc lus ion ; i t p resen t s

a sys tem of tubes in which l iquid , cont ro l led by nerves , moves


20/49

FIGURE 6. Semicircular canals ofafish

ENVRONMENT SPACES

in the three spat ia l d i rec t ions .

Th e mov em ent of l iquid fa ith-

ful ly ref lects the movements

of the whole body. That indi-

ca tes to us tha t , in addi t ion

to the t a s k of t r an spo s ing the

three p lanes in to the ef fec t

space , ano the r m ean ing can

be ass igned to th is organ. I t

seems to be cal led to play the

role of a compass as

weU

not a compass tha t only ever points nor th , but a compass for the

"house door . " I f a l l the movements of the ent i re body are ana-

lyzed and m arked in the sem ic i r cu la r cana l s , t hen the an im a l

must be back a t i t s s ta r t ing point when, in the course of swim-

m in g a rou nd , i t ha s b roug h t t hese ne rve m a rk in gs back to zero .

I t i s bey ond a l l do ubt th a t such a house -door com pas s

is a necessary a id for a l l an imals , whether the house door i s a

ne s t in g o r a spaw nin g p lace . Th e es t ab l i sh m en t of t he ho use

door th rough op t i ca l f ea tu res in v i sua l space i s i n m os t cases

no t ade qu a te , s ince i t m us t be found even if i t h a s cha nge d i t s

a p p e a r a n c e .

The abi l i ty to f ind the house door in effect space can also

b e d e m o n s t r a t e d i n i n s e c t s a n d mollusks, e v e n t h o u g h t h e s e

an im al s have no sem ic i r cu la r ea r cana l s . The fo l low ing i s a

ve ry conv inc ing exp er im en t (F igure 7 ): W hen m o s t of t he bee s

have f lown out , a beehive i s moved two meters . As i t happens ,

the bees ga the r aga in a t t ha t p l ace in the a i r w here the ex i t

holetheirh o u s edoorwas previously located. After f ive min-

utes , the bees sh i f t course and f ly toward the h ive .

T h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d f u r t h e r , w i t h t h e

resul t tha t bees whose fee lers have been cut of f f ly immedi-

a t e ly tow ard the r e loca ted h ive . Th i s m eans tha t , a s l ong as

the y ar e in pos sess io n of th e i r fee lers , the y or ient the m sel ve s

57


21/49


22/49

60


T a c t i l e S p a c e

The bas ic bui ld ing b lock of tac t i le space i s not a uni t of move-

m ent such as the d i r ec t iona l s t ep , bu t a f ixed one , p l ace

[der

Ort], Place a lso owes i t s exis tence to a percept ion s ign be long-

ing to th e sub jec t and i s no t a conf igura t ion de pe nd en t upon th e

m a t t e r of i t s s u r r o u n d -

ings . [Erns t H e in r i ch ]

Weber provided the proof

of

this.

8

If one places

th e po in t s of a c om pas s

m o r e t h a n o n e c e n t i m e -

t e r apa r t on the nape o f

a n e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b -

jec t ' s neck, the subjec t

can c l ea r ly d i s t ingu i sh

b e t w e e n t h e t w o p o i n t s

(Figure 9) . Each point i s

loca ted a t ano the r p l ace .

I f one moves the points

dow n tow ard the back

w i thou t chang ing the d i s t ance be tw een them , they ge t c lose r

an d c lose r i n the t ac t i l e space of t h e exp er im en ta l sub jec t un t i l

they seem to be a t the same place .

There r e su l t s f rom th i s t ha t , bes ides the pe rcep t ion s ign

for the sense of touch, we a lso possess a percept ion s ign for the

sen se of p lace , wh ich we sh al l ca l l loca l s ign s . Tr an sfe r re d out -

w ard , each loca l s ign de l ivers a p lac e in tac t i le space . T he ar ea s

of our sk in th a t p roduce th e sam e loca l s ign in us w h en touc hed

chan ge ex t r ao rd in a r i ly in s i ze accord ing to th e m ea n in g t h a t

th e p ar t of th e sk in concern ed h as for touc hing . Af ter th e t ip

of th e tong ue, wh ich fee ls a ro un d th e ins id e of th e mo uth , t h e

t ips o f our f inge r s ha ve the sm a l l e s t a re as an d a re the re fo re

able to d i f ferent ia te the most p laces . As we fee l out an objec t ,

we confer a f ine mosa ic of p lace up on i t s sur fac e w i th th e t ou ch

of our f inger . The mosaic of place of the objects of the places of

FIGURE 9.Weber's compassexperiment


23/49

ENVRONMENT SPACES

81

an animal i s a g i f t f rom the subjec t to the th ings in i t s envi ron-

m en t in v is ua l as wel l as in tac t i le space , one which i s no t a t a l l

ava i l ab le in i t s su r round ings .

In feel ing out [an object] , places connect themselves with

di rec t ional s teps , an d both serve the process of im age-form at ion .

Tac t i l e space p l ays a ve ry p rom inen t ro l e in som e an i -

m a l s . R a t s and ca t s a re com ple te ly unh indered in the i r m ove-

m ent s even w hen they have los t t he sense o fsightas long as

t h e y h a v e t h e i r vibrissae [w hi ske r s ] . A l l no c tu rna l an im a l s an d

a l l an im a l s l i v ing in caves l i ve p redom inan t ly in t ac t i l e space ,

w hich r ep re se n t s a m e ld ing of p l aces and d i r ec t ion a l s t ep s .

V i s u a l S p a c e

Eye less an i m a l s th a t , l i ke th e ti ck , ha ve sk in th a t is s ens i t i ve to

l ight wi l l mo st like ly posse ss th e sa m e skin ar ea s for th e produc-

t ion of local s igns for l ight s t imuli as well as for tact i le s t imuli .

V i sua l an d t ac t i l e p l aces co incide in the i r env i ron m e nt s .

O nly w i th a n im a l s th a t ha ve eyes do v i sua l an d t ac t i l e

p laces c l ea r ly sepa ra t e . In the eye ' s r e t ina , t he ve ry sm a l l e l -

e m e n t a r y areasthe v i s u a l elementsclose toge the r . To each

s i g h t e l e m e n t t h e r e c o r r e s p o n d s a p l ace in the env i ronm ent ,

for i t so happens tha t one loca l s ign i s ass igned to each v isual

e le me nt . F ig ur e 10 re p re se n ts the v isu al space of a f ly ing in-

sec t . I t is ea sy to see th a t , as a con sequ enc e of th e sph er ica l

con s t ru c t io n of th e eye , th e region of th e outs ide wor ld th a t

s t r ikes a v i sua l e l em ent g row s l a rge r a s d i s t ance inc reases and

ever m ore encom pass ing pa r t s o f t he ou t s ide w or ld a re covered

by one p lace . As a res ul t of th is , a ll th e ob ject s t h a t m ove a w ay

f rom the eye g row sm al l e r and sm al l e r un t i l t hey van i sh in to

one p l ace , fo r t he p l ace r ep resen t s t he sm a l l e s t spa t i a l vesse l

ins id e of wh ich th er e are no d is t in c t ion s .

In tac t i le space , the objec ts ' growing smal ler does not

t ake p l ace . A nd tha t i s t he po in t a t w h ich v i sua l and t ac t i l e

space come in to compet i t ion . I f one reaches out one ' s a rm to


24/49


25/49


26/49

THE FARTHEST PLANE

63

i t aga in . I t wi l l then change i t se l f in to an ever more coarse

m osa ic . S ince the g r id i s t oo bo the r som e , w e have r ep roduced

here the coa r se r m osa ic im ages a s a w a te rco lo r w i thou t a g r id .

F ig ure s 11 a - d w e re p rodu ced w i t h the g rid m e thod . Th ey o ffe r

the ch anc e to ga in an in tu i t i on of an a n im a l ' s env i ron m ent i f

one kno w s the n um be r of v i su a l e l em ent s in i t s eye . F ig ure

l ie

cor responds approx im ate ly to the im age p rov ided by the eye

of th e house fly . O ne can eas i ly un d er s t an d t h a t i n an env i ron-

m en t th a t d i sp lays so few de ta i l s , t he th re ad s of a sp ide r ' s w eb

are com ple te ly los t t o s igh t , and w e m ay say tha t t he sp ide r

w eaves a ne t t ha t r em ains com ple te ly inv i s ib l e to i t s p rey .

The last figure

( l id)

co r responds to the im age im pressed

upon the eye of a mollusk. As one can see, the visual space of

sna i l s and m u sse l s con ta ins no th ing bu t a nu m be r of da rk an d

light surfaces.

9

Jus t as in tac t i le space , the connect ions f rom

place to p lace in v isual space are produced through di rec t ional

s teps . I f we prep ar e an objec t u nd er th e magni fy ing g lass , whose

pu rp os e i t is to join a large nu m b er of plac es on a sm all surface,

we can rea l ize tha t not only our eye but a l so our hand guiding

the d i s sec t ing p in execu tes m uch shor t e r d i r ec t iona l s t eps tha t

correspond to the p laces tha t a re now c lose to each o ther .

THE F RTHEST PL NE

U N L I K E E F F E C T SP A C E A N D T A C T IL E S P A C E , v i s u a l s p a c e i s

w al led abou t by an im pene t rab le w a l l , w h ich w e sha l l ca l l t he

hor i zon or f a r t hes t p l an e .

S u n , m o o n , a n d s t a r s w a n d e r a b o u t on t h e s a m e f a r t h e s t

p lane wi th no d i f ference in depth; th is p lane inc ludes a l l v i s -

ib le th i ng s . T he pos i t ion of th e far th es t p la ne i s, how ever , not

firmly fixed. W h e n I took my first s te p s ou t of do ors aft er a ba d

b o u t of t y p h u s , t h e f a r t h e s t p l a n e h u n g a b o u t t w e n t y m e t e r s i n


27/49

FIGURE 11. a. Photograph ofavillage street

b.Village street photographed through ascreen


28/49

**

/ '

..* Li

.J "

3

V

^

^ ^ "5

J d

FIGURE 11. c. The samevillage street for afly s eye

d. Village street fora mollusk's eye


29/49

66


f ront of me l ike color fu l wal lpaper on which a l l v i s ib le th ings

w ere por t r ayed . Pas t tw en ty m e te r s , ob jec t s w ere ne i the r c lose r

nor f a r the r aw ay , on ly l a rge r and sm al l e r . Even the coaches

tha t d rove pas t m e becam e no t f a r the r aw ay bu t on ly sm a l l e r

as soon as they had r eached the f a r thes t p l ane .

Th e l ens o f ou r eye ha s the sam e t a s k a s the l en s of a pho-

tographic camera , namely to focus the objec ts found in f ront of

t h e e y e o n t h e r e t i n a , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e p h o t o s e n s i t i v e

p la t e in the cam era . The l ens o f t he hum an eye i s e l a s t i c and

can be bent by specia l lens muscles (which has the same ef -

f ec t a s ad jus t ing the l ens on the cam era ) . In con t rac t ing the

lens muscles , d i rec t ional s igns appear for the d i rec t ion back to

f ron t A s the r e l ax ing m us c les of t he e l a s t i c l ens a re s t r e t c he d ,

th e r e ap pe a r d i r ec t ion a l s ign s th a t g ive th e d i r ec t ion f rom

front to back. I f the muscles are comple te ly re laxed, the eye

is

focused on the d is tance f rom ten meters to inf in i ty .

W i t h i n a r a d i u s often m e te r s , t he th ings in our env i ron-

m e n t a r e k n o w n t o u s t h r o u g h t h i s m u s c u l a r m o v e m e n t

in

t e r m s

of near and far . Outs ide th is radius , there i s or ig ina l ly only an

enlargement or shr inking of objec ts . The infant ' s v isual space

ends he re w i th an a l l - encom pass ing f a r thes t p l ane . O n ly bit by

b i t do w e l ea rn to push th e f a r the s t p l an e eve r f a r th e r

with

the

help of d is tance s igns , unt i l the adul t ' s v i sual space ends a t a

dis tance of s ix to e ight k i lometers and the hor izon begins

The d i f f e rence be tw een the v i sua l space o f a ch i ld

ana

t h a t o f an a du l t is exp la ine d in F ig ure 12, w hich r ep ro duc es

v i s u a l l y a n e x p e r i e n c e r e l a t e d b y [ H e r m a n n v o n ]

Helmholtz.

H e r e p o r t s t h a t , a s a s m a l l bo y , h e w a s w a l k i n g b y t h e G a r r i s o n

C h u r c h i n P o t s d a m a n d n o t i c e d s o m e w o r k e r s

in

t h e

gaUery.

H e th en as ke d h i s m o the r i f she m igh t t a k e a coup le o fthe l i t t l e

d o l ls d o w n fo r h i m . T h e c h u r c h a n d t h e w o r k e r s w e r e a l r e a d y

loca ted in h i s f a r thes t p l ane and w ere the re fo re no t f a r aw ay ,

o n l y s m a l l . H e t h e r e f o r e h a d e v e r y r e a s o n t o a s s u m e t h a t his

m oth er , w i th he r l ong a r m s , cou ld b r i ng the do l l s dow n f rom the

ga l l e ry H e d id no t know th a t t h e ch urc h ha d en t i r e ly d i f fe ren t


30/49

THE FARTHEST PLANE

67

FIGURE 12.

The

farthest plane of

an

adult (below)

and a

child (above)

d i m e n s i o n s i n h i s m o t h e r ' s e n v i r o n m e n t a n d t h a t t h e p e o p l e i n

the ga l l e ry w ere fo r he r no t sm a l l bu t f a r aw ay . The s i tua t ion

of th e fa r th es t p lan e i s d i ff icult to de m on st ra te in th e envi ro n-

m e n t s o f a n i m a l s b e c a u s e i t i s g e n e r a l l y n o t e a s y t o e s t a b l i s h

exper im en ta l ly w hen an ob jec t approach ing the sub jec t i n the

latter's

e n v i r o n m e n t i s b e c o m i n g n o t j u s t l a r g e r b u t n e a r e r .


31/49

^^p

68


FIGURE 13. Schematic structure of

the compound eye

of

a

fly.

a: The whole eye,out of which apiece is cut right)(after Hesse),

b: Two ommatidia.Cor.chitin cornea;K-. nucleus; Kr.crystal cone;

Krz-.

crystal

cone

cell;

Nf-.nerve fiber;P-.

pigment;

Pz:

pigment cell;

Rett:retinula;Rh-.Rhabdom;Szi

photoreceptor.

E x p e r i m e n t s i n c a t c h i n g houseflies s h o w t h a t t h e a p p r o a c h -

ing hum an hand on ly causes them to f ly aw ay w hen i t i s a t a

d i s t a nce of abo u t ha l f a m e te r . B y th i s , one m ig h t a s s um e th a t

th e f a r th es t p l an e i s t o be soug h t a t t h i s d i s t an ce .

B ut o ther obs ervat ion s in th e case of th e housef ly m ak e

i t s eem l ike ly tha t t he f a r thes t p l ane appea r s in a stiU different

way. I t is well known that f l ies do not only circle around a hang-

ing lam p or cha nd el ier bu t a lway s br ea k off th e i r flight sud den ly

once they are half a meter away from i t , in order then to f ly away

close to or below the l ight . In this , they behave l ike a boater in a

saHboat who does not wa nt to lose s ight of an i s lan d.

The eye of a f ly (Figure 13) is bui l t in such a way that

i t s v i sua l e l em ent s ( rhabdom s) p resen t l ong ne rve s t ruc tu res

tha t m us t ca t ch the im age p ro jec t ed by the i r l enses a t va ry ing

depths , cor responding to the d is tance f rom the perce ived objec t .

[S iegm und]

Exner

11

ha s expressed h i s suppos i t ion tha t t h i s cou ld

be a r ep la cem ent fo r t he m usc u la r l ens ap pa ra tu s o f our eye .

I f one supposes tha t t he op t i ca l appara tus o f t he v i sua l

e l em ent s func t ions l i ke an accessory l ens , t hen the chande-

l i e r w ou ld d i sappea r a t a ce r t a in d i s t ance and cause the f ly to


32/49

^^p^i

THE FARTHEST PLANE

FIGURE 14.

above)

Chandelier for human

beings

FIGURE

15.

left)

Chandelier for

the

fly

r e t u r n . O ne can com pare F ig ure s 14 an d 15 , w hich show th e

chande l i e r pho tographed w i th and w i thou t an accessory l ens .

Whether the far thes t p lane c loses of f v isual space in th is

or in some other way, th is p lane i s a lways present . We must

t h e r e f o r e i m a g i n e a l l t h e a n i m a l s t h a t a n i m a t e N a t u r e a r o u n d

us , be they beet les , but ter f l ies , gnats , or

dragonflies

who popu-

la te a meadow, as having a soap bubble around them, c losed

on al l s ides, which closes off their visual space and in which

everything visible for the subject is also enclosed. Each bubble

she l ters o th er p laces , an d in each ar e a l so found th e d i rec t ional

planes of effective space, which give a solid scaffolding to space.

The b i rd s th a t flu tte r abo ut , th e squ i r re ls hoppin g f rom bra nc h

to bra nc h, or th e cows graz ing in th e meadow , aU re m ain pe rm a-

nent ly enclosed in the bubble tha t encloses the i r space .

69


33/49

MAGCAL ENVRONMENTS 119

M GIC L ENVIRONMENTS

WITHOUTA DOUBT, th er e is alw ay s a fu nd am en tal oppo si t ion be-

t w e e n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s t h a t w e h u m a n s s e e s p r e a d a l l a r o u n d

an im al s an d the env i ron m e nt s w hich they have bu i l t t hem se lve s

and f i l led wi th the i r percept ion th ings . Unt i l now, envi ronments

had bee n the produ ct of the percept ion s ign s th a t w ere aw ak-

ened by external s t imul i . But the search image, the t rac ing of

the m os t f am i l ia r pa th , an d the dem arca t ion of t e r r i t o ry a l r eady

con st i tu te except ions to th is ru le , s ince they could be ascr ibed to

no so r t o f ex te rna l s t im ul i bu t r ep resen ted f r ee p roduc t ions o f

the subjec t . These subjec t ive product ions had developed in con-

nect ion to repea ted p erso na l expe r iences of th e subjec t.

I f w e now proceed f a r the r , w e en te r env i ronm ent s in

which very ef fec t ive phenomena appear , v i s ib le , however , only

to the sub jec t . These phenom ena a re no t bound to exper i ence

or , a t most , to a s ingular exper ience [Erlebnis]. We ca l l suc h

e n v i r o n m e n t s magical.

H ow deep ly im m ersed in

magica l envi ronments some chi l -

dren l ive might be exemplif ied by

the following: [Leo] Frobenius

1 8

teUs

in Paideuma ab ou t a l i t t le gir l wh o

played th e s tory of H an sel an d Grete l ,

the wi tch , and the g ingerbread house

wi th a matchbox and three wooden

m atches qu ie t ly un t i l she sudden ly

exclaim ed, "Get the w itch out of here;

I can ' t s tand to see her repulsive face

an y more " T his typicaUy magica l

experience is indicated in Figure 42. In any case, the evi l witch

appeared in the f lesh in the l i t t le gir l ' s environment .

FIGURE 42.

The magical

appearance of

the

witch


34/49


^ $ S ^

FIGURE 43. Starling andimaginary fly

Such exper i ences a re f r equen t ly encoun te red by t r ave l -

ing researchers in the case of pr imi t ive peoples . I t i s sa id of

p r im i t ives tha t t hey l i ve in a m ag ica l w or ld in w hich f an tas -

t i c phenom ena b lend w i th the sensua l ly g iven th ings o f t he i r

wor ld . Whoever looks c loser , however , wi l l f ind the same magi-

ca l fo rm at ions in th e en v i ro nm en t of cu l t iva t ed Eu rop ea ns .

The ques t ion i s now ra i sed a s to w he the r an im a l s a l so

l ive in m ag ica l env i ro nm en t s . Ma gica l exper i ences a r e o ft en

repor t ed in the case o f dogs . B u t t hese r epor t s have no t been

adequate ly cr i t ica l ly reviewed to th is point . By and large , i t

w i l l have to be adm i t t ed tha t dogs connec t t he i r exper i ences

w i t h o n e a n o t h e r i n a w a y t h a t h a s a m a g i c a l c h a r a c t e r r a t h e r

than a logica l one . The ro le p layed by the master in the dog 's

env i ronm ent i s su re ly g rasped m ag ica l ly and no t d iv ided in to

cause and effect .

A researcher who i s a f r iend of mine repor ts on a doubt -

l e ss ly m ag ica l phe nom enon in the env i ro nm ent o f a b i rd . H e ha d

n


35/49

T^

MAGCAL ENVRONMENTS 121

ra i sed a young s tar l ing in a room, and the b i rd had no oppor tu-

ni ty ever to see a f ly, much

less

to ca tch one . Then he observed

(F igure 43) tha t t he b i rd sudden ly started af ter an unseen ob-

jec t , snapped i t up in midai r , brought i t back to i t s perch and

began to hack away a t i t wi th i t s beak, as aU s tar l ings do wi th

the f l ies they ca tch , and then swal lowed the unseen th ing.

There w as no doub t a s t o the f ac t t ha t t he s t a r l i ng had

had the appea rance o f an im ag ina ry f ly in i t s env i ronm ent . H i s

w ho le en v i r on m en t w as ev iden t ly so l ade n w i th th e " feed ing

t o n e " t h a t , e v e n w i t h o u t t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a s e n s o r y stimulus;

the effect image of flycatching, poised to spring, forced the ap-

pe a ra nc e of t h e pe rce p t ion im ag e , w h ich t r igge red th i s w ho le

sequence o f ac t ions . Th i s exper i ence ind ica t e s to us t h a t w e

shou ld in t e rp re t t he o the rw ise com ple te ly puzz l ing ac t ions o f

v a r i o u s a n i m a l s a s m a g i c a l .

F ig ure 44 exp la ins th e m an n er o f ac t ion of t h e pea w ee-

vi l la rva , which bores i t se l f a channel up to the sur face in the

s t i l l - t ender f l e sh o f t he young pea , a channe l t ha t i t u ses on ly

FIGURE 44.Themagical path of the pea weevil larva

n


36/49


af ter i t s t ransformat ion in to an adul t weevi l to s l ip out of the

pea , w h ich has becom e ha rd by tha t t im e . I t i s com ple te ly ce r -

t a i n th a t t h i s i s a m a t t e r of a to t a l ly p l an ne d ac t iv i ty , w h ich

is , however , comple te ly meaningless f rom the point of v iew of

th e young w eev il , s ince no senso ry s t i m ulu s of t he fu tu re w ee-

v i l can r each i t s l a rva . N o pe rcep t ion s ign announces to the

l a rva the pa th w hich i t has never been dow n and m us t fo l low

non e the les s , if i t i s no t t o w as te aw ay m ise rab ly a f t e r i t s t r an s -

fo rm at ion to a w eev i l . The pa th s t r e t ches ou t c l ea r ly m arked

before i t as a magica l format ion . The

inborn.path

t a k e s t h e

p lace of t h e f am i l i a r p a t h kn ow n by exper i enc e .

F ig ure s 45 an d 46 show tw o fu r the r exa m p les o f t h e in -

born pa th . The female b i rch- leaf ro l le r begins to cut a curvy

l ine of a prescr ibed form in to the b i rch leaf a t a cer ta in point

(w hich i s pe rhaps know n to he r by t a s t e ) . Th i s m akes i t pos -

s ib le af terward for her to ro l l the leaf together in to a sac in

w hich she w i l l l ay he r eggs . Even though the bee t l e has never

gone dow n th i s pa th , and the b i r ch l ea f g ives no ind ica t ion as

to the pa th , t h i s m us t s t i l l

he

before her with ful l clar i ty as a

m a g i c a l p h e n o m e n o n .

The same i s t rue for the f l ight pa th of migra tory b i rds .

The con t inen t s bea r t he inborn pa th , one v i s ib l e on ly to the

b i rds . Th i s i s su re ly t rue fo r young b i rds , w h ich m us t m ake

t h e i r w a y w i t h o u t h e l p f r o m t h e i r p a r e n t s , w h e r e a s , f o r t h e

oth ers , th e acq uis i t io n of a fam i l ia r p a t h i s not outs id e th e

rea lm of poss ib i l i ty .

As wi th the fami l ia r pa th , which we have d iscussed a t

l eng th , t he inborn pa th w i l l a l so l ead th rough v i sua l space a s

well as effect space. The only difference between the two l ies in

th e fac t th a t , w i th the fami l ia r p a t h , a ser ies of percep t ion and

effec t s igns tha t were es tabl i shed through previous exper iences

fol low one af ter the o ther , whi le , wi th the inborn pa th , the same

ser ies of s igns i s immedia te ly g iven as a magica l phenomenon.

For th e ou t s id e obse rve r , t h e fam i l i a r p a t h i s j u s t a s in -

vis ib le in a fore ign en vi ro nm en t a s is th e inb orn one . An d if one

assum es tha t t he f am i l i a r pa th appea r s fo r a fo re ign sub jec t i n

A


37/49A

I

FIGURE

45.

The magical path

of

the

birch-leaf roller

FIGURE 46.

The magical

path of the migratory bird


38/49


i t senvironmentwhich is not to be doubtedthere i s no cause

to deny the phenom enon o f the inborn pa th , s ince i t i s com -

p o s e d of t h e s a m e e l e m e n t s , t h e o u t w a r d l y t r a n s p o s e d p e r c ep -

t ion s igns and ef fec t s igns . In the one case , they are ac t iva ted

by sensory s t im ul i , and in the o the r case , t hey sound one a f t e r

the o the r l i ke an inborn m e lody .

I f a ce r t a i n p a t h w e re inb orn in a h u m a n be ing , t h i s cou ld

be desc r ibed l i ke the

famUiar

p a t h : a h u n d r e d p a c e s t o t h e r e d

house , then to the r ight , and so on.

I f one wants to ca l l meaningful only tha t which i s g iven

to th e sub jec t t h ro ug h se nse exper i ence , t hen , of cour se , on ly

the f am i l i a r pa th w i l l be m ean ingfu l ; t he inborn pa th w i l l no t

be . Th e inbo rn pa th w i l l fo r t h a t r easo n , how ever , be gu ided by

a p l an to the h ighes t degree .

A r e m a r k a b l e e x p e r i e n c e r e p o r t e d by a y o u n g r e s e a r c h e r

speaks fo r t he f ac t t ha t m ag ica l phenom ena p lay a f a r g rea t e r

ro l e in the an im a l k ingdom than w e suppose . H e f ed a hen in

a ce r t a in s t a l l and , a s t he hen pecked a t t he g ra ins , he l e t a

gu inea p ig in to th e s t a l l . Th e he n beca m e fu r ious an d f lapped

a l l a round . F rom tha t po in t on , t he hen cou ld no t be m ade to

t ake he r f eed ings

in

tha t s t a l l . She w ould have s t a rved am id

th e be s t g ra in . Ev iden t ly , t h e shado w of th a t fi rs t exper i ence

hung over the s t a l l , a s F igure 47 expresses . Th i s l eads to the

s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t , w h e n t h e m o t h e r h e n r u s h e s t o w a r d t h e

peep ing ch ick and chases aw ay an im ag ina ry enem y, a m ag ica l

p h e n o m e n o n h a s a p p e a r e d i n h e r e n v i r o n m e n t .

The deeper w e have gone in to the s tudy o f env i ronm ent s ,

the m ore w e m us t have been conv inced tha t po ten t f ac to r s

occur in them to w hich one can a t t r ibu te no ob jec t ive r ea l i t y ,

beg inn in g w i th the m osa ic of p l aces w hich the eye im p ress es

upon th e th in gs of t h e env i ro nm ent , an d th a t a re so l i t t le p res -

e n t i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s a s t h e d i r e c t i o n a l p l a n e s t h a t c o n v e y

env i ronm enta l space . B y the sam e r igh t , i t w as im poss ib l e to

f ind any f ac to r i n the su r round ings tha t co r responds to the

subjec t ' s fami l ia r pa th .


39/49

MAGCAL ENVRONMENTS

125

FIGURE

47.

The

magical shadow

T he re is no d iv i s ion of space in to ho m e t e r r i t o r y and hu n t -

ing g ro un d in the su r ro un d in gs . N o t r ac es of t he c ruc ia l s ea rch

im age a re p resen t i n the su r round ings . N ow , in conc lud ing , w e

h a v e c o m e u p o n t h e m a g i c a l p h e n o m e n o n o f t h e i n b o r n p a t h ,

w hich m ocks any and a l l ob jec t iv i ty and ye t i n t e rvenes in the

env i ronm ent accord ing to a p l an .

There a re thus pure ly sub jec t ive r ea l i t i e s i n env i ron-

m e nt s . B u t t he ob jec t ive r ea l i t i e s of t he su r rou nd ing s neve r ap -

p e a r a s s u c h in t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e y a r e a l w a y s t r a n s f o r m e d

i n to p e r c e p t i o n m a r k s o r p e r c e p t i o n i m a g e s a n d e q u i p p e d w i t h

an ef fec t tone which only then makes them in to rea l objec ts

even tho ug h no p ar t of th e ef fect ton e i s pr es en t in th e s t im ul i .

A nd finally , th e s im ple funct io nal cycle tea ch es u s th a t

pe rcep t ion m arks a s w e l l a s e f f ec t m arks a re express ions o f

th e subjec t an d th a t the qua l i t ie s of th e objec ts inc lu ded in th e

funct ional cycle can only be refer red to as the i r vehic les .

In th i s w ay , w e th en conc lude tha t each and ev e ry sub jec t


40/49


l ives in a wor ld in which there are only subjec t ive rea l i t ies and

t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s r e p r e s e n t o n l y s u b j e c t i v e r e a l i -

t ies . Whoever denies the exis tence of subjec t ive rea l i t ies has

no t r ecogn ized the foun da t ions of h i s o r he r ow n env i ron m e nt .

THE S ME SUBJECT S OBJECT

IN DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS

THE PRECEDING CHAPTERS described single forays in different

d i r e c t io n s i n t o t h e u n k n o w n c o u n t r y of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e y

w e re a r r an ge d accord ing to p rob lem s in o rde r to ga in a un i fi ed

m an ne r of obse rva t ion in each case .

E v e n t h o u g h s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m s w e r e a d -

d ressed , a com ple te accoun t w as ne i the r sough t nor a t t a ined

at-all. M a n y p r o b l e m s still awaitbeing g ras ped in t e l l ec tua l ly ,

and o the r s have no t ye t deve loped beyond the fo rm ula t ion o f

th e ques t ion . We s t i l l do not kno w how m uc h of th e subjec t ' s

ow n body ca r r i e s ove r in to i t s env i ronm ent . N o t even the ques -

t ion of the s ignif icance of the subject 's own shadow in i ts envi-

r o n m e n t h a s b e e n a d d r e s s e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y .

A s im po r t a n t a s t he pu r su i t of i nd iv idu a l p rob lem s is fo r

e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e s e a r c h , i t i s j u s t as i n a d e q u a t e t o p r o v i d e a n

overv iew of the in t e r r e l a t ions o f env i ronm ent s . O ne can ob ta in

suc h a n overv iew in a l i m i t e d fie ld i f one pu rs u es th e fo l lowing

question: How does the subjec t exempt i t se l f as an objec t in the

d i f f e ren t env i ronm ent s in w hich i t p l ays an im por t an t ro l e?

I t ake a s an exam ple an oak t r ee , w h ich i s popu la t ed by

many animal subjec ts and i s ca l led upon to p lay a d i f ferent ro le

in each env i ronm ent . S ince the oak a l so appea r s in d i f f e ren t

h u m a n e n v i r o n m e n t s , I s h a l l b e g i n w i t h t h e s e .

F igures 48 and 49 a re r ep roduc t ions o f tw o d raw ings w e


41/49


42/49

128


FIGURE 50. Fox andoak

o w e t o F r a n z H u t h ' s t a l e n t e d h a n d . I n t h e t h o r o u g h l y r a t i o n a l

w or ld of t h e o ld fo res t e r , w ho m u s t de t e r m in e w hich t ru nk s

in h is fores t a re ready to be fe l led , the oak tha t has fa l len to

th e axe i s no more t h a n a few cords of wood, as the fores ter

a t t e m p t s t o e s t a b l i s h t h r o u g h p r e c is e m e a s u r e m e n t . I n t h i s

case , no fu r the r a t t en t ion i s pa id to the bu lg ing ba rk w hich

res em ble s a h u m a n face (Fig ure 48). T he ne xt figure (Figure

49) show s the sam e oak in the m ag ica l env i ronm ent o f a l i t t l e

g i r l wh ose fores t i s s t i l l filled wi th g no m es an d sp r i te s . Th e g i rl

i s te r r ib ly scared as the oak looks a t her wi th i t s wicked face .

The w hole oak has becom e a dangerous dem on .

O n th e g rou nd s of m y cous in ' s e s t a t e in Es ton ia , t he r e

s tood an o ld apple t ree . A lar ge bra ck et fung us , w hich bore a

dis tant resemblance to the face of a c lown, was growing on the

t ree , but no one had not iced i t ye t . One day, my brother sent for

a dozen R uss i an seasona l w orke r s , w ho d i scovered the app le

t r e e and s tood be fo re i t da i ly fo r devo t ions , m u rm ur in g p raye r s

J

s

f

b

p

u

f

e

o

e

es


43/49

THE SAME SUBJECT AS OBJECT IN DFFERENT ENVRONMENTS

129

FIGURE 51.

Owl and

oak

a n d c r o s s i n g t h e m s e l v e s . T h e y e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e fu n g u s m u s t

be an im age w i th m i racu lo us pow ers , s ince i t w as no t m a de by

h u m a n h a n d s . M a g i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n n a t u r e s e e m e d t o t h e m a

self-evident fact.

B u t l e t u s ge t back to th e oak an d i t s i nh ab i t a n t s . For the

fox, who has bui l t i t s den among the oak 's roots , the oak has

become a sol id roof which protects i t and i ts family from the

per il s of t he w ea th e r (F igu re 50) . Th e oak posse sses n e i th e r t h e

use tone f rom th e fo res t e r ' s env i ron m en t nor the dan ger tone

from the l i t t l e g i r l ' s envi ronment , but only a protec t ion

tone.

However else i t might be configured plays no role in the fox's

e n v i r o n m e n t .

The oak a l so show s a p ro tec t ion tone in the env i ronm ent

of th e owl (F igu re 51) . T hi s t ime , i t is no t th e roots , wh ich l ie

en t i r e ly ou t s ide the ow l ' s env i ronm ent , bu t t he m igh ty b ranch-

es th a t se rve th e owl as a pro tec t iv e

wall.

For the squ i r r e l , t he oak , w i th i t s m an y b ra nc he s o f fe ring


44/49

130


FIGURE 52.Ant andoak

handy sp r ingboards , t akes on a c l im bing tone , and fo r song-

bi rds , which bui ld the i r nes ts in the remote twigs , i t of fers the

n e e d e d c a r r y i n g t o n e .

In accordance wi th the d i f ferent e f fec t tones , the percep-

t ion im ag es of t h e nu m er ou s inh ab i t a n t s o f t h e oak a re config-

ur ed d i f ferent ly . Ea ch en vi ro nm en t cuts out of th e oak a cer -

t a i n p i ece , t he c ha r ac te r i s t i c s o f w h ich a r e su i t ed to fo rm the


45/49

THE SAME SUBJECT AS OBJECT IN DFFERENT ENVRONMENTS

131

FIGURE 53. Bark

beetle and

oak

percep t ion-m ark ca r r i e r s a s w e l l a s t he e f f ec t -m ark ca r r i e r s o f

the i r funct ional cycles . In the ant ' s envi ronment (Figure 52) ,

a l l t h e r e s t o f t h e oak d i sa pp ea r s beh ind i t s

furrowed,bark,

w hose peaks and va l l eys fo rm the an t s ' hun t ing g round .

The ba rk bee t l e seeks i t s food benea th the ba rk , w h ich

i t tears away (Figure 53) . Here , i t l ays i t s eggs . I t s la rvae dr i l l

t h e i r t u n n e l s u n d e r n e a t h t h e b a r k , w h e r e t h e y c a n c o n t i n u e

Documents

Uexküll - Incursões pelos mundos animais e humanos (trechos, inglês)